Chapter 6

Steady State Single Phase AC

Circuit Analysis

1
 Introduction
• Previously you learned that dc source have fixed polarities and constant
magnitude and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction shown as in fig.(c).
• AC voltage is the voltage that alternate in polarity & changes in
magnitude; and Ac Current is the Current which alternate in direction &
changes in magnitude.
• Both AC voltage and AC current have the sine or cosine wave form or
sinusoidal AC waveform shape which is shown as below(a), which the
waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a time sequence.

(c) Voltage and current versus

time for dc
2
Generating Ac Voltages
• AC voltage is generated by the principle of electromagnetic induction, Which states: “if a coil
of copper wire is rotated in a magnetic field in such a way as to cut across the lines of
magnetic force, an electric charge is created or induced in the wires”.(generator action)
• The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut ,
which given by Faraday’s Law:
𝑑∅
𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒅 = −N 𝑑𝑡 The negative sign in Faraday's law comes from the fact that the emf
induced in the coil acts to oppose any change in the magnetic flux.
• Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time.
Generally, the generated AC voltages will have sinusoidal wave form shape as shown below.

3
Fig. 5.4 (b) Coil voltage versus angular position
Generating an ac voltage. The 0 position of the coil is defined as in
(a) where the coil sides move parallel to the flux lines. In practice,
the rotations are so fast that the light does not have time to go out 4
and so appears to be continuously on.
 Sinusoidal waveform
• The time-varying voltage that is commercially
available in large quantities and is commonly
called the ac voltage (ac are an abbreviation
for alternating current)
• The term alternating indicates only that the
waveform alternates between two prescribed
levels in a set time sequence
 Sinusoidal waveform

• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the

sine or cosine function.
• A general expression for the sinusoid,
v(t ) = Vm sin( t +  )

where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase angle

6
 Sinusoidal waveform
• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be
compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
difference is not zero, they are out of phase.

2
T=

1
f = Hz
T

 = 2f

7
 Sinusoidal waveform

Example 1

Given a sinusoid, 5 sin( 4t − 60 o ) , calculate its

amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and
frequency.

Solution:

Amplitude = 5, phase = –60o, angular frequency

= 4 rad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.

8
 Sinusoidal waveform

Example 2

Find the phase angle between i1 = −4 sin( 377 t + 25 o )

and i2 = 5 cos(377 t − 40 o ) , does i1 lead or lag i2?

Solution:

Since sin(ωt+90o) = cos ωt

i2 = 5 sin( 377 t − 40 o + 90 o ) = 5 sin( 377 t + 50 o )
i1 = −4 sin( 377 t + 25 o ) = 4 sin( 377 t + 180 o + 25 o ) = 4 sin( 377 t + 205 o )

therefore, i1 leads i2 155o.

9
 Basic terms of Sinusoidal waveform
Definition:

Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage

in Fig. plotted as a function of some variable such as time (as
above), position, degrees, radians, temperature, and so on.
Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any
instant of time; denoted by lowercase letters (e1, e2 in Fig.).
Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a function
as measured from the zero volt level. For the waveform in Fig.
the peak amplitude and peak value are the same, since the
average value of the function is zero volts.
 Sinusoidal waveform
Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p the full voltage
between positive and negative peaks of the waveform, that is,
the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.
Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself
after the same time interval. The waveform in Fig. is a periodic
waveform.
Period (T): The time of a periodic waveform.
Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of
time. The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 in Fig. 13.3 may appear
different in Fig. but they are all bounded by one period of time
and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.
 Sinusoidal waveform
Frequency ( f ): The number of cycles that occur in 1 s.
The frequency of the waveform in Fig.(a) is 1 cycle per
second, and for Fig. (b), 2.5 cycles per second. If a
waveform of similar shape had a period of 0.5 s [Fig. (c)],
the frequency would be 2 cycles per second.

The unit of measure for frequency is the hertz (Hz), where

 Example

For the sinusoidal waveform in Fig.

a. What is the peak value?
b. What is the instantaneous value at 0.3 s and 0.6 s?
c. What is the peak-to-peak value of the waveform?
d. What is the period of the waveform?
e. How many cycles are shown?
f. What is the frequency of the waveform?
As an example: consider the following wave forms
Which sine wave in the following figures has a higher frequency?
Determine the frequency and the period of both waveforms.

Determine the frequency of the

waveform of the following figure.

14
Sinusoidal Voltage And Current Values
Five ways to express the value of a sine wave in terms of its
voltage or its current magnitude are instantaneous, peak,
peak-to-peak, rms, and average values.

A) Instantaneous Value
It is the value of sine wave at any instant of time, which can
be positive during +ve alternation of sine wave and –ve
during –ve alternation. It is symbolized by lowercase
letters(v & i).

15
B) Peak Value(𝑽𝒑 or 𝑰𝒑 )
The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage(or current)
at the positive or the negative maximum (peak) with respect to
zero. Since the positive and negative peak values are equal in
magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by a single peak value.
Peak values.

C) Peak-to-peak Value
The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave, as shown below, is the
voltage or current from the positive peak to the negative peak. It
is always twice the peak value.

16
D) Average value
• Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in
half or one complete waveform cycle.
• It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:

Average value = area under the function in a period

period

2. Use integral method

T
1
average_ value =  v(t )dt
T 0

For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area

under the section, so just take half of the period only.

17
 Average value
• Example: Calculate the average value of the waveform below.
T
1
average_ value =  v(t )dt
Vm
Solution:
T 0

1
 sin d
Vm
= v

m
0
 rad 
 vm
 sin d
2
=
 0

=
vm
− cos  o
For a sinus waveform , average value can 
be calculate by 2vm
= = 0.637 vm volt
Vaverage =
Vm
= 0.637Vm 
 18
 Effective or RMS Value
In figure below the circuit in (a) is ac while that of (b) is dc. Our
objective is to find 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 that will transfer the same power to resistor R as
the sinusoid i. The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac
circuit is The total power dissipated by R is given by:
1 T 2 R T 2
P =  i Rdt =  i dt
T 0 T 0
while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is
2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅
T
1
Equating 𝑃 Hence, Ieff is equal to: I eff =
T 0
i 2 dt = I rms

The rms value is a constant itself which

depending on the shape of the function i(t).

The effective of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the

same average power to a resistor as the periodic current. 19
 The rms value of a sinusoid i(t) = Imcos(t) is given by:

The average power can be written in terms of

the rms values:

Note: If you express amplitude of a phasor source(s) in rms, then all the
answer as a result of this phasor source(s) must also be in rms value.
20
21
22
Instantaneous and Average Power

➢ For any load in a sinusoidal ac network, the voltage

across the load and the current through the load will
vary in a sinusoidal nature. The questions then arise, How
does the power to the load determined by the product v·
i vary, and what fixed value can be assigned to the power
since it will vary with time?

➢ The instantaneous power is the power absorbed by an

element at an instance of time. In an electric circuit
this is given by:
24
➢ The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period. Average Power over some time interval T is given by:

1 𝑇 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 1 𝑇 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = න cos 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 𝑑𝑡 − න cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2 𝑇 0 2

➢ The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same
constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the average of
a sinusoid over its period is zero.
➢ Thus, the second term in the above Eq. vanishes and the average power
becomes
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
2

25
Example : Given that
𝑣 𝑡 = 120cos(377𝑡 + 45°)V and 𝑖 𝑡 = 10cos(377𝑡 − 10°)

find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the
passive linear network

26
 Phase Angle
▪ Phase angle (∅) is the angular difference between the same points
on two different waveforms of the same frequency.
▪ Two waveforms that have peaks and zeros at the same time are in
phase and have a phase angle of 0°.
▪ When one sine wave has just the opposite phase of another, they
are 180° out of phase.

in phase 180° out of phase

 Phase Angle
• When one sine wave is at its peak while another is at zero, the two
are 90° out of phase.

Fig.Two sine-wave voltages 90° out of phase. (a) Wave B leads wave A by 90°. (b)
Corresponding phasors VB and VA for the two sine-wave voltages with phase angle Θ = 90°. The
right angle shows quadrature phase.
 Phase Angle
▪ Phase-Angle Diagrams
▪ The phasor corresponds
to the entire cycle of
voltage.
▪ The phase angle of one
wave can be specified
only with respect to
another as a reference.
Usually the reference
phasor is horizontal.
Fig. Leading and lagging phase angles for 90°. (a) When phasor VA is the horizontal reference,
phasor VB leads by 90°. (b) When phasor VB is the horizontal reference, phasor VA lags by −90°.
• If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t = 0 s with an increasing
slope as in Figure below, it has a phase shift.
• Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right, with their expression
being;(the reference is Y-axis)
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) shifted left by angle 𝜃
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) shifted right by angle 𝜃

• Where 𝜃 is called phase angle of sine wave at t=0s

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

31
Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships

• If the waveform crosses the horizontal axis with a positive-going slope

𝜋
90° ( ) sooner, as shown in Fig. below, it is called a cosine wave; that
2
is,

32
 Phasor
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and
phase of a sinusoid
• It can be represented in one of the following three forms:
❖ Mathematic operation of complex
number:
1. Addition, z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + j( y1 + y2 )
2. Subtraction, z − z = ( x − x ) + j( y − y )
1 2 1 2 1 2

3. Multiplication, z1 z2 = r1r2  1 + 2
4. Division, z1 = r1 1 −  2
z2 r2

5. Reciprocal, z1 = r1  − 
6. Square root, z = r  2
7. Complex conjugate,
z  = x − jy = r  −  = re− j
8. Euler’s identity, e  j = cos   j sin 
2011E.C 33
❖Transform a sinusoid from the time domain to the
phasor domain and vice-versa:
v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  ) V = Vm 
(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal

concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function, in all
our proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression
is in the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by
subtracting from the phase
Example: Transform the following sinusoids to phasors
i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V
2011E.C 34
Solution:
a. I = 6 − 40 A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V = 4140v
Example: Transform the following phasors to sinusoides
a.V = − 1030  V
b.I = j(5 − j12) A
Solution:
a. v(t) = 10cos(t + 210o) V
b. since, I = 12 + j5 = 122 +52  tan−1( 5 ) = 13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(wt + 22.62o) A

2011E.C 35
 I-V Relationship for a Resistor
.
i(t)
v(t ) = R i (t )
+
❖Suppose that i(t) is a sinusoid:
R v(t)
i(t) = Re(IM e j(wt+))
_
Find v(t)

e jt + j )
Phasor diagram
v(t) = R i(t) = R x Re( I
M

v(t) = Re(V e jt + j )

M
❖Represent v(t) and i(t) as phasors:
I = IM   V = IR = IM R  
❖In resistor voltage and current are in phase.
2011E.C 36
 I-V Relationship for a Capacitor
dv(t )
i(t ) = C
i(t) + dt
. ❖Suppose that v(t) is a sinusoid:
C v(t)
v(t) = Re(VM ej(wt+ ))
–
Find i(t)
phasor diagram
jt + j
dv(t ) dVM e
i (t ) = C =C
dt dt
i (t ) = jCx Re(VM e jt + j
) = jCv(t )
❖Represent v(t) and i(t) as phasors:
V = VM   I = jC V = CVM +90o
❖In capacitor current lead voltage by 90 degree.
2011E.C 37
 I-V Relationship for an inductor
. i(t) +
di(t )
L v(t) v(t ) = L
- dt
❖Suppose that i(t) is a sinusoid: i(t) = Re(IM e j(wt+))
v (t ) = jLx Re( I M e jt + j
) = jLi (t )
❖Represent v(t) and i(t) as phasors:
I = IM   V = jLI = LIM  +90o
❖In inductor voltage lead current by 90 degree.
phasor diagram

2011E.C 38
 Circuit Element Phasor Relations
summary
Element V/I Relation Phasor Relation Phase

Capacitor I = C dV/dt I = j ω C V I leads V

= ωCV 90° by 90º
Inductor V = L dI/dt V = j ω L I V leads I
= ωLI 90° by 90º
Resistor V = I R V=RI In-phase
= R I 0°
Simple mnemonic to remember lag and lead in capacitor and inductor

2011E.C 39
 Reactance of Inductor and Capacitor
• The ratio of voltage to current is a measure of how the
component opposes the flow of electricity
• In a resistor this is termed its resistance
• In inductors and capacitors it is termed its reactance
• Reactance is given the symbol X and its unit is 
• Therefore
Reactance of an inductor Reactance of capacitor
(inductive reactance) (capacitive reactance)

XL = jL
1
XC =
jC
Equivalent circuit at DC and high frequency

2011E.C 40
 Impedance
❖In circuits containing Z = Z 
reactive, as well as
Z = R + jX
resistive elements, the
current is related to the X =| XL | − | XC |
applied voltage by the
Z = R2 + X 2
impedance (Z)
❖Z=V/I  = tan −1 ( X R )
❖It is total oposition to R = Z cos( )
the flow of current in an
ac circuit. X = Z sin ( )

2011E.C 41
• An attractive characteristic of complex impedances is that they
can be used for sinusoidal signals in a similar manner to the way
resistances are used for DC circuits.

2011E.C 42
Examples
1.A sinusoidal voltage of 5 V peak and 100 Hz is applied across
an inductor of 25 mH. What will be the peak current in the
inductor?
solution: At this frequency, the reactance of the inductor is given
by: XL = ωL= 2π fL= 2 × π × 100 × 25 × 10−3 = 15.7 Ω
Therefore, VL 5
IL = = = 318 mA
XL 15.7
2.A sinusoidal current of 2 A r.m.s. at 25 rad/s flows through a
capacitor of 10 mF. What voltage will appear across the
capacitor?
Solution: At this frequency, the reactance of the capacitor is given
by: XC= 1/wC = 1/ (25 x10x10-3 ) = 4Ω
Therefore,
VC = ICXC = 2 x 4 = 8v r.m.s
2011E.C 43
3.

Exercise

2011E.C 44
4. Determine the complex impedance of the following series
arrangement at a frequency of 50 Hz.
• solution: ω = 2πf=2xπx50=314rad/s

Z = ZC + ZR + ZL= R + j(XL − XC)= R + j(ωL + 1/ωC)

=200 + j(314x400x10-3 + 1/314x50x10-6) = 200 + j62 Ω
• Note that at this frequency the impedance of the arrangement is
equivalent to a resistor of 200 Ω in series with an inductor of XL =
62 Ω. Since XL = ωL, this equivalent inductance L = XL /ω =
62/314 = 197 mH.
• Therefore, at this single frequency, the circuit above is equivalent to

2011E.C 45
 AC circuit analysis
Steps to analyze ac circuit
1.Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain
2. solve the problem using basic laws and methods of circuit analysis
3. If the time domain is required, Transform the resulting phasor to
the time domain
❖ RC series circuit and its phasor diagram

2011E.C 46
❖ RL series circuit and its phasor diagram

❖RLC series circuit and its phasor diagram

2011E.C 47
 Examples
1. A sinusoidal current of 5 A peak at 50 Hz flows through a series
combination of a resistor of 10 Ω and an inductor of 25 mH.
Determine: (a) the voltage across the combination;
(b) the phase angle between this voltage and the current
(a) The voltage across the resistor is given by, VR = IR=(50o) × 10
=50  0o v
XL = j2πfL=j2 × π × 50 × 0.025= j7.85 Ω =7.8590o Ω
Thus, VL = IXL= (50o)(7.8590o Ω) = 39.390o v
Therefore, voltage across the combination will be,
V=VL+VR=63.638.2o
(b)  =V - I = 38.2o - 0O = 38.2o ( voltage lead current by 38.2o)
phasor diagram

2011E.C 48
2.Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown below

Converting I and V into

time domain, we get

exercise: using the

result draw the phasor
diagram showing
VS,VR, VC and I
2011E.C 49
3. In the circuit shown below, find
(a) avoltage acros R,L&C in phasor form
(b) draw the phasor diagram.

Solution: (a)

2011E.C 50
(b) phasor diagram

Exercise1: In figure below determine the following in phasor form

(a) VR
(b) VC
(c) VL
(d) draw the phasor diagram

2011E.C 51
Exercise 2
• Calculate the output voltage vo in the circuit of Figure
below if C =200 μF, R1 = 5 Ω, L = 50 mH, R2 =50 Ω
and the input voltage v =10 cos 500t.

2011E.C 52
 Power in an ac circuit
Instantaneous power
❖Is the power at any instant in time
❖For AC circuits, the voltage and current are
v(t) = VM cos(t+v)
i(t) = IM cos(t+i)
The instantaneous power is simply their product
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = VM IM cos(t+v) cos(t+i)
= ½VM IM [cos(v- i) + cos(2t+v +i)]

Constant Wave of Twice

Term Original Frequency

2011E.C 53
 Average Power (P)
• Is instantaneous power averaged over a period
• Calculate average power (integrate power over one
cycle and divide by period)
t0 + T t0 + T

 V cos(t +  v ) I M cos(t + i ) dt
1 1
P=
T 
t0
p(t) dt =
T t0
M

= VM I M cos(v - i )
1
2
= VrmsIrms cos( v - i )
• this is the constant part of instantaneous power
• the time dependant part is sinusoid, that is why
averages to zero

2011E.C 54
Average Power in purely resistive & reactive
circuit
• Purely resistive circuit: v − i = 0
P = ½ VM IM = VrmsIrms
The power dissipated in a resistor is
1 VM2 1 2
P = VM I M = = I M R = I 2 rmsR
2 2 R 2
• Purely reactive circuit: v − i = 90
P=0
– Capacitors and inductors are lossless elements and absorb
no average power
– A purely reactive network operates in a mode in which it
stores energy over one part of the period and releases it
2011E.C
over another part 55
Example 1. for the circuit shown below find the average power
supplied by the source and absorbed by the resistor

2011E.C 56
2011E.C 57
• Therefore power factor angle will also obtained from
Impedance as shown above

2011E.C 58
2011E.C 59
Example: Determine the power factor of the entire circuit of
figure below as seen by the source. And also calculate
average power delivered by the source

2011E.C 60
 Complex Power
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the complex
conjugate of the current:
V = Vm θ v I = I m θ i
1
S = V I = Vrms I rms  θ v − θ i
2
 S = Vrms I rms cos (θ v − θ i ) + j Vrms I rms sin (θ v − θ i )

S = P + j Q

P: is the average power in watts delivered to a load and it is

the only useful power.
Q: is the reactive power exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load. It is measured in VAR.
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
2011E.C 61
 From a Load Perspective: Recall phasor relationships
between current, voltage, and load impedance
V =IZ
VM  v = I M i Z  Z
(V rms ) ( )
2  v = I rms 2 i Z  Z
Vrms = I rms Z
S = VrmsIrmsv − i
= ( Irms Z ) Irmsv − i
= I 2 rms Z v − i
= I 2 rmsR + jI 2 rmsX
 p = I 2 rmsR
2011E.C
Q = I 2 rmsX Power triagle
62
Examples

2011E.C 63
2. for the circuit shown below
determine the total average
power supplied and total
average power absorbed.

2011E.C 64
• Reading assignment
Power Factor Correction

65