GRAPHS

Contents
• Introduction
• Histogram,
• Pie Chart,
• Cubic Graph,
• response surface plot,
• Counter Plot graph.
Introduction to Graphs
• Graphs and charts are used for easier interpretation of numerical
information. There are different types of graphs in statistics which can
be used to represent data in a pictorial form.
• A Statistical graph is defined as “ the pictorial representation of
statistical data in graphical form”. A chart can be used to represent
numeric data, functions or some kinds of quality structure in tabular
format that provides different information.
• They are nothing but geometrical figures like points, lines, bars,
squares, rectangles , circles, cubes, pictures, maps and charts.
Advantages
• Graphs and Diagrams are more visual aids which give a birds eye view
of a given set of numerical data.
• These are more attractive, impressive than the set of numerical data.
• They register a meaningful impression on the mind almost before we
think.
• Save a lot of time to understand the data.
Principles of Graph Plotting
• Plotting a graph is also an art like preparing a table, which need skill and
experience.
• Crafting Effective Graphs: Key Principles
Just like tables, graphs are a visual art form requiring thought and
planning to be truly informative. Here are some core principles for
impactful graphs:
1. Correct Impression:
• Accuracy: Ensure your graph faithfully represents the data
without distortion.
• Clarity: Prioritize clear communication over visual complexity. Let
the data shine.
2. Comprehensive Title:
• Informative: The title should clearly explain the graph's purpose
and content.
• Concise: Keep it brief, capturing the essence of the data
displayed.
3. Variables and Axes:
• Identify Variables: Clearly label the variables represented on
each axis (X & Y).
• Units: Include the units of measurement for the data points on the
axes.
• Scale: Choose appropriate scales (linear or logarithmic) to
accurately reflect trends.
4. Multiple Axes (if necessary):
• Limited Use: Multiple Y-axes can be confusing. Use them only if
essential.
5. Labelling:
•Data Points: Label key data points for clarity, especially when highlighting
trends or exceptions.
•Legends: If using multiple data sets, use clear and concise legends for
easy identification.

6. Choosing the Right Graph Type:

•Data Type: Select the graph type (bar chart, line graph, pie chart, etc.)
that best suits the type of data you're presenting.
•Highlight Trends: Consider the graph type's ability to effectively showcas
the relationships and patterns within your data.
 HISTOGRAM
• Histogram is a specific type of bar chart, where categories are range of numbers
and each range corresponds to a vertical bar.
• It is the most commonly used diagram to depict grouped frequency distribution
graphically.
• A histogram is an area diagram. It can be defined as, “ a set of rectangles with
bases along with the intervals between class boundaries and with areas
proportional to frequencies in the corresponding classes”.
• In histogram, all the rectangles are adjacent since the base covers the intervals
between class boundaries. The height of rectangles are proportional to
corresponding frequencies of similar classes and for different classes, the height
will be proportional to corresponding frequency densities.
• Histogram illustrates the distribution of numeric data across categories and
therefore show combined continues data. For example, histogram can be used to
present percentage of patients who received number of drugs in hospital.
Types of Histogram
Distribution Description
Uniform Data spread evenly across range
Symmetric (Normal) Bell-shaped curve, clustered around a central point
Bimodal Two distinct peaks, indicating two prevalent data clusters
Left-Skewed Longer tail extending towards the left side
Right-Skewed Longer tail extending towards the right side
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Histogram
Advantage Disadvantage
Bin Dependence: Relies on the chosen
Visual Clarity: Effectively summarizes large number of bins (bars). Different binning can
datasets, highlighting patterns and trends. alter the shape of the histogram.
Distribution Insights: Reveals the shape of
the data distribution (symmetric, skewed, Limited for Exact Values: Shows frequencies
bimodal). within ranges (bins), not exact data points.
Difficult to Compare Multiple Datasets:
Outlier Detection: Can help identify outliers Separate histograms are needed for
that fall outside the main data cluster. comparison, which can be cluttered.
Simple to Understand: Generally easy to Not for Categorical Data: Designed for
interpret for viewers with basic data analysis continuous numerical data, not for categories
knowledge. like hair color.
 PIE CHART
• A pie chart is a pictorial diagram that shows how total amount is divided
between levels of a categorical variable. It looks like a circle( or a pie
divided into radial slices or sectors.
• The slices are of different sizes based on how much of the whole they
represent. Each slice is labelled to represent its value to the whole. It is
used to show dependent data that how the whole population breaks
down into parts.
• Usually pie chart is nor appropriate to use for samples with more than 5
or 6 different categories.
• Pie charts are used in research and business presentations to
demonstrate population segments, outcome responses and budget
allocations.
• The pie chart can also be used to illustrate the numerical problems and
also to find out the composition of something. Pie charts are preferred
choice as contains different segments and sectors and each segment or
sector of a pie chart forms a certain portion of the total percentage.
• Pie Chart is a circular representation of data.
• It is called a pie chart because the sectors of the circles
are just like the slices of a pie.
• The area within each sector (slice) represents the size of
the data.
• The area of each sector is directly proportional to the
frequency of the data.
• The value of the central angle for each sector is determined
by the formula: (Given Data/Total of all the data) × 360o.
The below pie chart shows the sale of different fruits in a
day for a shop, Answer the following questions based on the
pie chart:

(i)If a total of 1200 kg of fruits were sold

calculate the amount of bananas sold (in kg)
(ii) Find the difference between sales of gr
and oranges.
(iii) Calculate the central angle for others
Solution:
(i) Total amount of fruits sold = 1200 kg
Percentage of banana sold = 30%
Amount of banana sold = 1200 × (30/100) = 36
(ii) Amount of grapes sold = 1200 × (10/100)
Amount of oranges sold = 1200 × (15/100) = 1
Difference = 180 – 120 = 60 kg
(iii) Amount of other fruits sold = 1200 × 2
Central angle = 240/1200 × 360o = 72o.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Pie-chart
Advantage Disadvantage
Limited Data Points: Works best for 3-5 data
Easy to Understand: Simple and intuitive for categories. More slices become cluttered and
viewers, even with limited data experience. hard to interpret.
Part-to-Whole Relationship: Clearly shows how Accuracy Issues: Human eyes struggle to
each category contributes to the whole dataset compare slice sizes precisely, leading to potential
as a percentage. misinterpretations.
Visually Appealing: Can be visually engaging with `Difficult for Data Comparison: Not ideal for
well-chosen colors, making data presentation comparing data points across multiple pie charts.
attractive. Consider bar charts for this purpose.
Highlighting Majorities: Effective for emphasizing Hiding Details: Doesn't show exact data values
a dominant category or showcasing how much a within each slice. Use a table for detailed
specific category contributes to the whole. information.
 CUBIC GRAPH
• A cubic graph is one that is obtained by taking all vertices denoted as binary
words and joining the vertices with the edge whenever the binary words differ by
1.
• It is a graph in which all vertices have degree 3. therefore, a cubic graph is a 3-
regular graph and is also called as trivalent graph.
• These graphs are symmetric or semi-symmetric. A graph is said to be regular if all
its vertices are of same degree and k-regular if all its vertices are of degree k.
• A 3-regular graph is also called a cubic graph. A vertex with degree zero is an
isolated vertex, a vertex with degree one is a pendant vertex and the unique edge
incident to a pendant vertex is a pendant edge.
Properties of cubic graph