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Phagocytes are large white cells that can swallow and digest microbes and other foreign
particles. Monocytes are phagocytes that circulate in the blood. When monocytes migrate
into tissues, they develop into macrophages. Specialized types of macrophages can be
found in many organs, including lungs, kidneys, brain, and liver. Macrophages play many
roles. As scavengers, they rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris. They display
bits of foreign antigen in a way that draws the attention of matching lymphocytes. And
they churn out an amazing variety of powerful chemical signals, known as monokines,
which are vital to the immune responses. (Figure 23).
Granulocytes are another kind of immune cell. They contain granules filled with potent
chemicals, which allow the granulocytes to destroy microorganisms. Some of these
chemicals, such as histamine, also contribute to inflammation and allergy.
One type of granulocyte, the neutrophil, is also a phagocyte; it uses its prepackaged
chemicals to break down the microbes it ingests. Eosinophils and basophils are
granulocytes that degranulate, spraying their chemicals onto harmful cells or microbes
nearby.
Platelets, too, contain granules. In addition to promoting blood clotting and wound
repair, platelets activate some of the immune defenses.
Cytokines
Components of the immune system communicate with one another by exchanging

chemical messengers called cytokines. These proteins are secreted by cells and act on
other cells to coordinate an appropriate immune response. For instance, cytokines help to
produce T cells by the immune system and also turns certain immune cells on and off.
These chemically attract specific cell types and help to call other immune cells to the
damaged site.
Immunity: Natural and Acquired
Long ago, physicians realized that people who had recovered from the plague would
never get it again—they had acquired immunity. This is because some of the activated T
and B cells become memory cells. The next time an individual meets up with the same
antigen, the immune system is set to demolish it. Immunity can be strong or weak, short-
lived or long-lasting, depending on the type of antigen, the amount of antigen, and the
route by which it enters the body. Immunity can also be influenced by inherited genes.
When faced with the same antigen, some individuals will respond forcefully, others
feebly, and some not at all.An immune response can be sparked not only by infection but
also by immunization with vaccines. Vaccines contain microorganisms—or parts of
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microorganisms—that have been treated so they can provoke an immune response but not
full-blown disease. Immunity can also be transferred from one individual to another by
injections of serum rich in antibodies against a particular microbe (antiserum). For
example, immune serum is sometimes given to protect travelers to countries where
hepatitis A is widespread. Such passive immunity typically lasts only a few weeks or
months.
Infants are born with weak immune responses but are protected for the first few months
of life by antibodies received from their mothers before birth. Babies who are nursed can
also receive some antibodies from breast milk that help to protect their digestive tracts.
Disorders of the Immune System
Immune system also have disorder sometimes like other system of the body. We will
discuss some from many types of disorders.
Allergic Diseases
The most common types of allergic diseases occur when the immune system responds to
a false alarm. In an allergic person, a normally harmless material such as grass pollen or
house dust is mistaken for a threat and attacked. Allergies such as pollen allergy are
related to the antibody known as IgE. Like other antibodies, each IgE antibody is
specific; one acts against oak pollen, another against ragweed.
Autoimmune Diseases
Sometimes the immune system’s recognition apparatus breaks down, and the body begins
to manufacture T cells and antibodies directed against its own cells and organs.
Misguided T cells and autoantibodies, as they are known, contribute to many diseases.
For instance, T cells that attack pancreas cells contribute to diabetes, while an
autoantibody known as rheumatoid factor is common in people with rheumatoid arthritis.
People with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have antibodies to many types of their
own cells and cell components.
No one knows exactly what causes an autoimmune disease, but multiple factors are likely
to be involved. These include elements in the environment, such as viruses, certain drugs,
and sunlight, all of which may damage or alter normal body cells. Hormones are
suspected of playing a role, since most autoimmune diseases are far more common in
women than in men.
Immunodeficiency Disorders
When the immune system is missing one or more of its components, the result is an
immunodeficiency disorder. Immunodeficiency disorders can be inherited, acquired
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through infection, or produced unintentionally by drugs such as those used to treat
people with cancer or those who have received transplants. Temporary immune
deficiencies can develop in the wake of common virus infections, including influenza,
infectious mononucleosis, and measles. Immune responses can also be depressed by
blood transfusions, surgery, malnutrition, smoking, and stress.
Some children are born with poorly functioning immune systems. Some have flaws in the
B cell system and cannot produce antibodies. Others, whose thymus is either missing or
small and abnormal, lack T cells. Very rarely, infants are born lacking all of the major
immune defenses.
AIDS is an immunodeficiency disorder caused by a virus (HIV) that infects immune

cells. HIV can destroy or disable vital T cells, paving the way for a variety of
immunologic shortcomings. HIV also can hide out for long periods in immune cells. As
the immune defenses falter, a person with AIDS falls prey to unusual, often life-
threatening infections and rare cancers.
Cancers of the Immune System

The cells of the immune system, like other cells, can grow uncontrollably, resulting in
cancer. Leukemias are caused by the proliferation of white blood cells, or leukocytes. The
uncontrolled growth of antibody-producing plasma cells can lead to multiple myeloma.
Therefore, the immune system is an important and indispensable system for our body.
Scientists have learned much about the immune system but certain areas remain unknown
and scientists continue to focus their studies on these areas. New technologies for
identifying individual immune cells are now aiding scientists to quickly determine which
targets trigger immune responses. Improvements in microscopy are permitting the first-
ever observations of B cells, T cells, and other cells as they interact within lymph nodes
and other body tissues. The combination of new technology and expanded genetic
information will undoubtedly teach us even more about how the body protects itself from
disease.
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Phagocytes are large white cells that can swallow and digest microbes and other foreign

Components of the immune system communicate with one another by exchanging

Immunity: Natural and Acquired

Disorders of the Immune System

AIDS is an immunodeficiency disorder caused by a virus (HIV) that infects immune

Cancers of the Immune System

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