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IGCSE CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

Al Ma’arifa International Private School, Sharjah

IGCSE Chemistry
KEY OBJECTIVES

State that an exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to the

surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the
surroundings.
State that an endothermic reaction takes in thermal energy from the
surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the
surroundings.
Interpret reaction pathway diagrams showing exothermic and
endothermic reactions.
State that the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the
enthalpy change, ΔH, of the reaction. ΔH is negative for exothermic
reactions and positive for endothermic reactions.
Define activation energy, Ea, as the minimum energy that colliding
particles must have to react.
Draw and label reaction pathway diagrams for exothermic and
endothermic reactions using information provided, to include: (a)
reactants (b) products (c) enthalpy change of the reaction, ΔH (d)
activation energy, Ea.
State that bond breaking is an endothermic process and bond making
is an exothermic process and explain the enthalpy change of a reaction
in terms of bond breaking and bond making.
Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond energies

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Physical and Chemical Changes

When a substance undergoes a physical change, its composition

remains the same despite its molecules being rearranged. Physical change is
a temporary change. Changes of state such as melting, freezing, evaporation,
condensation etc. are physical changes.

When a substance undergoes a chemical change, its molecular

composition is changed entirely. Thus, chemical changes involve chemical
reactions resulting in the formation of new substances. A chemical change is
a permanent change.

Types of Chemical Reactions

1) Combination Reaction (Synthesis)

Two or more reactants produce a single product.
A+B→AB
H2+Cl2→2HCl

2) Decomposition Reaction
One reactant is broken down into two or more products.
AB → A+B
a) Thermal Decomposition -Decomposition by heat

b) Photodecomposition (photolysis) – Decomposition by light

c) Electrolysis – Decomposition by passing electric current

3) Single Displacement Reaction

A more reactive element displaces the less reactive element from an aqueous
solution of its compound.
A+BC → AC + B
Mg(s)+ CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
F2(g) + 2NaCl(aq) → 2NaF(aq) +Cl2(g)

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 4) Double Displacement Reaction
Two compounds produce two new compounds in which there is an exchange
of ions.
AB + CD → AC +BD
NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3
a) Precipitation – When an insoluble solid (precipitate) is formed in a
reaction
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)→ AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

b) Neutralization – When an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)→ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

5. Combustion Reaction

In combustion reaction, a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen gas to produce

carbon dioxide and water
CH4 + 2O2→ CO2 + 2H2O

Energy Changes in a chemical Reaction

During a chemical reaction, energy can be taken in or given out. ). Some of

the physical changes such as melting or dissolving a solid in a solvent also involves
energy changes.
A chemical reaction can be classified into exothermic and endothermic based
on the energy transfer. The energy transferred can be measured in the unit of
kilojoules (KJ

How to investigate energy Changes

EXPERIMENT 1 EXPERIMENT 2

Objective To recognize whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic.

Apparatus Beaker/polystyrene cup

Thermometer

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Procedure 1. Take a known volume of water 1. Take a known volume of water
in a polystyrene cup in a polystyrene cup
2. Measure the initial 2. Measure the initial
temperature of water using a temperature of water using a
thermometer. thermometer.
3. A known mass of sodium 3. A known mass of ammonium
hydroxide is added to water chloride is added to water and
and stir the mixture. stir the mixture.
4. Note down the final 4. Note down the final
temperature of water. temperature of water.

Observation The temperature of water The temperature of water

increased. decreased.

Conclusion The reaction is exothermic. The reaction is endothermic.

Explanation Thermal energy (Heat energy) Thermal energy (Heat energy) was
was given out to the absorbed from the surroundings
surroundings which causes an which causes a decrease in the
increase in the temperature of temperature of water.
water.

Exothermic Reaction

The chemical reaction which gives out heat energy to the surrounding is
called exothermic reaction.
This is causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to become hotter.
The temperature increase can be detected using a thermometer.

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A few examples of exothermic reactions are given below.

Physical Changes Chemical Changes

✓ Freezing ✓ Burning a fuel (Combustion)

✓ Condensation ✓ Neutralization reaction (acid+ alkali
✓ Dissolving of anhydrous salt reactions)
✓ Dissolving concentrated acid and
✓ Displacement Reactions
alkali in water
✓ Respiration (Breaking down of
glucose to CO2 & H2O releasing
energy)
✓ Corrosion of Metals (Rusting)

REMEMBER

In an exothermic reaction, the temperature will rise until the highest temperature
is reached.
When the reaction is complete, the temperature will fall until it reaches room
temperature.

Endothermic Reaction

▪ The chemical reaction in which heat is taken in from the surroundings is called
endothermic reaction.
▪ If an endothermic change occurs in a beaker, the temperature of the vessel and
its contents will fall. The temperature decrease can also be detected using a
thermometer.

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A few examples are given below.
• Thermal decomposition (heating Calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and
Carbon dioxide)
• Photosynthesis (Uses energy from sunlight)
• Dissolving ammonium Nitrate

Electrolysis also is considered as an endothermic change.

✓ The temperature of the reaction mixture falls until the lowest temperature is
reached.
✓ When the reaction is completed, the temperature of the mixture will rise until
it reaches room temperature.

The enthalpy change (ΔH ) for the reaction

A reaction in which the products have less energy than the reactants is
exothermic. A reaction in which the products have more energy than the reactants
is endothermic. The difference between the energies of reactants and the products
is the enthalpy change for the reaction.

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 An Enthalpy change or the heat change (ΔH) is defined as an energy change
in a reaction that takes place at constant pressure. It simply represents the amount
of energy lost or gained in a reaction. The unit of ΔH is kJ/mol.

ΔH=Hproducts – Hreactants

• For an exothermic reaction ΔH is negative. This is because the chemicals have

lost energy to the surroundings.
• For an endothermic reaction, ΔH is positive. This is because the chemicals
have gained energy from the surroundings.

Reaction Pathway diagrams

The enthalpy changes during a reaction can be plotted on an enthalpy profile

diagram. It is a convenient way to express energy changes in a reaction.

Exothermic Reaction

Endothermic Reaction

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 Activation Energy
▪ Activation energy is the amount of energy needed to start a reaction. The
difference in energy between the reactants and the point of maximum energy
achieved during the reaction is called the activation energy.
▪ Activation energy will always be positive. ΔH is positive for an endothermic
reaction and negative for an exothermic reaction.

Exothermic Reaction

Endothermic Reaction

Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction

Gives out heat to the surroundings Takes in heat from the surroundings
Causes an increase in temperature Causes a decrease in temperature
Has a negative ΔH Has a positive ΔH
Has products lower in energy than the Has products that have higher energy
reactants than the reactants

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Energy and Bonds

During chemical reactions, bonds in the reactants have to be broken, and new
ones formed to make the products.

Breaking bonds needs energy and energy is released when new bonds are
made. The amount of energy needed to break bonds is different from the amount
released in forming new bonds.

So for a chemical reaction, if the energy of breaking bond is greater than the
energy of making bond, then the reaction is endothermic.

Endothermic reaction = Bond breaking energy > Bond making energy

If the energy required to break bond is less than making bond, then the reaction is
exothermic.

Exothermic reaction = Bond making energy > Bond breaking energy.

The enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is the energy absorbed or released

during a chemical reaction. It can be found as

ΔH = Energy taken in to break bond– Energy given out to make bonds

We can calculate the energy change using the formula

Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break a covalent bond. The same
amount of energy is released whenever the same covalent bond is formed.

∆H = + (bond energies of reactant) – ( bond energies of products)

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PAPER 6 – Additional Points

For non-combustion reactions, simple coffee cup calorimeter can be used to find
the enthalpy change.

A polystyrene cup is normally preferred as it is a very good thermal insulator.

Even a lid can be used to minimize the heat loss during calorimetry.

If different solids are dissolved after each other in the same polystyrene cup,

the cup and the thermometer must be rinsed after each experiment to

remove impurities or to make it clean.

Temperature remains the same when excess solid is added which indicates

there is no further dissolution in the solvent.

Continuous stirring using a thermometer ensures heat is evenly distributed

throughout the whole solution.

If 4g of a solid produced a temperature rise of 140C, 2g of the same solid

will produce half the temperature rise, given that the same volume of water

is used.

In any experiment if more number of readings are taken, it can spot the

anomalous points or errors and a smoother/better graph is obtained.

Displacement reactions are exothermic, the greater the difference in

reactivity, greater the temperature rise.

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 SOURCE OF ERROR IMPROVEMENT

Heat loss to the surroundings Use a lid/ Insulate the sides

Use of a measuring cylinder Use a pipette or burette

Wet polystyrene cup in the second Use new polystyrene cup or use it after
experiment drying

The solid absorbs moisture from Store in a sealed container/ airtight

air container/Desiccator

Experiment is done only once Repeat the experiment and take the
average-It improves the reliability of the
results.

Different masses of solids used/ Use same mass of a solid /weigh the solids
masses of solids are not measured

Graphs

Graphs are plotted to show the relationship between two quantities. The
quantity that varies is the independent variable and is always plotted on the X
axis. A dependent variable is the one that changes in response to the
independent variable.

• Use an HB pencil to draw the graph.

• The independent variable should always be plotted on the X axis
(horizontal axis) and the dependent variable is always plotted on Y axis
(Vertical axis).
• Each axis should be labelled with the physical quantity and the
appropriate unit (time/s).
• The scales of the axes should allow more than half of the graph and to
be used in both directions.
• More than one set of data can be plotted in the same graph, make sure
you label each of them separately.

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 • Points on the graph should be clearly marked as crosses (x) or encircled
dots. Do not use large dots.
• Each point should be plotted to an accuracy of better than one half of
each of the smallest square on the grid.
• A best fit line should be a single, thin and smooth straight line or curve.
• Ignore the anomalous results.
• There are two types of line graphs – Straight line (draw with the help of
a ruler) and smooth line/curved graphs.

Measurement of Time – Use a stop watch

Remember to check both minute needle and second needle when you take the
readings.

Measurement of Temperature – Use a Thermometer

Remember to express the temperature in one decimal point.

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