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Petroleum Technology 1
Unit 3, Petroleum Properties

Open Distance Learning

PgC/PgD/MSc in Oil and Gas Engineering

2
January 2002, Version 1
School of Mechanical and Offshore Engineering

postgraduate
PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic14:Reservoir Featurest

Topic 14: Reservoir Features

Review

In this topic the student is introduced to the physical features of oil

reservoirs and the different hydrocarbon phases which are present at
different levels. Examples are given of the use of contour and isopach
maps to predict reserves and how production is influenced by by factors
such as porosity and permeability. Processing requirements and the
advantages of multi stage separation are discussed. The determination of
fluid saturations from core samples and the effects of reservoir pressure,
temperature and water distribution are also reviewed.

Content
The hydrocarbons in petroleum are considered to have originated from organic materials
included in sedimentary deposits laid down in a variety of situations - lakes, estuaries,
deltas, seas, etc. The accumulation of sufficient hydrocarbons to form a commercially
significant oil, gas or condensate field depends on the presence of suitable geological
structures forming a trap which prevents the eventual upward migration of the
hydrocarbons to the surface of the earth.
Most hydrocarbons are of lower density than water, and since water will be present in
the pore spaces of rocks lying below the water table there will be a tendency for the
hydrocarbons to migrate upwards as a result of buoyancy forces. The presence of an
impermeable cap rock will prevent further migration and lead to the development of a
reservoir – ie, a body of porous and permeable rock containing oil and/or gas.
Sandstones, limestones and dolomites are the most common reservoir rocks; these are
both porous and permeable. The cap rock forming the upper boundary of the reservoir
will be effectively impermeable – ie, will not permit the passage of fluids. Shales
(mudstones) are the most common cap rocks; these are very fine-grained materials
containing clays and have extremely low permeabilities. Shales tend to deform
plastically under load, and therefore seldom fracture; as a result they provide a very
effective seal against upward migration of fluids.
Within the reservoir (see Figure 1), the combined action of buoyancy forces and
capillary forces produces an equilibrium distribution of the fluids present, resulting in the
least dense fluid occupying the highest portions of the reservoir and the densest fluid
occupying the lowest portions.
Free gas (ie, gas not held in solution in liquid oil) will be the fluid of lowest density, if it
is present. Free gas cannot be present in a undersaturated reservoir, ie, one in which
the conditions of pressure and temperature lie above the bubble-point line on the p-T
diagram. In such a situation any free gas present will rapidly go into solution in the oil.
In saturated reservoirs, however, some free gas may be present, usually in the form of a
gas cap lying above the oil in the highest part of the reservoir.
In some reservoirs – eg, Troll - the gas cap may be much larger than the part of the
reservoir occupied by oil. Methane will usually be the principal constituent of the free
gas, accompanied by higher hydrocarbons - ethane, propane, butane, etc. Other gases
such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen may be present in substantial
amounts and sometimes form the major proportion of the gas.
Some liquid water (connate or interstitial water) will be present in the gas cap as a thin
film on the pore walls and filling the smallest pores. The oil zone of the reservoir (lying
below any gas cap) will be occupied by oil, which will always contain some gas in
solution. This dissolved gas or solution gas will come out of solution as the pressure is
reduced below the bubble-point when the oil flows to the wellhead and through the

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surface production facilities. Some connate water will be present in this zone, occupying
smaller pores in the rock and forming a film over the surface of the rock grains
(assuming that, as is usually the case, the rock is preferentially wetted by water).
The lowest zone of the reservoir contains water (or, more strictly, brine). This contains
large amounts of dissolved salts - chlorides and sulphates of sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium, etc. These brines appear to be modified seawater, but
containing larger amounts of dissolved solids than present day ocean waters.
In the case of a gas field, there will be no oil zone; in some cases gas fields apparently
have no water zone below the gas.
As a result of the action of capillary forces in the pores of the reservoir rock, the
interfaces between the gas and the oil, and between the oil and the water are not sharp.
Since oil wets the rock in preference to gas, in a narrow pore the oil-gas interface will be
higher than in a wide pore; a similar effect occurs at the oil-water interface. Shale which
is composed of clay particles is impermeable and acts a s a good cap rock and can also
form shale lenses which act as obstacles to flow.

Figure 1. diagram of section of reservoir showing oil, oil / water

contact, gas cap, shale cap and pay.

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Figure 2 is a contour map of the Greater Ekofisk area in the North Sea Norwegian sector
showing the location of various fields ( Ekofisk, Edda, Albuskjell, etc. ).
Figure 2. North Sea Norwegian sector blocks 2/4 and 2/7 contour map showing
field locations

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Figure 3a is a contour map of the Edda field top structure. This is an anticlinal reservoir (
a commonly occurring shape ), with an impermeable cap rock. The oil / water contact
(OWC) marks the bottom of the reservoir below which no hydrocarbons are found.
Net pay thickness is a gross thickness which includes unproductive areas.
The top structure contours define the top of the productive formation – ie, the underside
of the cap rock.
Figure 3 Edda field contour map

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Figure 4 Shows a more complex double anticline field (Albuskjell) in Norway. It is an

optimistic hypothesis made in 1974 of the net pay thickness and shows the originally
planned locations of the 30 development wells.
Figure 4 Albuskjell field map

The ‘pay’ is the vertical thickness of a reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains
economically producible hydrocarbons. The term derives from the fact that it is capable
of "paying" an income. Pay is also called pay sand or pay zone. The overall vertical
interval in which pay sections occur is the gross pay; the smaller portions of the gross
pay that meet local criteria for pay (such as minimum porosity, permeability and
hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay. Figure 4 shows the net pay thickness (isopach .
The isopach is defined as a contour that connects points of equal thickness. Commonly,
the contours that make up an isopach map display the stratigraphic thickness of a rock
unit as opposed to the true vertical thickness. Isopachs are true stratigraphic
thicknesses; ie, perpendicular to bedding surfaces.(Note : The oil industry often refers to
net pay measured as isopach ).
An isochore is a contour connecting points of equal true vertical thickness of strata,
formations, reservoirs or other rock units. The terms isopach and isopach map are
incorrectly used interchangeably to describe isochores and isochore maps.
Isopachs and isochores are strictly equivalent only if the rock layer is horizontal.

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The more complex gas reservoir (Eugene island block 305, Louisiana ) is depicted in
Figure 5. Note the anticline shape, indication of wells, and initial gas water contact
region. Figure 6 shows the top structure map for the Tapis field. This field shows
considerable faulting.
Figure 5. Structure map of Eugene Island block 305
10,300 ft. sand gas reservoir

Figure 6. Structure map of the TAPIS field, South China Sea, Malaysia.

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Figure 7 shows the more complicated Arun field (Sumatra). This is a very large complex
fractured limestone reservoir which is cut off by a reef edge to the east.

Figure 7. Arun field isopach structure

Figures 8a, 8b, 8c and 8d show the Rough gas field in the North Sea. The Rough gas
field is no longer producing and is now being used by Transco for storing gas for winter
use during summer when demand is low.
Figure 8a Illustrates the cut – off faults on both sides, the 50 foot contours and the
positions of the wells. Figure 8b is the isopach map which indicates a large thickness.
Figures 8c and 8d show the porosity and permeability reducing towards the S.E. corner
which means that this part of the reservoir is not going to be productive due to poor flow
rates.

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Figure 8a. top sand structure map Rough gas field

Note: C.I. = contour interval

Figure 8b. Isopach map – Rough gas field

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Figure 8c. Rough field porosity map – average gas saturation 63%

Figure 8d. Rough field permeability map

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Figure 9. Typical contour map (North and South Morecambe Sherwood gas field).

Most hydrocarbons have a lower density than water with reference to the API scale. This
means hydrocarbons migrate upwards due to buoyancy forces until a body of
impermeable rock stops them. Permeable rock is also needed for rock to act as
reservoir.
Gas occupies the top level, oil next then water at the bottom. Free gas cannot be
present in an under - saturated reservoir
The Troll field has a gas cap, and the oil rim is only a few metres thick, but because it is
a large and economic reservoir, it produces oil even though it is really a gas reservoir.
At first sight one would expect gas and oil to have easily measurable differences in
density to allow location of the oil / gas contact. However this sharp distinction is not
always the case in practice.

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PROCESSING OF PRODUCED FLUIDS

The well fluids reaching the surface will in general contain oil, gas water and some solid
material (fine rock particles, called sand in the oil industry). The relative proportions of
these constituents will very widely: in the early stages of production the water cut (ie, the
percentage of water by volume in the liquids produced) may be less than 1% while in the
later stages it may rise to over 90% in some cases ( particularly if waterflooding is being
used ). The Argyll field for example, first produced in 1975 and was abandoned in
1992/93 at 90% + water cut. Relative amounts of oil and gas vary widely, so the
engineer designing surface production facilities has to bear this in mind. When the
produced fluids reach the wellhead they will normally be passed through separators,
often arranged in several stages.

The aims of the separation process are:

1. to remove contaminants (sand, water);

2. to prepare hydrocarbon fractions in a form suitable for transport (oil and gas);
3. to ensure that the oil and gas streams produced meet the appropriate
specifications (laid down e.g. by pipeline operators, refinery or shore-based
processing facilities);
4. to permit accurate metering of the oil and gas streams;
5. to provide for regular testing of wells to monitor performance (usually by diverting
the production from a particular well to a test separator).

Before reaching the separators the produced fluids go through chokes to reduce the
pressure to a suitable value. Chokes may have to cope with large pressure drops, e.g.
In HPHT fields the pressure may drop from 1000bar to 100 bar over the choke
(10:1 pressure ratio), so a large amount of thought must go into their design. The main
objective of the choke is to put a back pressure on the well in order to control it.
In the case of subsea wells the produced fluids are not normally separated at the well-
head, but are transported by subsea flow-lines to surface separators mounted on nearby
fixed or floating installations
Flow conditions in the flow-lines will be multi-phase, since gas, oil and water phases
may all be present, and as a result it may be difficult to maintain stable conditions and
avoid slugging. The prevention of hydrate formation and deposition of waxes or
asphaltenes may also cause difficulties in operation. It is therefore preferable to keep
subsea flow-lines fairly short wherever possible. Dispersants may be added to stop
waxes sticking to the pipe wall. Slugging problems in pipelines may occur due to the
unpredictable nature of 2 and 3 phase flow. Alternating slugs of liquid and gas travel at
high velocity, so large slug catchers are installed at the downstream end of the line to
allow any liquid slugs to slow down and separate out. 65 km long flow lines exist in
Australia, which has much warmer sea temperatures, so oil cooling and risk of solid
materials separating out is less than in the North Sea. Sub-sea separators (located
adjacent to sub-sea wellheads) have already been installed in a few cases, and are
expected to find wider application in future. Down-hole separator systems are also under
development for installation in the well-bore.
Separation may be carried out in a single vessel operating at a one fixed pressure
(single-stage separation), or multi-stage separation may be used in which the oil flows
through two or more separator vessels connected in series, with the pressure being
reduced in successive stages. A three-stage separator layout is shown in the sketch
(Figure 10 ). On a few occasions as many as seven stages of separation have been
used, but in normal practice it is very rare to use more than three stages. For offshore
installations no more than three stages will be used, and frequently two-stage or single-
stage (e.g. the Nelson field) separation will be adopted in order to save space and keep

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down topside weight. Figure 11 shows typical contents of light hydrocarbons for crude
oils at reservoir conditions. In recent years, as HPHT fields (Shearwater, Erskine, Elgin
- Franklin) come on line with significant amounts of acid gas (CO2), this trend for
reduction in the number of stages has reversed due to the need to process gas to
pipeline specification, so that it is already suitable for sale once it gets into the pipeline.
This has considerable implications as regards weight, platform structure and
operational requirements.
Figure10. Multi – stage separation

Gas
Wellhead
fluids
P1
First stage Gas

P2
Oil Second stage Gas

P3
Oil Third stage

Oil to stock tank

Where two or more stages of separation are used, the oil flows through the separators in
series, with the pressure being reduced in successive stages; each reduction in
pressure causes more gas to be released from solution in the oil.
Some separators use water jets to flush sand out of the base of the separator.

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Figure 11. Concentrations of light hydrocarbons in crude oil

Figure 12. Three phase horizontal separator

In a multi-stage system some of the separators will be three-phase, producing separate

outlet streams of water, gas and oil, while others may be two-phase only, producing gas
and oil streams with any outlet water included in the oil stream. If a single stage
separator is employed it must be of the three-phase type (Figure 12).
The final oil product remaining at atmospheric pressure after separation is referred to
as stock-tank oil, since it is stable under ordinary atmospheric conditions (ie, it does not
shrink substantially in volume due to vaporisation while in storage). It may also be
called dead crude. Its composition and properties will differ considerably from those of
the reservoir oil, as a result of the removal of large amounts of the most volatile
hydrocarbons (including almost all of the methane and ethane and most of the propane)

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as the dissolved gas comes out of solution and is separated in the separators; this will
cause the stock-tank oil to have a higher specific gravity and a higher viscosity than the
reservoir oil. Following the separators, further field processing may be carried out, e.g.
dehydration, sweetening. Metering of the produced fluids will also be done at this stage.
The advantages of multi-stage separation are:
1. It results in a higher proportion of the more volatile hydrocarbons (in the C4 to C8
band) being retained in the oil than would be the case for single-stage separation.
Hence oil production is higher (by up to 8% or 10%) and gas production lower than
for single-stage separation. Since oil is easier to transport than gas, multi-stage
separation (covered in detail in Petroleum Technology 2) will be preferred unless the
amount of gas is small (in which case much of it may be required as fuel for power
generation)

2. If multi-stage separation is used, much of the gas will be separated at the higher
pressures (p1 , p2 etc.) and this will reduce the power required to compress it to
pipeline pressure for transport. If a single stage of separation is used, all gas will be
separated at a relatively low pressure, and the power requirement for compression
will be greater.

E.g. 3 stage separation pressures on Murchison Platform:

• High = 60 bar
• Medium = 16 bar
• Low = 4 bar

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RESERVOIR PROPERTIES

Two key properties of the reservoir rock in relation to hydrocarbon production are
porosity and permeability:

Porosity

Effective porosity refers to the interconnected pore space through which fluids can be
produced. Cementing materials may have sealed off some pores, so total porosity does
not always contribute to oil production. The bulk volume of the reservoir may be
estimated from the isopach map. Typical limestones and sandstones have porosities
of 15-30%. Semi quartzite sandstones often have porosities of less than 5% .Some
tight sands may have even lower porosities, but are still of interest as gas reservoirs in
the U.S.A. In an intergranular rock, the small pore space between two larger volumes
where two grains meet is called the pore throat The number, size and distribution of the
pore throats control many of the resistivity flow and capillary-pressure characteristics of
the rock.
Porosity (φ) (This may be expressed as a percentage or a fraction)

void space in the rock

porosity = × 100(%)
bulk volume of the rock

It may be necessary to distinguish between total porosity and effective porosity, since
some of the pore spaces in the rock may be sealed off by cementing materials.

total void space in the rock

total porosity = × 100(%)
bulk volume of the rock

interconnected void space in the rock

effective porosity = × 100(%)
bulk volume of the rock

From the reservoir engineering point of view it is the effective porosity that is required,
since this represented the percentage of the bulk volume from which reservoir fluids can
be produced.

Pore volume = bulk volume × porosity (expressed as a fraction)

The effective porosity of reservoir rocks varies considerably; for typical limestone and
sandstone reservoirs porosities are usually in the range 15% to 30%, but in some semi-
quartzite sandstone reservoirs porosities may be less than 5%.
In formations that are unconsolidated or moderately cemented the effective porosity is
practically the same as the total porosity. However, in highly cemented sandstones and
carbonates the total porosity may be much higher than the effective porosity, since
these formations can contain many pores which are totally sealed off, either by
cementing materials or as a result of the compaction of shell and coral fragments (in
limestones and dolomites).
Porosity may be further classified according to its origin, as either primary or
secondary. Primary porosity is due to effects resulting from the depositional

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environment, compaction and cementation, while secondary porosity is due to fractures,

and to the vugs and solution cavities which are often found in carbonate formations.
Fractures result from brittle failure of the formation under stress, and are found in hard
competent lithologies (eg, chalk or limestone)rather than relatively ductile (able to
deform plastically) rocks such as shales; they are usually oriented normal to the bedding
planes, and therefore are often nearly vertical.
Fractures are more common in carbonate rocks than in sandstones. The fractures in
carbonates frequently act as high-permeability channels for the production of
hydrocarbons; these flow into the fractures from the surrounding rock matrix which is
itself of relatively low permeability. As a result the fractured formation acts as a dual-
porosity reservoir - a combination of the high-permeability fracture system with the lower
permeability rock matrix.
Highly-deviated or horizontal wells usually give good performance in such systems,
since they can be oriented to intersect many of the nearly vertical fractures. As will be
see later, it is common practice to induce fractures in reservoirs to improve well
productivity by pumping fluid into wells at high pressure.

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Permeability(k)

This is the measure of the ease with which fluid flows through rock and is defined by
Darcy's equation. The permeability is independent of which liquid is used (Darcy used
water).

Q k dp
=− see Figure13
A µ dl

where

Q
= volumetric flow rate of fluid per unit area of sample cross section, measured
A

perpendicular to the direction of flow

( = u, the superficial velocity )

dp
= pressure gradient measured along direction of flow
dl

µ = viscosity of the fluid used.

Figure 13. Fluid flow through rock section.

Note that the pores of the rock sample must be completely saturated with the fluid.

Darcy’s equation indicates that Q/A is proportional to dp/dℓ ; this is true at low and
medium flowrates but will begin to break down at very high flowrates, due to the inertial
forces which become significant under these conditions. If a gas (such as air or nitrogen)
is used to measure permeability, the Klinkenberg correction may need to be applied.
This allows for the molecular effects arising when gas flows through small pores.

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Figure 14. Flow rate versus pressure gradient showing non linear relationship
at high flow rates.

In the above sketch (Figure 14), the linear part of the plot (OA) represents the region in
which Darcy’s law holds, and in which viscous forces determine the flow pattern.
Beyond A, where the curvature becomes apparent, inertial forces are increasingly
significant and non-Darcy flow is observed. Non-Darcy flow is only observed at very
high flow rates which are unlikely to be encountered in normal practice, except in some
highly productive oil wells (100,000’s bbls per day wells in the Middle East) or in some
gas wells. Flow to the well is radial, so pressure gradients are highest next to the well
bore. Permeabilities are measured in millidarcy units. A cube of rock of 1cm side has a
permeability of 1 darcy if the flowrate of fluid of viscosity 1cP is 1 cm3/s when the
pressure gradient is 1 atm/cm. Most formation rocks have permeabilities much less
than 1 darcy and therefore the customary unit is the millidarcy. North Sea wells have
generally high permeabilities of up to 10/12- Darcys. The permeability of tight sands is
only a few millidarcys, but they still can be useful producers.

Inspection of Darcy’s law shows that in consistent SI units the permeability would be
measured in m2. It can be shown that:

1 darcy = 0.9987 x 10-12 m2

The permeabilities of reservoir rocks vary widely

but as a general guide it can be taken that:
k > 250 md high permeability - wells should be good producers if other factors are
favourable
k < 50 md low permeability - wells will generally be poor producers, and a
stimulation treatment such as fracturing or acidising may be applied.

The effectiveness of fracturing in improving formation permeability can be seen as

follows:

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Circular Channel

Consider a straight channel of circular cross-section, radius r. Poiseuille’s law will apply:

− πr 4 dp
Q=
8µ dl

Q −k dp
also =
A µ dl

where A = πr 2

r2
then k= (in consistent units)
8

e.g. for r = 1mm

(0.001)2
k= m2
8

or k = 1.27 x 108 md for the channel

Rectangular Slot
Consider a wide rectangular slot of thickness (h). Then it can be shown that:-

h2
k=
12

eg, for h = 1mm

k = 8.44 x 107 md

It can therefore be seen that the presence of fractures or large diameter pores (which
may be found in some limestones) will lead to a marked increase in the overall
permeability of the formation
Some reservoir rocks contain clays which swell in the presence of water, and this
swelling will cause a low value of permeability to be obtained if the measurement
technique uses water as the fluid. The use of saline water may reduce or eliminate this
swelling. Gas (air or nitrogen) may be used as an alternative.
Permeability is affected by pressure. Permeabilities measured in the normal way at
atmospheric pressure may be reduced by as much as 50 % when measured at reservoir
pressures.

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FLUID SATURATIONS

Fluid saturations are expressed as the fraction (or percentage) of the pore volume
occupied by the fluid concerned.

Water saturation, SW = water volume / pore volume

Oil saturation, So = oil volume / pore volume

Gas saturation, Sg = gas volume / pore volume

Clearly, Sw + So + Sg = 1

Two principal laboratory methods are available for determining fluid saturations in core
samples. These are:
1. the retort method, in which the rock sample is heated to a high temperature
(around 550ºC) in a retort; this vaporises the water and oil present, expelling
them almost completely from the sample, after which they are condensed,
collected and measured.
2. the extraction method, in which a hydrocarbon solvent is used to extract the
water and oil from the sample for measurement.

In both cases, the porosity of the sample must also be determined to evaluate the
saturations.

RESERVOIR PRESSURES
The total pressure at any depth is that required to support the weight of rock and fluids
lying above the level concerned - this is called the overburden pressure.

The overburden pressure is balanced by two counteracting pressures; these are:

1. the fluid pressure (or pore pressure or reservoir pressure) - i.e. the presure in the
fluid (oil, gas or water) occupying the pores in the formation;
2. the grain pressure or matrix pressure - i.e. the pressure acting between grains of
rock in contact.

The overburden pressure = fluid pressure + grain pressure

As hydrocarbons are produced from the reservoir, the fluid pressure will fall, in general.
Since the overburden pressure at a given level remains practically constant, the grain
pressure will increase, leading to compaction of the reservoir and a reduction in the pore
volume.
As an example, Ekofisk expected compaction, but the scale was unknown. As time
progressed, the platform started to sink with the subsiding sea bed. A survey was done
and nitrogen injection was considered but not carried out. Steps were taken to maintain
fluid pressure, which in essence meant the redevelopment of the field and the re-drilling
of wells. In some cases, compaction has caused the reservoir to drop 20 metres.

Compaction acts as a drive mechanism as it can maintain well flow rates. The
overburden pressure increases approximately linearly with depth below the surface - at
a rate of typically around 1psi/ft. The fluid pressure at a given level in the reservoir is in

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many cases roughly equivalent to that in a column of water extending from that level up
to the surface. For pure water, this would correspond to a pressure gradient of 0.434
psi/ft; however, in most cases the water will be saline, and the salinity may vary with
depth - pressure gradients of 0.45 psi / ft are typical.
In such a case, therefore, the fluid pressure (psi gauge) in the reservoir will be equal to
0.45 x depth below surface (ft). This is termed a normally-pressured reservoir.
Reservoirs in which the fluid pressure is markedly greater or less than the value given
by this relation are called over-pressured or under-pressured respectively. In a
particular field it is frequently found that while wells of shallow and medium depth are
normally-pressured, deeper wells are over -pressured.

Typical pressure gradients for oil and gas zones of reservoirs are:-

Oil 0.35 psi/ft

Gas .08 psi/ft

It is important to obtain accurate data on the pressure distribution in a new oil reservoir,
since this will help to locate the gas-oil contact (GOC) and oil-water contact (OWC).
These are needed to estimate the oil in place.
Fig.15 Pressure versus depth for reservoir

Over - pressurisation at great depths may be due to earth movements –rocks moved up
or down, or trapping of water within formations. It is important to get accurate data on
pressure distribution in a reservoir and plot the above graph (Figure 15). The
introduction of the repeat formation tester (RFT) and more recently the modular
formation tester (MFT) has greatly facilitated the determination of pressure distribution in
reservoirs, and permanent downhole pressure gauges can be installed to monitor
pressure over time. The disadvantage of permanent downhole gauges is their short
service life. Modern fibre optic systems are proving more reliable. The plotting of
pressures gives some idea of GOC and WOC, to give bulk volume for the productive
area. This may be confirmed by coring, logging etc.

During drilling operations it is important to know reservoir pressures, as an over-

pressure region may be entered and pressure balance must be maintained. Much
research and development is being done on underbalanced drilling.

As a reservoir is produced, it is frequently found that there is a roughly exponential

relation between the reservoir pressure (Figure 16) (i.e. the fluid pressure measured at a

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selected datum level) and the cumulative oil production from the reservoir. This can be
useful for extrapolation of future reservoir pressure.

Figure 16. Graph showing exponential relationship between pressure

and cumulative oil production

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RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE

Before drilling, the reservoir temperature can be estimated from the value of the
geothermal temperature gradient, gT :-

t = t S + g Τh

where t = reservoir temperature at depth h below surface

ts = surface temperature

h is usually given in hundreds of ft.

Maps of gT values are available for different geographical areas. These maps usually
assume a mean value of ts - eg for the South Central USA, ts is taken as 74ºF, and in a
typical case gT, might be 1.6 deg F/100ft. Then at a depth of 10,000 ft;

10000
t = 74 + 1.6 = 234 o F
100
After a well has been completed, temperature surveys will be carried out using
temperature recording gauges.

Reservoir temperatures (and geothermal gradient) normally remain constant

throughout the production history of the reservoir, hence most reservoir processes can
be considered isothermal. Exceptions arise in cases where steam injection or in-situ
combustion is used to stimulate production in heavy oil reservoirs. Steam injection (huff
and puff) is commonly used on land in the USA. The well is closed for a period of time
while steam is generated and injected into the well. After a period of about 2/3 weeks,
the well is put back into production when the reduced oil viscosity at the higher
temperature increases well production rates. This process has to be repeated after a
period of weeks as cooler oil flows in to the wellbore and reduces the temperature of the
rock. In this case therefore, the process is cyclic. In-situ combustion is the process of
injecting air/O2 into a reservoir to burn part of the oil thereby raising the rock
temperature to gain higher oil flow rates. Temperature changes in injected water may
lead to fracturing in the reservoir.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic14:Reservoir Featurest

WATER DISTRIBUTION IN RESERVOIRS

Water present in the reservoir is classified as either;

1. connate or interstitial water
2. free water.

It appears that in most cases the reservoir rock was originally saturated with water.
Subsequently, hydrocarbons formed in sediments lying beneath the source rock
migrated upwards, displacing some of the water from the reservoir rock and
accumulating there, since the impermeable cap-rock prevented further upward
movement.
However, displacement of the water is never complete - some water remains in the oil
and gas zones of the reservoir, in the smaller pores and as a thin film on the surface of
the grains (assuming that the rock is water-wet, as is normally the case). The water is
described as connate or interstitial water. The connate water saturation, Swc , is the
water saturation existing in the oil and gas zones of the reservoir at discovery. Usually
(but not invariably) this saturation is so low that the water has zero effective
permeability, and therefore will not be produced with the oil. In this case, the connate
water saturation will be identical with the irreducible water saturation, Swi.
The value of the connate water saturation is strongly influenced by the depositional
environment - i.e. the conditions in which the formation was laid down. In poorly-sorted
clastics, for example, many fine particles are packed between the larger grains, the
porosity is often low and the connate water saturation will be high - up to 30% or more
In well - sorted clastics, however, the individual grains are mainly of comparable sizes,
and the connate water saturation may be quite low - down to 5% in some examples. As
a rough guide, therefore, connate water saturations are generally high in low porosity
sands, and low in high porosity sands.
Free water is the water lying below the oil zone in the region where water completely fills
the pores and no hydrocarbons are present. Water saturation typically varies with depth
in the reservoir as shown in Figure17 below.
Figure 17. Water saturation versus depth.

An indication of the position of the gas-oil contact (GOC) and the water-oil contact
(OWC) may be obtained from plots of pressure versus depth. Data from logging, core
analysis, and sidewall fluid sampling (when available) should also be used in

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic14:Reservoir Featurest

determining the position of these contacts.

Definitions of the contacts vary. Some engineers take the OWC as the uppermost level
at which 100% water saturation exists (as shown in Figure17). Others take the OWC as
the uppermost level at which 100% water is produced from the formation - this will be
above the OWC corresponding to the previous definition, since 100% water will be
produced up to a level at which the value of Sw will be (100 - Sor)% where Sor is the
residual oil saturation (%). (Oil is present in the pores at this level, but is effectively
immobile and will not be produced with the water.)
The transition zone is that part of the oil zone in which the water saturation Sw
decreases from 100% to its minimum value of Swc, the connate water saturation. The
thickness of this zone depends on pore sizes (large capillary effect with small pores) and
oil and water densities and may be a few feet in high permeability reservoirs, or up to
several hundred feet in reservoirs with low permeabilities and heavy crudes.

A transition zone (Figure 18) will also be present at the bottom of the gas zone; in this
transition zone the oil saturation decreases from (100-Swc)% at the bottom of the zone to
0% at the top:
Figure 18. Saturation values at gas / oil transition

Accurate location of the gas-oil and oil-water contacts is obviously important in

estimating the quantities of hydrocarbons in place in the reservoir.
The free water level (FWL) in the reservoir, defined as the level at which the pressure in
the oil phase is equal to the pressure in the water phase (ie, the capillary pressure is
zero) will be some distance below the OWC in a water-wet rock. This is the result of
capillary forces. The FWL may be thought of as the level of the oil-water contact in a
pore of such large diameter that capillary effects are negligible.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic14:Reservoir Featurest

Consider the case of a reservoir with four different sands all in contact with a common
aquifer (Figure 19). The FWL will then be the same for all four sand units. In general
the sands will have differing porosity characteristics and as a result the WOCs will be
different for each sand, making it not uncommon to come across two WOCs in a drilled
well as shown in the sketch.
Figure 19. Formation cross section showing different water / oil contact
levels for different sand porosities.

The vertical height between the FWL and the OWC (taken as the highest point at which
100% water saturation exists) will depend on the properties of the oil and the rock. In
general, for a given oil, the vertical height between the OWC and the FWL will be
greatest for the sand with the lowest permeability. When assessing the potential of a
reservoir it is important to distinguish between vertical (kv) and horizontal permeability
(kh).
(kv / kh ) is often much less than one due to thin shale bands in the formation caused
by changes in depositional conditions. This is an important consideration when
developing a reservoir.

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