PrinciplesofProgrammingLanguages

PE
 SUBJECT CODE : CCS358

SUBJECT NAME :PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

REGULATION :2021

ACADEMIC YEAR :2023-2024(EVEN)

YEAR/SEM :III/VI

[Ms.P.JENIFER,AP/CSE] [Dr.BABU RENGA RAJAN,HOD/CSE]

PREPARED BY HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

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 CONTENTS

UNIT1.PRELIMINARYCONCEPTS
1.1 ReasonsforStudyingConceptsofProgrammingLanguages
1.2 ProgrammingDomains,LanguageEvaluationCriteria
1.3 InfluencesonLanguageDesign,LanguageCategories
1.4 ProgrammingParadigms-Imperative,FunctionalProgramminglanguage
1.5 LanguageImplementation-compilationandinterpretation
1.6 Programmingenvironments

SYNTAXANDSEMANTICS

1.7 TheGeneralProblemsofDescribingSyntaxandsemantics
1.8 BNF
1.9 EBNFforcommonprogramminglanguagefeatures
1.10 AmbiguousGrammar

UNIT2.DATATYPESANDVARIABLES
2.1 IntroductiontoPrimitiveDataTypes
2.2 User-DefinedDataTypesandArrayTypes
2.3 Record,UnionandPointerandReferencetypes
2.4 Names,Variables,TheConceptofBinding
2.5 TypeChecking,TypeCompatibility
2.6 StrongTypes,NamedConstants,variableinitialization

EXPRESSIONSANDSTATEMENTS&CONTROLSTRUCTURES

2.7 Expression:[Arithmetic,RelationalandBooleanExpressions]
2.8 Short-CircuitEvaluation
2.9 AssignmentStatements,Mixed-
ModeAssignment[ReferentialTransparency&FunctionalProgramming]
2.10 ControlStructures[statementLevelControlStructures,Compoundstatements]
2.11 SelectionStatements,IterativeStatements,UnconditionalBranching,GuardedCom
mands

UNIT3.SUBPROGRAMSANDBLOCKS
3.1 FundamentalsofSubprograms
3.2 DesignIssuesforSubprograms

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 3.3 ParameterPassingMethods
3.4 ParametersSubprogramsasparameters
3.5 OverloadedSubprograms&Operations
3.6 GenericSubprograms,separatelycompiledmodules
3.7 Co-Routines

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 UNITIV.ABSTRACTDATATYPES

4.1 Abstract-datatypes[Abstraction&Encapsulation]
4.2 IntroductiontoDataAbstraction,DesignIssues
4.3 LanguageExamples
4.4 C++ParameterizedAbstractDataTypes
4.5 DataTypes
4.6 Object-OrientedProgramminginSmalltalk
4.7 Object-OrientedProgramminginC++
4.8 Object-OrientedProgramminginJava
4.9 Object-OrientedProgramminginC#
4.10 Object-OrientedProgramminginAda95

EXCEPTIONHANDLING&LOGICPROGRAMMING

4.11 ExceptionHandling:Exceptions,ExceptionPropagation
4.12 ExceptionHandlerinAda
4.13 C++andJava
4.14 Logic Programming Language : Introduction An Overview of Logic
Programming
4.15 TheBasicElementsofPROLOG
4.16 ApplicationsofLogicProgramming

UNIT-V.FUNCTIONALPROGRAMMINGLANGUAGES&SCRIPTINGLANGUAGE

5.1 FunctionalProgrammingLanguageIntroduction
5.2 FundamentalsofFunctionalProgrammingLanguages,LISPProgramming
5.3 FundamentalsofML,examples
5.4 FundamentalsofHaskell,functionsyntaxandexamples
5.5 Applications of Functional Programing language and Comparison
ofFunctionalandImperativeLanguages

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 UNIT-1
PreliminaryConcepts

Background
 Frankly,wedidn‘thavethevaguestideahowthething[FORTRANlanguageandcompiler] would
work out in detail. …We struck out simply to optimize the
objectprogram,therunningtime,becausemostpeopleatthattimebelievedyoucouldn‘tdothatkindo
fthing.Theybelievedthatmachined-
codedprogramswouldbesoinefficientthatitwouldbeimpracticalformanyapplications.
 JohnBackus,unexpectedsuccessesarecommon–
thebrowserisanotherexampleofanunexpectedsuccess

1.1 ReasonsforStudyingConceptsofProgrammingLanguages-CO1
 Increasedabilitytoexpressideas
 Improvedbackgroundforchoosingappropriatelanguages
 Increasedabilitytolearnnewlanguages
 Betterunderstandingofsignificanceofimplementation
 Overalladvancementofcomputing

1.2 ProgrammingDomains–CO1
 Scientificapplications
– Largenumberoffloatingpointcomputations
– Fortran
 Businessapplications
– Producereports,usedecimalnumbersandcharacters
– COBOL
 Artificialintelligence
– Symbolsratherthannumbersmanipulated
– LISP
 Systemsprogramming
– Needefficiencybecauseofcontinuoususe
– C
 WebSoftware
– Eclecticcollectionoflanguages:markup(e.g.,XHTML),scripting(e.g.,PHP),general-
purpose(e.g.,Java)

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 1.2 LanguageEvaluationCriteria–CO1,CO2

 Readability:theeasewithwhichprogramscanbereadandunderstood
 Writability :theeasewithwhichalanguagecanbeusedtocreateprograms
 Reliability :conformancetospecifications(i.e.,performstoitsspecifications)
 Cost :theultimatetotalcost

Readability
 Overallsimplicity
– Amanageablesetoffeaturesandconstructs
– Fewfeaturemultiplicity(meansofdoingthesameoperation)
– Minimaloperatoroverloading
 Orthogonality
– Arelativelysmallsetofprimitiveconstructscanbecombinedinarelativelysmallnumberofways
– Everypossiblecombinationislegal
 Controlstatements
– Thepresenceofwell-knowncontrolstructures(e.g.,whilestatement)
 Datatypesandstructures
– Thepresenceofadequatefacilitiesfordefiningdatastructures
 Syntaxconsiderations
– Identifierforms:flexiblecomposition
– Specialwordsandmethodsofformingcompoundstatements
– Formandmeaning:self-descriptiveconstructs,meaningfulkeywords
Writability
 SimplicityandOrthogonality
– Fewconstructs,asmallnumberofprimitives,asmallsetofrulesforcombiningthem
 Supportforabstraction
– Theabilitytodefineandusecomplexstructuresoroperationsinwaysthatallowdetailstobeignored
 Expressivity
– Asetofrelativelyconvenientwaysofspecifyingoperations
– Example:theinclusionofforstatementinmanymodernlanguages
Reliability
 Typechecking
– Testingfortypeerrors
 Exceptionhandling
– Interceptrun-timeerrorsandtakecorrectivemeasures
 Aliasing
– Presenceoftwoormoredistinctreferencingmethodsforthesamememorylocation
 Readabilityandwritability
– Alanguagethatdoesnotsupport“natural”waysofexpressinganalgorithmwillnecessarilyuse“unnat
ural”approaches,andhencereducedreliability
Cost
 Trainingprogrammerstouselanguage
 Writingprograms(closenesstoparticularapplications)

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  Compilingprograms
 Executingprograms

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  Languageimplementationsystem:availabilityoffreecompilers
 Reliability:poorreliabilityleadstohighcosts
 Maintainingprograms
Others
 Portability
– Theeasewithwhichprogramscanbemovedfromoneimplementationtoanother
 Generality
– Theapplicabilitytoawiderangeofapplications
 Well-definedness
– Thecompletenessandprecisionofthelanguage‘sofficialdefinition

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 1.3 InfluencesonLanguageDesign-CO3
 ComputerArchitecture
– Languagesaredevelopedaroundtheprevalentcomputerarchitecture,knownasthevonNeuman
narchitecture
 ProgrammingMethodologies
– Newsoftwaredevelopmentmethodologies(e.g.,object-
orientedsoftwaredevelopment)ledtonewprogrammingparadigmsandbyextension,newprogram
minglanguages

ComputerArchitecture
 Well-knowncomputerarchitecture:VonNeumann
 Imperativelanguages,mostdominant,becauseofvonNeumanncomputers
– Dataandprogramsstoredinmemory
– MemoryisseparatefromCPU
– InstructionsanddataarepipedfrommemorytoCPU
– Basisforimperativelanguages
 Variablesmodelmemorycells
 Assignmentstatementsmodelpiping
 Iterationisefficient

Figure1.1ThevonNeumannComputerArchitecture

ProgrammingMethodologies
 1950sandearly1960s:Simpleapplications;worryaboutmachineefficiency
 Late1960s:Peopleefficiencybecameimportant;readability,bettercontrolstructures

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 – structuredprogramming
– top-downdesignandstep-wiserefinement
 Late1970s:Process-orientedtodata-oriented
– dataabstraction
 Middle1980s:Object-orientedprogramming
– Dataabstraction+inheritance+polymorphism

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 1.4 LanguageCategories–CO1
 Imperative
– Centralfeaturesarevariables,assignmentstatements,anditeration
– Examples:C,Pascal
 Functional
– Mainmeansofmakingcomputationsisbyapplyingfunctionstogivenparameters
– Examples:LISP,Scheme
 Logic
– Rule-based(rulesarespecifiedinnoparticularorder)
– Example:Prolog
 Object-oriented
– Dataabstraction,inheritance,latebinding
– Examples:Java,C++
 Markup
– New;notaprogrammingperse,butusedtospecifythelayoutofinformationinWebdocuments
– Examples:XHTML,XML

LanguageDesignTrade-Offs
 Reliabilityvs.costofexecution
– Conflictingcriteria
– Example:Javademandsallreferencestoarrayelementsbecheckedforproperindexingbutthatleadst
oincreasedexecutioncosts
 Readabilityvs.writability
– Anotherconflictingcriteria
– Example:APLprovidesmanypowerfuloperators(andalargenumberofnewsymbols),allowingco
mplexcomputationstobewritteninacompactprogrambutatthecostofpoorreadability
 Writability(flexibility)vs.reliability
– Anotherconflictingcriteria
– Example:C++pointersarepowerfulandveryflexiblebutnotreliablyused

1.5ImplementationMethods-CO2
 Compilation
– Programsaretranslatedintomachinelanguage
 PureInterpretation
– Programsareinterpretedbyanotherprogramknownasaninterpreter
 HybridImplementationSystems
– Acompromisebetweencompilersandpureinterpreters
Compilation
 Translatehigh-levelprogram(sourcelanguage)intomachinecode(machinelanguage)
 Slowtranslation,fastexecution

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  Compilationprocesshasseveralphases:
– lexicalanalysis:convertscharactersinthesourceprogramintolexicalunits
– syntaxanalysis:transformslexicalunitsintoparsetreeswhichrepresentthesyntacticstructureof
program
– Semanticsanalysis:generateintermediatecode
– codegeneration:machinecodeisgenerated

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 Figure1.2LayeredViewofComputer:Theoperatings
ystemandlanguageimplementationarelayeredover
Machineinterfaceofacomputer Figure1.3TheCompilationProcess

AdditionalCompilationTerminologies
 Loadmodule(executableimage):theuserandsystemcodetogether
 Linkingandloading:theprocessofcollectingsystemprogramandlinkingthemtouserprogram
ExecutionofMachineCode
 Fetch-execute-cycle(onavonNeumannarchitecture)
initializetheprogramcounterre
peatforever
fetchtheinstructionpointedbythecounterincreme
ntthecounter
decodetheinstructionexecut
etheinstruction
endrepeat
VonNeumannBottleneck
 Connectionspeedbetweenacomputer‘smemoryanditsprocessordeterminesthespeedofacomputer
 Programinstructionsoftencanbeexecutedalotfasterthantheaboveconnectionspeed;theconnectio
nspeedthusresultsinabottleneck
 KnownasvonNeumannbottleneck;itistheprimarylimitingfactorinthespeedofcomputers

PureInterpretation
 Notranslation
 Easierimplementationofprograms(run-timeerrorscaneasilyandimmediatelydisplayed)
 Slowerexecution(10to100timesslowerthancompiledprograms)

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  Oftenrequiresmorespace
 Becomingrareonhigh-levellanguages

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  Significantly comeback with some latest web scripting languages
(e.g.,JavaScript)

HybridImplementationSystems
 Acompromisebetweencompilersandpureinterpreters
 Ahigh-levellanguageprogramistranslatedtoanintermediatelanguagethatallowseasyinterpretation
 Fasterthanpureinterpretation
 Examples
– Perlprogramsarepartiallycompiledtodetecterrorsbeforeinterpretation
– InitialimplementationsofJavawerehybrid;theintermediateform,bytecode,providesportabilitytoa
nymachinethathasabytecodeinterpreterandaruntimesystem(together,thesearecalledJavaVirtual
Machine)

Figure1.4PureInterpreataion Figure1.5HybridImplementation

Just-in-TimeImplementationSystems
 Initiallytranslateprogramstoanintermediatelanguage
 Thencompileintermediatelanguageintomachinecode
 Machinecodeversioniskeptforsubsequentcalls
 JITsystemsarewidelyusedforJavaprograms
 .NETlanguagesareimplementedwithaJITsystem

1.6 Preprocessors-CO2
 Preprocessormacros(instructions)arecommonlyusedtospecifythatcodefromanotherfileistobeinclud
ed

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  Apreprocessorprocessesaprogramimmediatelybeforetheprogramiscompiledtoexpandembeddedpre
processormacros
 Awell-knownexample:Cpreprocessor
– expands#include,#define,andsimilarmacros

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 SyntaxandSemantics

Introduction
 Syntax:theformorstructureoftheexpressions,statements,andprogramunits
 Semantics:themeaningoftheexpressions,statements,andprogramunits
 Syntaxandsemanticsprovidealanguage‘sdefinition
– Usersofalanguagedefinition
– Otherlanguagedesigners
– Implementers
– Programmers(theusersofthelanguage)

1.7 TheGeneralProblemofDescribingSyntax–CO1
 Asentenceisastringofcharactersoversomealphabet
 Alanguageisasetofsentences
 Alexemeisthelowestlevelsyntacticunitofalanguage(e.g.,*,sum,begin)
 Atokenisacategoryoflexemes(e.g.,identifier)
 LanguagesRecognizers
– Arecognitiondevicereadsinputstringsofthelanguageanddecideswhethertheinputstringsbelongto
thelanguage
– Example:syntaxanalysispartofacompiler
 LanguagesGenerators
– Adevicethatgeneratessentencesofalanguage
– Onecandetermineifthesyntaxofaparticularsentenceiscorrectbycomparingittothestructureoftheg
enerator

1.8 FormalMethodsofDescribingSyntax–CO1,CO2
 Backus-NaurFormandContext-FreeGrammars
– Mostwidelyknownmethodfordescribingprogramminglanguagesyntax
 ExtendedBNF
– ImprovesreadabilityandwritabilityofBNF
 GrammarsandRecognizers
Backus-NaurFormandContext-FreeGrammars
 Context-FreeGrammars
 DevelopedbyNoamChomskyinthemid-1950s
 Languagegenerators,meanttodescribethesyntaxofnaturallanguages
 Defineaclassoflanguagescalledcontext-freelanguages
Backus-NaurForm(BNF)
 Backus-NaurForm(1959)
– InventedbyJohnBackustodescribeALGOL58
– BNFisequivalenttocontext-freegrammars
– BNFisametalanguageusedtodescribeanotherlanguage
– InBNF,abstractionsareusedtorepresentclassesofsyntacticstructures--
theyactlikesyntacticvariables(alsocallednonterminalsymbols)
BNFFundamentals
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  Non-terminals:BNFabstractions
 Terminals:lexemesandtokens
 Grammar:acollectionofrules
– ExamplesofBNFrules:

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 <ident_list>→identifier|identifer,<ident_list>
BNFRules <if_stmt>→if<logic_expr>then<stmt>
 Arulehasaleft-handside(LHS)andaright-handside(RHS),andconsistsof
terminalandnonterminalsymbols
 Agrammarisafinitenonemptysetofrules
 Anabstraction(ornonterminalsymbol)canhavemorethanoneRHS
<stmt>→<single_stmt>
|begin<stmt_list>end
DescribingLists
 Syntacticlistsaredescribedusingrecursion
<ident_list>→ident
|ident,<ident_list>
 Aderivationisarepeatedapplicationofrules,startingwiththestartsymbolandendingwithasentence
(allterminalsymbols)
AnExampleGrammar
<program>→<stmts>
<stmts>→<stmt>|<stmt>;<stmts>
<stmt> → <var> =<expr>
<var>→ a|b|c|d
<expr>→<term>+<term>|<term> -<term>
<term>→<var>|const

ParseTree
Ahierarchicalrepresentationofaderivation
Anexamplederivation
<program><stmts> Figure2.1ParseTree
 <stmt>
 <var>=<expr>
 a=<expr>
 a=<term>+<term>
 a=<var>+<term>
 a=b+<term>
 a=b+const

Derivation
 Everystringofsymbolsinthederivationisasententialform
 Asentenceisasententialformthathasonlyterminalsymbols
 Aleftmostderivationisoneinwhichtheleftmostnonterminalineachsententialformistheonethatisexpan
ded
 Aderivationmaybeneitherleftmostnorrightmost

AmbiguityinGrammars
 Agrammarisambiguousiffitgeneratesasententialformthathastwoormoredistinctparsetrees
AnUnambiguousExpressionGrammar

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 Ifweusetheparsetreetoindicateprecedencelevelsoftheoperators,wecannothaveambiguity
<expr>→<expr>-<term>|<term>
<term>→<term>/const|const

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 Figure2.2AnAmbiguousExpressionGrammar Figure2.3AnUnambiguousExpression
Grammar

AssociativityofOperators Figure2.4ParseTreeforA
Operatorassociativitycanalsobeindicatedbyagrammar ssociativityoperator
<expr>→<expr>+<expr>|
const(ambiguous)
<expr>→<expr>+const|
const(unambiguous)

1.9 ExtendedBackus-NaurForm(EBNF)–CO2
 Optionalpartsareplacedinbrackets([])
<proc_call>→ident[(<expr_list>)]
 AlternativepartsofRHSsareplacedinsideparenthesesandseparatedviaverticalbars
<term>→<term>(+|-)const
 Repetitions(0ormore)areplacedinsidebraces({})
<ident>→letter{letter|digit}
BNFandEBNF
 BNF
<expr> → <expr>+<term>
|<expr>-<term>
|<term>
<term>→<term>*<factor>
|<term>/<factor>
 EBNF |<factor>

<expr>→<term>{(+|-)<term>}
<term>→<factor>{(*|/)<factor>}

1.10 AttributeGrammars–CO1,CO4
 Context-freegrammars(CFGs)cannotdescribeallofthesyntaxofprogramminglanguages
 AdditionstoCFGstocarrysomesemanticinfoalongparsetrees
 Primaryvalueofattributegrammars(AGs):
– Staticsemanticsspecification
– Compilerdesign(staticsemanticschecking)

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 Definition
 Anattributegrammarisacontext-freegrammarG=(S,N,T,P)withthefollowingadditions:
– ForeachgrammarsymbolxthereisasetA(x)ofattributevalues

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 – Eachrulehasasetoffunctionsthatdefinecertainattributesofthenonterminalsintherule
– Eachrulehasa(possiblyempty)setofpredicatestocheckforattributeconsistency
– LetX0X1...Xnbearule
– FunctionsoftheformS(X0)=f(A(X1),...,A(Xn))definesynthesizedattributes
– FunctionsoftheformI(Xj)=f(A(X0),...,A(Xn)),fori<=j<=n,define
inheritedattributes
– Initially,thereareintrinsicattributesontheleaves

Example
 Syntax
<assign>→<var>=<expr>
<expr>→<var>+<var>|<var>
<var>→A|B|C
 actual_type:synthesizedfor<var>and<expr>
 expected_type:inheritedfor<expr>
 Syntaxrule :<expr>→<var>[1]+<var>[2]
Semanticrules :<expr>.actual_type→<var>[1].actual_type
Predicate :<var>[1].actual_type==<var>[2].actual_type
<expr>.expected_type==<expr>.actual_type
 Syntaxrule :<var>→id
Semanticrule :<var>.actual_typelookup(<var>.string)
 Howareattributevaluescomputed?
– Ifallattributeswereinherited,thetreecouldbedecoratedintop-downorder.
– Ifallattributesweresynthesized,thetreecouldbedecoratedinbottom-uporder.
– Inmanycases,bothkindsofattributesareused,anditissomecombinationoftop-
downandbottom-upthatmustbeused.
<expr>.expected_typeinheritedfromparent
<var>[1].actual_typelookup(A)
<var>[2].actual_typelookup(B)
<var>[1].actual_type=?<var>[2].actual_type
<expr>.actual_type<var>[1].actual_type
<expr>.actual_type=?<expr>.expected_type

DescribingtheMeaningsofPrograms:DynamicSemantics
 Thereisnosinglewidelyacceptablenotationorformalismfordescribingsemantics
 OperationalSemantics
– Describethemeaningofaprogrambyexecutingitsstatementsonamachine,eithersimulatedorac
tual.Thechangeinthestateofthemachine(memory,registers,etc.)definesthemeaningofthestat
ement
 Touseoperationalsemanticsforahigh-levellanguage,avirtualmachineisneeded
 Ahardwarepureinterpreterwouldbetooexpensive
 Asoftwarepureinterpreteralsohasproblems:
– Thedetailedcharacteristicsoftheparticularcomputerwouldmakeactionsdifficulttounderstan
d
– Suchasemanticdefinitionwouldbemachine-dependent

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 OperationalSemantics
 Abetteralternative:Acompletecomputersimulation
 Theprocess:
– Buildatranslator(translatessourcecodetothemachinecodeofanidealizedcomputer)
– Buildasimulatorfortheidealizedcomputer
 Evaluationofoperationalsemantics:
– Goodifusedinformally(languagemanuals,etc.)
– Extremelycomplexifusedformally(e.g.,VDL),itwasusedfordescribingsemanticsofPL/I.
 AxiomaticSemantics
– Basedonformallogic(predicatecalculus)
– Originalpurpose:formalprogramverification
– Approach:Defineaxiomsorinferencerulesforeachstatementtypeinthelanguage(toallowtransfor
mationsofexpressionstootherexpressions)
– Theexpressionsarecalledassertions

AxiomaticSemantics
 Anassertionbeforeastatement(aprecondition)statestherelationshipsandconstraintsamongvariab
lesthataretrueatthatpointinexecution
 Anassertionfollowingastatementisapostcondition
 Aweakestpreconditionistheleastrestrictivepreconditionthatwillguaranteethepostcondition
 Pre-postform:{P}statement{Q}
 Anexample:a=b+1{a>1}
 Onepossibleprecondition:{b>10}
 Weakestprecondition:{b>0}
 Programproofprocess:Thepostconditionforthewholeprogramisthedesiredresult.Workbackthrought
heprogramtothefirststatement.Ifthepreconditiononthefirststatementisthesameastheprogramspec,th
eprogramiscorrect.
 Anaxiomforassignmentstatements(x=E):
{Qx->E}x=E{Q}
 Aninferenceruleforsequences
– ForasequenceS1;S2:
– {P1}S1{P2}
– {P2}S2{P3}
 AninferenceruleforlogicalpretestloopsFortheloop
construct:
{P}whileBdoSend{Q}Characteristicsoft
heloopinvariantImustmeetthefollowingcond
itions:
– P=>I(theloopinvariantmustbetrueinitially)
– {I}B{I}(evaluationoftheBooleanmustnotchangethevalidityofI)
– {IandB}S{I}(Iisnotchangedbyexecutingthebodyoftheloop)
– (Iand(notB))=>Q(ifIistrueandBisfalse,Qisimplied)
– Theloopterminates(thiscanbedifficulttoprove)
 TheloopinvariantIisaweakenedversionofthelooppostcondition,anditisalsoaprecondition.

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  Imustbeweakenoughtobesatisfiedpriortothebeginningoftheloop,butwhencombinedwiththeloo
pexitcondition,itmustbestrongenoughtoforcethetruthofthepostcondition.

EvaluationofAxiomaticSemantics:
– Developingaxiomsorinferencerulesforallofthestatementsinalanguageisdifficult
– Itisagoodtoolforcorrectnessproofs,andanexcellentframeworkforreasoningaboutprograms,butiti
snotasusefulforlanguageusersandcompilerwriters
– Itsusefulnessindescribingthemeaningofaprogramminglanguageislimitedforlanguageusersorco
mpilerwriters

DenotationalSemantics
– Basedonrecursivefunctiontheory
– Themostabstractsemanticsdescriptionmethod
– OriginallydevelopedbyScottandStrachey(1970)
– Theprocessofbuildingadenotationalspecforalanguage(notnecessarilyeasy):
– Defineamathematicalobjectforeachlanguageentity
– Defineafunctionthatmapsinstancesofthelanguageentitiesontoinstancesofthecorrespondingmath
ematicalobjects
– Themeaningoflanguageconstructsaredefinedbyonlythevaluesoftheprogram'svariables
– Thedifferencebetweendenotationalandoperationalsemantics:Inoperationalsemantics,thestatech
angesaredefinedbycodedalgorithms;indenotationalsemantics,theyaredefinedbyrigorousmathe
maticalfunctions
– Thestateofaprogramisthevaluesofallitscurrentvariables
s={<i1,v1>,<i2,v2>,…,<in,vn>}
– LetVARMAPbeafunctionthat,whengivenavariablenameandastate,returnsthecurrentvalueo
fthevariable
VARMAP(ij,s)=vj
 DecimalNumbers
– Thefollowingdenotationalsemanticsdescriptionmapsdecimalnumbersasstringsofsymbolsinton
umericvalues
<dec_num>→0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
 |<dec_num>(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)
Mdec('0')=0,Mdec('1')=1,…,Mdec('9')=9
Mdec(<dec_num>'0')=10*Mdec(<dec_num>)Mdec
(<dec_num>'1’)=10*Mdec(<dec_num>)+1
…
Mdec(<dec_num>'9')=10*Mdec(<dec_num>)+9

Expressions
 MapexpressionsontoZ{error}
 Weassumeexpressionsaredecimalnumbers,variables,orbinaryexpressionshavingonearithmeticoper
atorandtwooperands,eachofwhichcanbeanexpression
 AssignmentStatements
– Mapsstatesetstostatesets
 LogicalPretestLoops
– Mapsstatesetstostatesets

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  Themeaningoftheloopisthevalueoftheprogramvariablesafterthestatementsintheloophavebeenexecu
tedtheprescribednumberoftimes,assumingtherehavebeennoerrors
 Inessence,theloophasbeenconvertedfromiterationtorecursion,wheretherecursivecontrolismathemat
icallydefinedbyotherrecursivestatemappingfunctions
 Recursion,whencomparedtoiteration,iseasiertodescribewithmathematicalrigor
 Evaluationofdenotationalsemantics
– Canbeusedtoprovethecorrectnessofprograms
– Providesarigorouswaytothinkaboutprograms
– Canbeanaidtolanguagedesign
– Hasbeenusedincompilergenerationsystems
– Becauseofitscomplexity,theyareoflittleusetolanguageusers

Summary
 BNFandcontext-freegrammarsareequivalentmeta-languages
– Well-suitedfordescribingthesyntaxofprogramminglanguages
 Anattributegrammarisadescriptiveformalismthatcandescribeboththesyntaxandtheseman
ticsofalanguage
 Threeprimarymethodsofsemanticsdescription
– Operation,axiomatic,denotational

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 UNIT-2
DataTypesandVariables

Introduction
 Adatatypedefinesacollectionofdataobjectsandasetofpredefinedoperationsonthoseobjects
 Adescriptoristhecollectionoftheattributesofavariable
 Anobjectrepresentsaninstanceofauser-defined(abstractdata)type
 Onedesignissueforalldatatypes:Whatoperationsaredefinedandhowaretheyspecified?

2.1 PrimitiveDataTypes–CO2
 Almostallprogramminglanguagesprovideasetofprimitivedatatypes
 Primitivedatatypes:Thosenotdefinedintermsofotherdatatypes
 Someprimitivedatatypesaremerelyreflectionsofthehardware
 Othersrequireonlyalittlenon-hardwaresupportfortheirimplementation
Integer
 Almostalwaysanexactreflectionofthehardwaresothemappingistrivial
 Theremaybeasmanyaseightdifferentintegertypesinalanguage
 Java‘ssignedintegersizes:byte,short,int,long
FloatingPoint
 Modelrealnumbers,butonlyasapproximations
 Languagesforscientificusesupportatleasttwofloating-
pointtypes(e.g.,floatanddouble;sometimesmore
 Usuallyexactlylikethehardware,butnotalways
 IEEEFloating-
PointStandard754
Complex
 Somelanguagessupportacomplextype,e.g.,FortranandPython
 Eachvalueconsistsoftwofloats,therealpartandtheimaginarypart
 Literalform(inPython):
(7+3j),where7istherealpartand3istheimaginarypart
Decimal
 Forbusinessapplications(money)
– EssentialtoCOBOL
– C#offersadecimaldatatype
 Storeafixednumberofdecimaldigits,incodedform(BCD)
 Advantage:accuracy
 Disadvantages:limitedrange,wastesmemory
Boolean
 Simplestofall
 Rangeofvalues:twoelements,onefor“true”andonefor“false”
 Couldbeimplementedasbits,butoftenasbytes
– Advantage:readability

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 Character
 Storedasnumericcoding
 Mostcommonlyusedcoding:ASCII
 Analternative,16-bitcoding:Unicode

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 – Includescharactersfrommostnaturallanguages
– OriginallyusedinJava
– C#andJavaScriptalsosupportUnicode

CharacterStringTypes
 Valuesaresequencesofcharacters
 Designissues:
– Isitaprimitivetypeorjustaspecialkindofarray?
– Shouldthelengthofstringsbestaticordynamic?
Operations
 Typicaloperations:
– Assignmentandcopying
– Comparison(=,>,etc.)
– Catenation
– Substringreference
– Patternmatching
CharacterStringTypeinCertainLanguages
 CandC++
– Notprimitive
– Usechararraysandalibraryoffunctionsthatprovideoperations
 SNOBOL4(astringmanipulationlanguage)
 Primitive
 Manyoperations,includingelaboratepatternmatching
 FortranandPython
– Primitivetypewithassignmentandseveraloperations
 Java
– PrimitiveviatheStringclass
 Perl,JavaScript,Ruby,andPHP
– Providebuilt-inpatternmatching,usingregularexpressions
CharacterStringLengthOptions
 Static:COBOL,Java‘sStringclass
 LimitedDynamicLength:CandC++
– Intheselanguages,aspecialcharacterisusedtoindicatetheendofastring‘scharacters,ratherthan
maintainingthelength
 Dynamic(nomaximum):SNOBOL4,Perl,JavaScript
 Adasupportsallthreestringlengthoptions
Evaluation
 Aidtowritability
 Asaprimitivetypewithstaticlength,theyareinexpensivetoprovide—whynothavethem?
 Dynamiclengthisnice,butisitworththeexpense?
Implementation
 Staticlength:compile-timedescriptor
 Limiteddynamiclength:mayneedarun-timedescriptorforlength(butnotinCandC++)

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  Dynamiclength:needrun-timedescriptor;allocation/de-
allocationisthebiggestimplementationproblem

Figure3.1Compile-TimeDescriptor Figure3.2Run-TimeDescriptors

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 2.2 User-DefinedOrdinalTypes-CO2
 Anordinaltypeisoneinwhichtherangeofpossiblevaluescanbeeasilyassociatedwiththesetofpositi
veintegers
 ExamplesofprimitiveordinaltypesinJava
– integer
– char
– boolean

EnumerationTypes
 Allpossiblevalues,whicharenamedconstants,areprovidedinthedefinition
 C#example
enumdays{mon,tue,wed,thu,fri,sat,sun};
 Designissues
– Isanenumerationconstantallowedtoappearinmorethanonetypedefinition,andifso,howisthetypeo
fanoccurrenceofthatconstantchecked?
– Areenumerationvaluescoercedtointeger?
– Anyothertypecoercedtoanenumerationtype?

EvaluationofEnumeratedType
 Aidtoreadability,e.g.,noneedtocodeacolorasanumber
 Aidtoreliability,e.g.,compilercancheck:
– Operations(don‘tallowcolorstobeadded)
– Noenumerationvariablecanbeassignedavalueoutsideitsdefinedrange
– Ada,C#,andJava5.0providebettersupportforenumerationthanC+
+becauseenumerationtypevariablesintheselanguagesarenotcoercedintointegertypes

SubrangeTypes
 Anorderedcontiguoussubsequenceofanordinaltype
– Example:12..18isasubrangeofintegertype
 Ada‘sdesign
typeDaysis(mon,tue,wed,thu,fri,sat,sun);su
btypeWeekdaysisDaysrangemon..fri;subtyp
eIndexisIntegerrange1..100;

Day1:Days;D
ay2:Weekday;
Day2:=Day1;

SubrangeEvaluation
 Aidtoreadability
– Makeitcleartothereadersthatvariablesofsubrangecanstoreonlycertainrangeofvalues
 Reliability
– Assigningavaluetoasubrangevariablethatisoutsidethespecifiedrangeisdetectedasanerror

Implementation

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  Enumerationtypesareimplementedasintegers
 Subrangetypesareimplementedliketheparenttypeswithcodeinserted(bythecompiler)torestrictassign
mentstosubrangevariables

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 ArrayTypes
 Anarrayisanaggregateofhomogeneousdataelementsinwhichanindividualelementisidentifiedbyitsp
ositionintheaggregate,relativetothefirstelement.
ArrayDesignIssues
 Whattypesarelegalforsubscripts?
 Aresubscriptingexpressionsinelementreferencesrangechecked?
 Whenaresubscriptrangesbound?
 Whendoesallocationtakeplace?
 Whatisthemaximumnumberofsubscripts?
 Canarrayobjectsbeinitialized?
 Areanykindofslicessupported?
ArrayIndexing
 Indexing(orsubscripting)isamappingfromindicestoelements
array_name(index_value_list)anelement
 IndexSyntax
– FORTRAN,PL/I,Adauseparentheses
 Adaexplicitlyusesparenthesestoshowuniformitybetweenarrayreferencesandfunctioncallsbecauseb
otharemappings
– Mostotherlanguagesusebrackets
ArraysIndex(Subscript)Types
 FORTRAN,C:integeronly
 Ada:integerorenumeration(includesBooleanandchar)
 Java:integertypesonly
 Indexrangechecking
– C,C++,Perl,andFortrandonotspecifyrangechecking
– Java,ML,C#specifyrangechecking
– InAda,thedefaultistorequirerangechecking,butitcanbeturnedoff
SubscriptBindingandArrayCategories
 Static:subscriptrangesarestaticallyboundandstorageallocationisstatic(beforerun-time)
– Advantage:efficiency(nodynamicallocation)
 Fixedstack-
dynamic:subscriptrangesarestaticallybound,buttheallocationisdoneatdeclarationtime
– Advantage:spaceefficiency
 Stack-dynamic:subscriptrangesare

dynamicallyboundandthestorageallocationisdynamic(doneatrun-time)
– Advantage:flexibility(thesizeofanarrayneednotbeknownuntilthearrayistobeused)
 Fixedheap-dynamic:similartofixedstack-
dynamic:storagebindingisdynamicbutfixedafterallocation(i.e.,bindingisdonewhenrequestedandsto
rageisallocatedfromheap,notstack)
 Heap-
dynamic:bindingofsubscriptrangesandstorageallocationisdynamicandcanchangeanynumberof
times
– Advantage:flexibility(arrayscangroworshrinkduringprogramexecution)

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  CandC++arraysthatincludestaticmodifierarestatic
 CandC++arrayswithoutstaticmodifierarefixedstack-dynamic
 CandC++providefixedheap-dynamicarrays
 C#includesasecondarrayclassArrayListthatprovidesfixedheap-dynamic
 Perl,JavaScript,Python,andRubysupportheap-dynamicarrays

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 ArrayInitialization
 Somelanguageallowinitializationatthetimeofstorageallocation
– C,C++,Java,C#example
intlist[]={4,5,7,83}
– CharacterstringsinCandC++
charname[]=“freddie”;
– ArraysofstringsinCandC++
char*names[]={“Bob”,“Jake”,“Joe”};
– JavainitializationofStringobjects
String[]names={“Bob”,“Jake”,“Joe”};
HeterogeneousArrays
 Aheterogeneousarrayisoneinwhichtheelementsneednotbeofthesametype
 SupportedbyPerl,Python,JavaScript,andRuby
ArraysOperations
 APLprovidesthemostpowerfularrayprocessingoperationsforvectorsandmatrixesaswellasunaryoper
ators(forexample,toreversecolumnelements)
 Adaallowsarrayassignmentbutalsocatenation
 Python‘sarrayassignments,buttheyareonlyreferencechanges.Pythonalsosupportsarraycatenati
onandelementmembershipoperations
 Rubyalsoprovidesarraycatenation
 Fortranprovideselementaloperationsbecausetheyarebetweenpairsofarrayelements
– Forexample,
+operatorbetweentwoarraysresultsinanarrayofthesumsoftheelementpairsofthetwoarrays
RectangularandJaggedArrays
 Arectangulararrayisamulti-
dimensionedarrayinwhichalloftherowshavethesamenumberofelementsandallcolumnshavethesame
numberofelements
 Ajaggedmatrixhasrowswithvaryingnumberofelements
– Possiblewhenmulti-dimensionedarraysactuallyappearasarraysofarrays
 C,C++,andJavasupportjaggedarrays
 Fortran,Ada,andC#supportrectangulararrays(C#alsosupportsjaggedarrays)
Slices
 Asliceissomesubstructureofanarray;nothingmorethanareferencingmechanism
 Slicesareonlyusefulinlanguagesthathavearrayoperations

SliceExamples Figure3.3SlicesExamplesinFortran95
– Fortran95
Integer,Dimension(10)::VectorInte
ger,Dimension(3,3)::Mat
Integer,Dimension(3,3)::Cube

Vector(3:6)isafourelementarray

ImplementationofArrays

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  Accessfunctionmapssubscriptexpressionstoanaddressinthearray
 Accessfunctionforsingle-dimensionedarrays:
address(list[k])=address(list[lower_bound])+((k-lower_bound)*element_size)

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 AccessingMulti-dimensionedArrays Figure3.4LocatinganElementin
aMulti-dimensionedArray
 Twocommonways:
– Rowmajororder(byrows)–usedinmostlanguages
– Columnmajororder(bycolumns)–usedinFortran

Compile-TimeDescriptors

Figure3.5Single-DimensionedArray Figure3.6Multi-DimensionedArray

AssociativeArrays
 Anassociativearrayisanunorderedcollectionofdataelementsthatareindexedbyanequalnumbero
fvaluescalledkeys
– User-definedkeysmustbestored
 Designissues:
– Whatistheformofreferencestoelements?
– Isthesizestaticordynamic?
AssociativeArraysinPerl
 Namesbeginwith%;literalsaredelimitedbyparentheses
%hi_temps=("Mon"=>77,"Tue"=>79,―Wed‖=>65,…);
 Subscriptingisdoneusingbracesandkeys
$hi_temps{"Wed"}=83;
 Elementscanberemovedwithdelete
delete$hi_temps{"Tue"};

2.3 RecordTypes–CO2
 Arecordisapossiblyheterogeneousaggregateofdataelementsinwhichtheindividualelementsareident
ifiedbynames
 Designissues:
– Whatisthesyntacticformofreferencestothefield?
– Areellipticalreferencesallowed?
DefinitionofRecordsinCOBOL
 COBOLuseslevelnumberstoshownestedrecords;othersuserecursivedefinition
01EMP-REC.

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 02EMP-NAME.
05FIRSTPICX(20).
05MIDPICX(10).
05LASTPICX(20).
02HOURLY-RATEPIC99V99.

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 DefinitionofRecordsinAda
 Recordstructuresareindicatedinanorthogonalway
typeEmp_Rec_TypeisrecordF
irst:String(1..20);
Mid:String(1..10);
Last:String(1..20);Hourly_
Rate:Float;
endrecord;
Emp_Rec:Emp_Rec_Type;
ReferencestoRecords
 Recordfieldreferences
– COBOL
field_nameOFrecord_name_1OF...OFrecord_name_n
– Others(dotnotation)
record_name_1.record_name_2..record_name_n.field_name
 Fullyqualifiedreferencesmustincludeallrecordnames
 Ellipticalreferencesallowleavingoutrecordnamesaslongasthereferenceisunambiguous,forexam
pleinCOBOL
FIRST, FIRST OF EMP-NAME, and FIRST of EMP-REC are
ellipticalreferencestotheemployee‘sfirstname
OperationsonRecords
 Assignmentisverycommonifthetypesareidentical
 Adaallowsrecordcomparison
 Adarecordscanbeinitializedwithaggregateliterals
 COBOLprovidesMOVECORRESPONDING
– Copiesafieldofthesourcerecordtothecorrespondingfieldinthetargetrecord
EvaluationandComparisontoArrays
 Recordsareusedwhencollectionofdatavaluesisheterogeneous
 Accesstoarrayelementsismuchslowerthanaccesstorecordfields,
becausesubscriptsaredynamic(fieldnamesarestatic)
 Dynamicsubscriptscouldbeusedwithrecordfieldaccess,butitwo
ulddisallowtypecheckinganditwouldbemuchslower

Figure3.7ImplementationofRecordType
UnionsTypes
 Aunionisatypewhosevariablesareallowedtostoredifferenttypevaluesatdifferenttimesduringexecuti
on
 Designissues
– Shouldtypecheckingberequired?
– Shouldunionsbeembeddedinrecords?

Discriminatedvs.FreeUnions
 Fortran,C,andC+
+provideunionconstructsinwhichthereisnolanguagesupportfortypechecking;theunioninthesela
nguagesiscalledfreeunion
 Typecheckingofunionsrequirethateachunionincludeatypeindicatorcalledadiscriminant

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 – SupportedbyAda

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 AdaUnionTypestypeSh AdaUnionTypeIllustrated
apeis(Circle,Triangle,Rectangle);typeCol
orsis(Red,Green,Blue);
typeFigure(Form:Shape)isrecordFilled
:Boolean;
Color:Colors;c
aseFormis
whenCircle=>Diameter:Float;
whenTriangle=>Leftside,Rightside:Intege
r;Angle:Float;
whenRectangle=>Side1,Side2:Integer;en
dcase; Figure3.8ADiscriminatedUnionofThr
endrecord;
eeShapeVariables
EvaluationofUnions
 Freeunionsareunsafe
– Donotallowtypechecking
 JavaandC#donotsupportunions
– Reflectiveofgrowingconcernsforsafetyinprogramminglanguage
 Ada‘sdescriminatedunionsaresafe

PointerandReferenceTypes
 Apointertypevariablehasarangeofvaluesthatconsistsofmemoryaddressesandaspecialvalue,nil
 Providethepowerofindirectaddressing
 Provideawaytomanagedynamicmemory
 Apointercanbeusedtoaccessalocationintheareawherestorageisdynamicallycreated(usuallycalle
daheap)
DesignIssuesofPointers
 Whatarethescopeofandlifetimeofapointervariable?
 Whatisthelifetimeofaheap-dynamicvariable?
 Arepointersrestrictedastothetypeofvaluetowhichtheycanpoint?
 Arepointersusedfordynamicstoragemanagement,indirectaddressing,orboth?
 Shouldthelanguagesupportpointertypes,referencetypes,orboth?
PointerOperations
 Twofundamentaloperations:assignmentanddereferencing
 Assignmentisusedtosetapointervariable‘svaluetosomeusefuladdress
 Dereferencingyieldsthevaluestoredatthelocationrepresentedbythepointer‘svalue
– Dereferencingcanbeexplicitorimplicit
– C++usesanexplicitoperationvia*
j=*ptr
setsjtothevaluelocatedatptr
PointerAssignmentIllustration

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 Figure3.9Theassignmentoperationj=*ptr

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 ProblemswithPointers
 Danglingpointers(dangerous)
– Apointerpointstoaheap-dynamicvariablethathasbeendeallocated
 Lostheap-dynamicvariable
– Anallocatedheap-
dynamicvariablethatisnolongeraccessibletotheuserprogram(oftencalledgarbage)
 Pointerp1issettopointtoanewlycreatedheap-dynamicvariable
 Pointerp1islatersettopointtoanothernewlycreatedheap-dynamicvariable
 Theprocessoflosingheap-dynamicvariablesiscalledmemoryleakage
PointersinAda
 Somedanglingpointersaredisallowedbecausedynamicobjectscanbeautomaticallydeallocatedatt
heendofpointer'stypescope
 Thelostheap-
dynamicvariableproblemisnoteliminatedbyAda(possiblewithUNCHECKED_DEALLOCATI
ON)
PointersinCandC++
 Extremelyflexiblebutmustbeusedwithcare
 Pointerscanpointatanyvariableregardlessofwhenorwhereitwasallocated
 Usedfordynamicstoragemanagementandaddressing
 Pointerarithmeticispossible
 Explicitdereferencingandaddress-ofoperators
 Domaintypeneednotbefixed(void*)
void*canpointtoanytypeandcanbetypechecked(cannotb
ede-referenced)
PointerArithmeticinCandC++
floatstuff[100];f
loat*p;
p=stuff;
*(p+5)isequivalenttostuff[5]andp[5]
*(p+i)isequivalenttostuff[i]andp[i]
ReferenceTypes
 C+
+includesaspecialkindofpointertypecalledareferencetypethatisusedprimarilyforformalparameters
– Advantagesofbothpass-by-referenceandpass-by-value
 JavaextendsC++‘sreferencevariablesandallowsthemtoreplacepointersentirely
– Referencesarereferencestoobjects,ratherthanbeingaddresses
 C#includesboththereferencesofJavaandthepointersofC++
EvaluationofPointers
 Danglingpointersanddanglingobjectsareproblemsasisheapmanagement
 Pointersarelikegoto's--theywidentherangeofcellsthatcanbeaccessedbyavariable
 Pointersorreferencesarenecessaryfordynamicdatastructures--
sowecan'tdesignalanguagewithoutthem
RepresentationsofPointers
 Largecomputersusesinglevalues
 Intelmicroprocessorsusesegmentandoffset

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 DanglingPointerProblem
 Tombstone:extraheapcellthatisapointertotheheap-dynamicvariable
– Theactualpointervariablepointsonlyattombstones
– Whenheap-dynamicvariablede-allocated,tombstoneremainsbutsettonil
– Costlyintimeandspace

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  Locks-and-keys:Pointervaluesarerepresentedas(key,address)pairs
– Heap-dynamicvariablesarerepresentedasvariablepluscellforintegerlockvalue
– Whenheap-
dynamicvariableallocated,lockvalueiscreatedandplacedinlockcellandkeycellofpointer
HeapManagement
 Averycomplexrun-timeprocess
 Single-sizecellsvs.variable-sizecells
 Twoapproachestoreclaimgarbage
– Referencecounters(eagerapproach):reclamationisgradual
– Mark-sweep(lazyapproach):reclamationoccurswhenthelistofvariablespacebecomesempty
ReferenceCounter
 Referencecounters:maintainacounterineverycellthatstorethenumberofpointerscurrentlypointingatt
hecell
– Disadvantages:spacerequired,executiontimerequired,complicationsforcellsconnectedcircularl
y
– Advantage:itisintrinsicallyincremental,sosignificantdelaysintheapplicationexecutionareav
oided
Mark-Sweep
 Therun-
timesystemallocatesstoragecellsasrequestedanddisconnectspointersfromcellsasnecessary;mar
k-sweepthenbegins
– Everyheapcellhasanextrabitusedbycollectionalgorithm
– Allcellsinitiallysettogarbage
– Allpointerstracedintoheap,andreachablecellsmarkedasnotgarbage
– Allgarbagecellsreturnedtolistofavailablecells
– Disadvantages:initsoriginalform,itwasdonetooinfrequently.Whendone,itcausedsignificant
delaysinapplicationexecution.Contemporarymarksweepalgorithmsavoidthisbydoingitmor
eoften—calledincrementalmarksweep

Figure3.10MarkingAlgorithm

Variable-SizeCells
 Allthedifficultiesofsingle-sizecellsplusmore
 Requiredbymostprogramminglanguages
 Ifmark-sweepisused,additionalproblemsoccur
– Theinitialsettingoftheindicatorsofallcellsintheheapisdifficult
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 – Themarkingprocessinnontrivial
– Maintainingthelistofavailablespaceisanothersourceofoverhead

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 2.4 Names–CO2
 Designissuesfornames:
– Maximumlength?
– Areconnectorcharactersallowed?
– Arenamescasesensitive?
– Arespecialwordsreservedwordsorkeywords?
 Length
– Iftooshort,theycannotbeconnotative
– Languageexamples:
o FORTRANI:maximum6
o COBOL:maximum30
o FORTRAN90andANSIC:maximum31
o AdaandJava:nolimit,andallaresignificant
o C++:nolimit,butimplementorsoftenimposeone
 Connectors
– Pascal,Modula-2,andFORTRAN77don'tallow
– Othersdo
 Casesensitivity
– Disadvantage:readability(namesthatlookalikearedifferent)
o worseinC+
+andJavabecausepredefinednamesaremixedcase(e.g.,IndexOutOfBoundsException)
– C,C++,andJavanamesarecasesensitive
– Thenamesinotherlanguagesarenot
 Specialwords
– Anaidtoreadability;usedtodelimitorseparatestatementclauses
– Def:Akeywordisawordthatisspecialonlyincertaincontexts
o i.e.inFortran:
– RealVarName(Realisdatatypefollowedwithaname,thereforeRealisakeyword)
– Real=3.4(Realisavariable)
– Disadvantage:poorreadability
– Def:Areservedwordisaspecialwordthatcannotbeusedasauser-definedname

Variables–CO2
 Avariableisanabstractionofamemorycell
 Variablescanbecharacterizedasasextupleofattributes:
(name,address,value,type,lifetime,andscope)
 Name-notallvariableshavethem(anonymous)
 Address-thememoryaddresswithwhichitisassociated(alsocalledl-value)
– Avariablemayhavedifferentaddressesatdifferenttimesduringexecution
– Avariablemayhavedifferentaddressesatdifferentplacesinaprogram
– Iftwovariablenamescanbeusedtoaccessthesamememorylocation,theyarecalledaliases
– Aliasesareharmfultoreadability(programreadersmustrememberallofthem)
 Howaliasescanbecreated:
– Pointers,referencevariables,CandC++unions

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 – Someoftheoriginaljustificationsforaliasesarenolongervalid;e.g.,memoryreuseinFORTRA
N
– Replacethemwithdynamicallocation

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  Type-
determinestherangeofvaluesofvariablesandthesetofoperationsthataredefinedforvaluesofthattype;in
thecaseoffloatingpoint,typealsodeterminesthePrecision
 Value-thecontentsofthelocationwithwhichthevariableisassociated
 Abstractmemorycell-thephysicalcellorcollectionofcellsassociatedwithavariable

TheConceptofBinding
 Thel-valueofavariableisitsaddress
 Ther-valueofavariableisitsvalue
 Def:Abindingisanassociation,suchasbetweenanattributeandanentity,orbetweenanoperationand
asymbol
 Def:Bindingtimeisthetimeatwhichabindingtakesplace.
 Possiblebindingtimes:
– Languagedesigntime--e.g.,bindoperatorsymbolstooperations
– Language implementation time--e.g., bind floating point type to
arepresentation
– Compiletime--e.g.,bindavariabletoatypeinCorJava
– Loadtime--e.g.,bindaFORTRAN77variabletoamemorycell(oraCstatic
variable)
– Runtime--e.g.,bindanonstaticlocalvariabletoamemorycell
 Def:Abindingisstaticifitfirstoccursbeforeruntimeandremainsunchangedthroughoutprogramex
ecution.
 Def:Abindingisdynamicifitfirstoccursduringexecutionorcanchangeduringexecutionoftheprogram.
 TypeBindings
– Howisatypespecified?
– Whendoesthebindingtakeplace?
– Ifstatic,thetypemaybespecifiedbyeitheranexplicitoranimplicitdeclaration
 Def:Anexplicitdeclarationisaprogramstatementusedfordeclaringthetypesofvariables
 Def:Animplicitdeclarationisadefaultmechanismforspecifyingtypesofvariables(thefirstappearanceo
fthevariableintheprogram)
 FORTRAN,PL/I,BASIC,andPerlprovideimplicitdeclarations
– Advantage:writability
– Disadvantage:reliability(lesstroublewithPerl)
 DynamicTypeBinding(JavaScriptandPHP)
 Specifiedthroughanassignmentstatemente.g.,JavaScript
list=[2,4.33,6,8];
list=17.3;
– Advantage:flexibility(genericprogramunits)
– Disadvantages:
o Highcost(dynamictypecheckingandinterpretation)
o Typeerrordetectionbythecompilerisdifficult
 TypeInferencing(ML,Miranda,andHaskell)
– Ratherthanbyassignmentstatement,typesaredeterminedfromthecontextofthereference
 StorageBindings&Lifetime

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 – Allocation-gettingacellfromsomepoolofavailablecells
– Deallocation-puttingacellbackintothepool

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  Def:Thelifetimeofavariableisthetimeduringwhichitisboundtoaparticularmemorycell
 Categoriesofvariablesbylifetimes
– Static--
boundtomemorycellsbeforeexecutionbeginsandremainsboundtothesamememorycellthrou
ghoutexecution.
e.g.,allFORTRAN77variables,Cstaticvariables
– Advantages: efficiency (direct addressing), history-sensitive
subprogramsupport
– Disadvantage:lackofflexibility(norecursion)
 Categoriesofvariablesbylifetimes
– Stack-dynamic--Storage bindings are created for variables when
theirdeclarationstatementsareelaborated.
– Ifscalar,allattributesexceptaddressarestaticallybound
e.g.,localvariablesinCsubprogramsandJavamethods
– Advantage:allowsrecursion;conservesstorage
– Disadvantages:
o Overheadofallocationanddeallocation
o Subprogramscannotbehistorysensitive
o Inefficientreferences(indirectaddressing)
 Categoriesofvariablesbylifetimes
– Explicit heap-dynamic--Allocated and deallocated by explicit
directives,specifiedbytheprogrammer,whichtakeeffectduringexecution
– Referencedonlythroughpointersorreferences
e.g.,dynamicobjectsinC++(vianewanddelete)allobjectsinJava
– Advantage:providesfordynamicstoragemanagement
– Disadvantage:inefficientandunreliable
 Categoriesofvariablesbylifetimes
– Implicitheapdynamic--Allocationanddeallocationcausedbyassignmentstatements
e.g.,allvariablesinAPL;allstringsandarraysinPerlandJavaScript
– Advantage:flexibility
– Disadvantages:
o Inefficient,becauseallattributesaredynamic
o Lossoferrordetection

2.5 TypeChecking-CO3
 Generalizetheconceptofoperandsandoperatorstoincludesubprogramsandassignments
 Typecheckingistheactivityofensuringthattheoperandsofanoperatorareofcompatibletypes
 Acompatibletypeisonethatiseitherlegalfortheoperator,orisallowedunderlanguagerulestobeimplicitl
yconverted,bycompiler-generatedcode,toalegaltype.Thisautomaticconversioniscalledascoercion.
 Atypeerroristheapplicationofanoperatortoanoperandofaninappropriatetype
 Ifalltypebindingsarestatic,nearlyalltypecheckingcanbestatic
 Iftypebindingsaredynamic,typecheckingmustbedynamic
 Def:Aprogramminglanguageisstronglytypediftypeerrorsarealwaysdetected

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 TypeCompatibility

 Ourconcernisprimarilyforstructuredtypes
 Def:Nametypecompatibilitymeansthetwovariableshavecompatibletypesiftheyareineitherthesamed
eclarationorindeclarationsthatusethesametypename
 Easytoimplementbuthighlyrestrictive:
– Subrangesofintegertypesarenotcompatiblewithintegertypes
– Formalparametersmustbethesametypeastheircorrespondingactualparameters(Pascal)
 Structuretypecompatibilitymeansthattwovariableshavecompatibletypesiftheirtypeshaveidenticalst
ructures
 Moreflexible,buthardertoimplement
 Considertheproblemoftwostructuredtypes:
– Aretworecordtypescompatibleiftheyarestructurallythesamebutusedifferentfieldnames?
– Aretwoarraytypescompatibleiftheyarethesameexceptthatthesubscriptsaredifferent?
(e.g.,[1..10]and[0..9])
– Are two enumeration types compatible if their components are
spelleddifferently?
– Withstructuraltypecompatibility,youcannotdifferentiatebetweentypesofthesamestructure(e.g.,diffe
rentunitsofspeed,bothfloat)
 Languageexamples:
– Pascal:usuallystructure,butinsomecasesnameisused(formalparameters)
– C:structure,exceptforrecords
– Ada:restrictedformofname
o Derivedtypesallowtypeswiththesamestructuretobedifferent
o Anonymoustypesareallunique,evenin:
A,B:array(1..10)ofINTEGER:

2.6 StrongTyping–CO2

 Advantageofstrongtyping:allowsthedetectionofthemisusesofvariablesthatresultintypeerrors
 Languageexamples:
– FORTRAN77isnot:parameters,EQUIVALENCE
– Pascalisnot:variantrecords
– CandC++arenot:parametertypecheckingcanbeavoided;unionsarenottypechecked
– Adais,almost(UNCHECKEDCONVERSIONisloophole)
(Javaissimilar)
 Coercionrulesstronglyaffectstrongtyping--theycanweakenitconsiderably(C++versusAda)
 AlthoughJavahasjusthalftheassignmentcoercionsofC+
+,itsstrongtypingisstillfarlesseffectivethanthatofAda

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 NamedConstants
 Def:Anamedconstantisavariablethatisboundtoavalueonlywhenitisboundtostorage
 Advantages:readabilityandmodifiability
 Usedtoparameterizeprograms
 Thebindingofvaluestonamedconstantscanbeeitherstatic(calledmanifestconstants)ordynamic
 Languages:
– Pascal:literalsonly
– FORTRAN90:constant-valuedexpressions
– Ada,C++,andJava:expressionsofanykind

VariableInitialization
 Def:Thebindingofavariabletoavalueatthetimeitisboundtostorageiscalledinitialization
 Initializationisoftendoneonthedeclarationstatemente.g.,Javaintsum=0

Summary
 Thedatatypesofalanguagearealargepartofwhatdeterminesthatlanguage‘sstyleandusefulness
 Theprimitivedatatypesofmostimperativelanguagesincludenumeric,character,andBoolea
ntypes
 Theuser-
definedenumerationandsubrangetypesareconvenientandaddtothereadabilityandreliabilityofpro
grams
 Arraysandrecordsareincludedinmostlanguages
 Pointersareusedforaddressingflexibilityandtocontroldynamicstoragemanagement
 Casesensitivityandtherelationshipofnamestospecialwordsrepresentdesignissuesofnames
 Variablesarecharacterizedbythesextuples:name,address,value,type,lifetime,scope
 Bindingistheassociationofattributeswithprogramentities
 Scalarvariablesarecategorizedas:static,stackdynamic,explicitheapdynamic,implicit
heapdynamic
 Strongtypingmeansdetectingalltypeerrors

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 ExpressionsandStatements&ControlStructures

Introduction
 Expressions are the fundamental means of specifying computations in
aprogramminglanguage.
 Tounderstandexpressionevaluation,needtobefamiliarwiththeordersofoperatorandoperandevaluation.
 EssenceofimperativelanguagesisdominantroleofassignmentstatementsArithmeticExpressions.
 Arithmeticevaluationwasoneofthemotivationsforthedevelopmentofthefirstprogramminglanguages.

2.7 ArithmeticExpressions–CO2,CO3
Arithmetic Expressions consist of operators, operands, parentheses
andfunctioncalls.
DesignIssues
Designissuesforarithmeticexpressions
 Operatorprecedencerules?
 Operatorassociativityrules?
 Orderofoperandevaluation?
 Operandevaluationsideeffects?
 Operatoroverloading?
 Typemixinginexpressions?
Operators
 Aunaryoperatorhasoneoperand.
 Abinaryoperatorhastwooperands.
 Aternaryoperatorhasthreeoperands.
OperatorPrecedenceRules
Theoperatorprecedencerulesforexpressionevaluationdefinetheorderinwhichadjacentoperatorsofdiff
erentprecedencelevelsareevaluated.

Typicalprecedencelevels:
 parentheses
 unaryoperators
 **(ifthelanguagesupportsit)
 *,/
 +,-
OperatorAssociativityRule
Theoperatorassociativityrulesforexpressionevaluationdefinetheorderinwhichadjacentoperatorswith
thesameprecedencelevelareevaluated.

Typicalassociativityrules:
 Lefttoright,except**(RubyandFortran),whichisrighttoleft
 Sometimesunaryoperatorsassociaterighttoleft(e.g.,inFORTRAN)
– APLisdifferent;alloperatorshaveequalprecedenceandalloperatorsassociaterighttoleft.
– Precedenceandassociativityrulescanbeoverriddenwithparentheses.

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 ConditionalExpressions

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 ConditionalExpressions(ternaryoperator?:)availableinC-basedlanguages.Anexample:(C,C+
+)
average=(count==0)?0:sum/count
Evaluatesasifwrittenlike
if(count==0)
average=0
else
average=sum/count
OperandEvaluationOrder
Operandevaluationorderasfollows.
 Variables:fetchthevaluefrommemory.
 Constants:sometimesafetchfrommemory;sometimestheconstantisinthemachinelanguageinstru
ction.
 Parenthesizedexpressions:evaluatealloperandsandoperatorsfirst.
 Themostinterestingcaseiswhenanoperandisafunctioncall.

PotentialsforSideEffectsFunctionalsideeffects:whenafunctionchangesatwo-wayparameteroranon-
localvariable
Problemwithfunctionalsideeffects:Whenafunctionreferencedinanexpressionaltersanotheroperandoft
heexpression;
e.g.,foraparameterchange:
a=10;
/*assumethatfunchangesitsparameter*/
b=a+fun(a);
Twopossiblesolutionstothefunctionalsideeffectsproblem:Writethelanguagedefinitiontodisallowfunc
tionalsideeffects.
 Notwo-wayparametersinfunctions
 Nonon-localreferencesinfunctions

Advantage:itworks!
Disadvantages:inflexibilityofone-wayparametersandlackofnon-localreferences
– Writethelanguagedefinitiontodemandthatoperandevaluationorderbefixed.
Disadvantage:limitssomecompileroptimizations
– Javarequiresthatoperandsappeartobeevaluatedinleft-to-rightorder.

OverloadedOperators

Useofanoperatorformorethanonepurposeiscalledoperatoroverloading.
 Somearecommon(e.g.,+forintandfloat)
 Somearepotentialtrouble(e.g.,*inCandC++)
Problems:
 Lossofcompilererrordetection(omissionofanoperandshouldbeadetectableerror)
 Somelossofreadability
 Canbeavoidedbyintroductionofnewsymbols(e.g.,Pascal‘sdivforintegerdivision)
 C++,Ada,Fortran95,andC#allowuser-definedoverloadedoperators
Potentialproblems:
 Userscandefinenonsenseoperations.

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  Readabilitymaysuffer,evenwhentheoperatorsmakesense.

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 TypeConversions
Anarrowingconversionisonethatconvertsanobjecttoatypethatcannotincludeallofthevaluesoftheo
riginaltype.
e.g.,floattoint
Awideningconversionisoneinwhichanobjectisconvertedtoatypethatcanincludeatleastapproximations
toallofthevaluesoftheoriginaltype.
e.g.,inttofloat
MixedMode
Amixed-
modeexpressionisonethathasoperandsofdifferenttypesAcoercionisanimplicittypeco
nversion
Disadvantageofcoercions:
– Theydecreaseinthetypeerrordetectionabilityofthecompiler
 Inmostlanguages,allnumerictypesarecoercedinexpressions,usingwideningconversions.
 InAda,therearevirtuallynocoercionsinexpressionsExplicitTypeConve
rsionscalledascastinginC-basedlanguages.Examples:-
C:(int)angle,Ada:Float(Sum)
– NotethatAda’ssyntaxissimilartothatoffunctioncalls
ErrorsinExpressionscauses
 Inherentlimitationsofarithmetice.g.,divisionbyzero
 Limitationsofcomputerarithmetice.g.,overflow
 Oftenignoredbytherun-timesystem

RelationalandBooleanExpressions
RelationalExpressions:
 Userelationaloperatorsandoperandsofvarioustypes
 EvaluatetosomeBooleanrepresentation
 Operatorsymbolsusedvarysomewhatamonglanguages(!=,/=,.NE.,<>,#)
 JavaScriptandPHPhavetwoadditionalrelationaloperator,===and!==
 Similartotheircousins,==and!=,exceptthattheydonotcoercetheiroperands
BooleanExpressions:
OperandsareBooleanandtheresultisBooleanExampleoperators
FORTRAN77 FORTRAN90 C Ada
.AND. and && and
.OR. or || or
.NOT. not ! not
xor --- --- ----
 NoBooleanTypeinC
 C89hasnoBooleantype--itusesinttypewith0forfalseandnonzerofortrue
 OneoddcharacteristicofC‘sexpressions:a<b<cisalegalexpression,buttheresultisnotwhatyoumi
ghtexpect:
 Leftoperatorisevaluated,producing0or1
 Theevaluationresultisthencomparedwiththethirdoperand(i.e.,c)

2.8 ShortCircuitEvaluation-CO3

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 Anexpressioninwhichtheresultisdeterminedwithoutevaluatingalloftheoperandsand/oroperators
Example:(13*a)*(b/13–1)
If‘a’iszero,thereisnoneedtoevaluate(b/13-1)

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 Problemwithnon-short-circuitevaluation
index=1;
while(index<=length)&&(LIST[index]!
=value)index++;
 Whenindex=length,LIST[index]willcauseanindexingproblem(assumingLISThaslength-
1elements)
 C,C++andJava:useshort-
circuitevaluationfortheusualBooleanoperators(&&and||),butalsoprovidebitwiseBooleanopera
torsthatarenotshortcircuit(&and|)
 Ada:programmercanspecifyeither(short-circuitisspecifiedwithandthenandorelse)
 Short-circuitevaluationexposesthepotentialproblemofsideeffectsinexpressionse.g.,(a>b)||(b+
+/3)

2.9 AssignmentStatementsCO3

Thegeneralsyntax:<target_var><assign_operator><expression>Theassignment
operator
 ‘=’inFORTRAN,BASIC,theC-basedlanguages
 ‘:=’inALGOL,Pascal,Ada
–Equal‘=’canbebadwhenitisoverloadedfortherelationaloperatorforequality(that‘swhytheC-
basedlanguagesuse==astherelationaloperator)
ConditionalTargets(Perl)
($flag?$total:$subtotal)=0
Whichisequivalentto
if($flag)
{$total=0}else{$subt
otal=0}

CompoundAssignmentOperators
 Ashorthandmethodofspecifyingacommonlyneededformofassignment.
 IntroducedinALGOL;adoptedbyCEx:‘a=
a+b’ iswrittenas‘a+=b’

UnaryAssignmentOperators
UnaryassignmentoperatorsinC-
basedlanguagescombineincrementanddecrementoperationswithassignment.Forexample
sum+=++count(countincremented,addedtosum)sum+=count++
(countincremented,addedtosum)count++(countincremented)
-count++(countincrementedthennegated)

AssignmentasanExpression
InC,C++,andJava,theassignmentstatementproducesaresultandcanbeusedasoperands.
while((ch=getchar())!=EOF){…}
ch=getchar()iscarriedout;theresult(assignedtoch)isusedasaconditionalvalueforthewhilestatement
ListAssignments
PerlandRubysupportlistassignments
e.g.,($first,$second,$third)=(20,30,40);

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 Mixed-ModeAssignment
Assignmentstatementscanalsobemixed-mode,forexample
inta,b;floatc;
c=a/b;
– InFortran,C,andC++,anynumerictypevaluecanbeassignedtoanynumerictypevariable.
– InJava,onlywideningassignmentcoercionsaredone.
– InAda,thereisnoassignmentcoercion.

2.10 ControlStructures-CO3
Acontrolstructureisacontrolstatementandthestatementswhoseexecutionitcontrols.

LevelsofControlFlow
 Withinexpressions
 Amongprogramunits
 Amongprogramstatements

ControlStatements:Evolution
 FORTRANIcontrolstatementswerebaseddirectlyonIBM704hardware
 Muchresearchandargumentinthe1960sabouttheissue
Oneimportantresult:Itwasproventhatallalgorithmsrepresentedbyflowchartscanbecodedwithonlytwo-
wayselectionandpretestlogicalloops

2.11 SelectionStatements–CO3
Aselectionstatementprovidesthemeansofchoosingbetweentwoormorepathsofexecution.Twogeneral
categories:
 Two-wayselectors
 Multiple-wayselectorsTwo-
WaySelectionStatementsGeneral
form as follows…
ifcontrol_expression
thenclause
elseclause
DesignIssues:
 Whatistheformandtypeofthecontrolexpression?
 Howarethethenandelseclausesspecified?
 Howshouldthemeaningofnestedselectorsbespecified?
TheControlExpression
 Ifthe‘then’reservedwordorsomeothersyntacticmarkerisnotusedtointroducethe‘then’clause,thecontr
olexpressionisplacedinparentheses.
 InC89,C99,Python,andC++,thecontrolexpressioncanbearithmetic.
 InlanguagessuchasAda,Java,Ruby,andC#,thecontrolexpressionmustbeBoolean.
ClauseForm
 Inmanycontemporarylanguages,thethenandelseclausescanbesinglestatementsorcompoundstateme
nts
 InPerl,allclausesmustbedelimitedbybraces(theymustbecompound)

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  InFortran95,Ada,andRuby,clausesarestatementsequences
 Pythonusesindentationtodefineclauses

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 ifx>y:
x=y
print"case1"
NestingSelectors:Javaexample
if(sum==0)if
(count==0)r
esult=0;
elseresult=1;
 Whichifgetstheelse?
 Java'sstaticsemanticsrule:elsematcheswiththenearestifNestingSelectors
 Toforceanalternativesemantics,compoundstatementsmaybeused:
if(sum==0)
{if(count==0
)result=0;}el
seresult=1;
 TheabovesolutionisusedinC,C++,andC#
 Perlrequiresthatallthenandelseclausestobecompound
 Statementsequencesasclauses:Ruby
ifsum==0thenifc
ount==0thenres
ult=0
elseresul
t=1end
end
-Python
ifsum==0:
ifcount==0:
result=0el
se:
result=1

Multiple-WaySelectionStatements
AllowtheselectionofoneofanynumberofstatementsorstatementgroupsDesignIssues:
 Whatistheformandtypeofthecontrolexpression?
 Howaretheselectablesegmentsspecified?
 Isexecutionflowthroughthestructurerestrictedtoincludejustasingleselectablesegment?
 Howarecasevaluesspecified?
 Whatisdoneaboutunrepresentedexpressionvalues?

Multiple-WaySelection:Examples
 C,C++,andJava
switch(expression){
caseconst_expr_1:stmt_1;
…
caseconst_expr_n:stmt_n;
[default:stmt_n+1]}
 DesignchoicesforC‘sswitchstatement

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  Controlexpressioncanbeonlyanintegertype
 Selectable segments can be statement sequences, blocks, or
compoundstatements
 Anynumberofsegmentscanbeexecutedinoneexecutionoftheconstruct(thereisnoimplicitbranchatthe
endofselectablesegments)

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  defaultclauseisforunrepresentedvalues(ifthereisnodefault,thewholestatementdoesnothing)
 C#
– DiffersfromCinthatithasastaticsemanticsrulethatdisallowstheimplicitexecutionofmorethan
onesegment
– Eachselectablesegmentmustendwithanunconditionalbranch(gotoorbreak)
 Ada
caseexpressionis
whenchoicelist=>stmt_sequence;
…
whenchoicelist=>stmt_sequence
;whenothers=>stmt_sequence;]
endcase;
MorereliablethanC‘sswitch(onceastmt_sequenceexecutioniscompleted,controlispassedtothefirststatem
entafterthecasestatement
 Adadesignchoices:
1. Expressioncanbeanyordinaltype
2. Segmentscanbesingleorcompound
3. Onlyonesegmentcanbeexecutedperexecutionoftheconstruct
4. Unrepresentedvaluesarenotallowed
 ConstantListForms:
1. Alistofconstants
2. Caninclude:
- Subranges
- BooleanORoperators(|)

Multiple-WaySelectionUsingif
MultipleSelectorscanappearasdirectextensionstotwo-wayselectors,usingelse-
ifclauses,forexampleinPython:
ifcount<10:
bag1=True
elsifcount<100:
bag2=Trueel
seifcount<1000:
bag3=True

IterativeStatements
 Therepeatedexecutionofastatementorcompoundstatementisaccomplishedeitherbyiterationorrecurs
ion
 Generaldesignissuesforiterationcontrolstatements:
1. Howisiterationcontrolled?
2. Whereisthecontrolmechanismintheloop?
Counter-ControlledLoops
Acountingiterativestatementhasaloopvariable,andameansofspecifyingtheinitialandterminal,and
stepsizevalues
DesignIssues:
 Whatarethetypeandscopeoftheloopvariable?

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  Whatisthevalueoftheloopvariableatlooptermination?
 Shoulditbelegalfortheloopvariableorloopparameterstobechangedintheloopbody,andifso,doesthech
angeaffectloopcontrol?
 Shouldtheloopparametersbeevaluatedonlyonce,oronceforeveryiteration?

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 IterativeStatements:Examples
FORTRAN95syntax
DOlabelvar=start,finish[,stepsize]Stepsizeca
nbeanyvaluebutzeroParameterscanbeexpression
s
Designchoices:
1. LoopvariablemustbeINTEGER
2. Loopvariablealwayshasitslastvalue
3. Theloopvariablecannotbechangedintheloop,buttheparameterscan;becausetheyareevaluatedonlyonce,it
doesnotaffectloopcontrol
4. Loopparametersareevaluatedonlyonce
 FORTRAN95:asecondform:
[name:]Dovariable=initial,terminal[,stepsize]
…
EndDo[name]
– CannotbranchintoeitherofFortran‘sDostatements
 Ada
forvarin[reverse]discrete_rangeloop...endloop
 Designchoices:
– Typeoftheloopvariableisthatofthediscreterange(Adiscreterangeisasub-
rangeofanintegerorenumerationtype).
– Loopvariabledoesnotexistoutsidetheloop
– Theloopvariablecannotbechangedintheloop,butthediscreterangecan;itdoesnotaffectloopcontrol
– Thediscreterangeisevaluatedjustonce
– Cannotbranchintotheloopbody
 C-basedlanguages
for([expr_1];[expr_2];[expr_3])statement
– Theexpressionscanbewholestatements,orevenstatementsequences,withthestatementssepara
tedbycommas
– Thevalueofamultiple-statementexpressionisthevalueofthelaststatementintheexpression
– Ifthesecondexpressionisabsent,itisaninfiniteloop
 Designchoices:
– Thereisnoexplicitloopvariable
– Everythingcanbechangedintheloop
– Thefirstexpressionisevaluatedonce,buttheothertwoareevaluatedwitheachiteration
 C++differsfromCintwoways:
– ThecontrolexpressioncanalsobeBoolean
– Theinitialexpressioncanincludevariabledefinitions(scopeisfromthedefinitiontotheendoftheloop
body)
 JavaandC#
– DiffersfromC++inthatthecontrolexpressionmustbeBoolean
– IterativeStatements:Logically-ControlledLoops
– RepetitioncontrolisbasedonaBooleanexpression
 Designissues:
– Pretestorposttest?

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 – Shouldthelogicallycontrolledloopbeaspecialcaseofthecountingloopstatementoraseparatest
atement?

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  IterativeStatements:Logically-ControlledLoops:Examples
CandC++havebothpretestandposttestforms,inwhichthecontrolexpressioncanbearithmetic:
while(ctrl_expr)doloo
pbodyloopbodywhile(
ctrl_expr)
 JavaislikeCandC+
+,exceptthecontrolexpressionmustbeBoolean(andthebodycanonlybeenteredatthebeginning--
Javahasnogoto
 IterativeStatements:Logically-ControlledLoops:Examples
 Adahasapretestversion,butnoposttest
 FORTRAN95hasneither
 PerlandRubyhavetwopretestlogicalloops,whileanduntil.Perlalsohastwoposttestloops

UnconditionalBranching:User-LocatedLoopControlMechanisms
 Sometimesitisconvenientfortheprogrammerstodecidealocationforloopcontrol(otherthantoporbotto
moftheloop)
 Simpledesignforsingleloops(e.g.,break)
 Designissuesfornestedloops
– Shouldtheconditionalbepartoftheexit?
– Shouldcontrolbetransferableoutofmorethanoneloop?User-
LocatedLoopControlMechanismsbreakandcontinue
 C,C++,Python,Ruby,andC#haveunconditionalunlabeledexits(break)
 JavaandPerlhaveunconditionallabeledexits(breakinJava,lastinPerl)
 C,C+
+,andPythonhaveanunlabeledcontrolstatement,continue,thatskipstheremainderofthecurrentite
ration,butdoesnotexittheloop
 JavaandPerlhavelabeledversionsofcontinue
IterativeStatements:IterationBasedonDataStructures
 Numberofelementsofinadatastructurecontrolloopiteration
 Controlmechanismisacalltoaniteratorfunctionthatreturnsthenextelementinsomechosenorder,ifther
eisone;elseloopisterminate
 C'sforcanbeusedtobuildauser-definediterator:
for(p=root;p==NULL;traverse(
p)){}
 C#‘sforeachstatementiteratesontheelementsofarraysandothercollections:
Strings[]=strList={"Bob","Carol","Ted"};fore
ach(StringsnameinstrList)Console.WriteLine("
Name:{0}",name);
Thenotation{0}indicatesthepositioninthestringtobedisplayed
 Perlhasabuilt-initeratorforarraysandhashes,foreachUnconditionalBranching
 Transfersexecutioncontroltoaspecifiedplaceintheprogram
 Representedoneofthemostheateddebatesin1960‘sand1970‘s
 Well-knownmechanism:gotostatement
 Majorconcern:Readability
 Somelanguagesdonotsupportgotostatement(e.g.,Java)

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  C#offersgotostatement(canbeusedinswitchstatements)
 Loopexitstatementsarerestrictedandsomewhatcamouflagedgoto‘s

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 GuardedCommands
 DesignedbyDijkstra
 Purpose: to support a new programming methodology that
supportedverification(correctness)duringdevelopment
 Basisfortwolinguisticmechanismsforconcurrentprogramming(inCSPandAda)
 BasicIdea:iftheorderofevaluationisnotimportant,theprogramshouldnotspecifyone
SelectionGuardedCommand
•Form
if<Booleanexp>-
><statement>[]<Booleanexp>
-><statement>
...
[]<Booleanexp>-
><statement>fi
Semantics:whenconstructisreached,
 EvaluateallBooleanexpressions
 Ifmorethanonearetrue,chooseonenon-deterministically
 Ifnonearetrue,itisaruntimeerror

LoopGuardedCommand
•Form
do<Boolean>-
><statement>[]<Boolean>-
><statement>
...
[]<Boolean>-
><statement>Od

Semantics:foreachiteration
 EvaluateallBooleanexpressions
 Ifmorethanonearetrue,chooseonenon-deterministically;thenstartloopagain
 Ifnonearetrue,exitloop

GuardedCommands:Rationale
 Connectionbetweencontrolstatementsandprogramverificationisintimate
 Verificationisimpossiblewithgotostatements
 Verificationispossiblewithonlyselectionandlogicalpretestloops
 Verificationisrelativelysimplewithonlyguardedcommands

Summary
 Expressions
 Operatorprecedenceandassociativity
 Operatoroverloading
 Mixed-typeexpressions
 Variousformsofassignment

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  Varietyofstatement-levelstructures
 Choiceofcontrolstatementsbeyondselectionandlogicalpretestloopsisatrade-
offbetweenlanguagesizeandwritability
 Functional and logic programming languages are quite different
controlstructures

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 UNIT-3
SubprogramsandBlocks

Introduction
 Twofundamentalabstractionfacilities
– Processabstraction
 Emphasizedfromearlydays
– Dataabstraction
 Emphasizedinthe1980s

3.1 FundamentalsofSubprograms–CO4
 Eachsubprogramhasasingleentrypoint
 Thecallingprogramissuspendedduringexecutionofthecalledsubprogram
 Controlalwaysreturnstothecallerwhenthecalledsubprogram‘sexecutionterminates
BasicDefinitions
 Asubprogramdefinitiondescribestheinterfacetoandtheactionsofthesubprogramabstraction
 Asubprogramcallisanexplicitrequestthatthesubprogrambeexecuted
 Asubprogramheaderisthefirstpartofthedefinition,includingthename,thekindofsubprogram,and
theformalparameters
 Theparameterprofile(akasignature)ofasubprogramisthenumber,order,andtypesofitsparameters
 Theprotocolisasubprogram‘sparameterprofileand,ifitisafunction,itsreturntype
 FunctiondeclarationsinCandC++areoftencalledprototypes
 Asubprogramdeclarationprovidestheprotocol,butnotthebody,ofthesubprogram
 Aformalparameterisadummyvariablelistedinthesubprogramheaderandusedinthesubprogram
 Anactualparameterrepresentsavalueoraddressusedinthesubprogramcallstatement
Actual/FormalParameterCorrespondence
 Positional
– Thebindingofactualparameterstoformalparametersisbyposition:thefirstactualparameterisbound
tothefirstformalparameterandsoforth
– Safeandeffective
 Keyword
– Thenameoftheformalparametertowhichanactualparameteristobeboundisspecifiedwiththeactual
parameter
– Parameterscanappearinanyorder
FormalParameterDefaultValues
 Incertainlanguages(e.g.,C+
+,Ada),formalparameterscanhavedefaultvalues(ifnotactualparameterispassed)
– InC++,defaultparametersmustappearlastbecauseparametersarepositionallyassociated
 C#methodscanacceptavariablenumberofparametersaslongastheyareofthesametype

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 ProceduresandFunctions
 Therearetwocategoriesofsubprograms
– Procedures are collection of statements that define
parameterizedcomputations
– Functionsstructurallyresembleproceduresbutaresemanticallymodeledonmathematicalfunc
tions
 Theyareexpectedtoproducenosideeffects
 Inpractice,programfunctionshavesideeffects

3.2 DesignIssuesforSubprograms-CO3
 Whatparameterpassingmethodsareprovided?
 Areparametertypeschecked?
 Arelocalvariablesstaticordynamic?
 Cansubprogramdefinitionsappearinothersubprogramdefinitions?
 Cansubprogramsbeoverloaded?
 Cansubprogrambegeneric?

ScopeandLifetime
 Thescopeofavariableistherangeofstatementsoverwhichitisvisible
 Thenonlocalvariablesofaprogramunitarethosethatarevisiblebutnotdeclaredthere
 Thescoperulesofalanguagedeterminehowreferencestonamesareassociatedwithvariables
 Scopeandlifetimearesometimescloselyrelated,butaredifferentconcepts
 ConsiderastaticvariableinaCorC++function
Staticscope
– Basedonprogramtext
– Toconnectanamereferencetoavariable,you(orthecompiler)mustfindthedeclaration
– Searchprocess:searchdeclarations,firstlocally,theninincreasinglylargerenclosingscopes,unt
iloneisfoundforthegivenname
– Enclosingstaticscopes(toaspecificscope)arecalleditsstaticancestors;theneareststaticancesto
riscalledastaticparent
 Variablescanbehiddenfromaunitbyhavinga"closer"variablewiththesamename
 C++andAdaallowaccesstothese"hidden"variables
– InAda:unit.name
– InC++:class_name::name
 Blocks
– Amethodofcreatingstaticscopesinsideprogramunits--fromALGOL60
– Examples:
CandC++:for(...)
{intindex;
...
}
Ada:declareLCL:FLOAT;be
gin
...
end

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  EvaluationofStaticScoping
 Considertheexample:
AssumeMAINcallsAandB

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 AcallsCandD
BcallsAandE
 SupposethespecischangedsothatDmustnowaccesssomedatainB
 Solutions:
– PutDinB(butthenCcannolongercallitandDcannotaccessA'svariables)
– MovethedatafromBthatDneedstoMAIN(butthenallprocedurescanaccessthem)
 Sameproblemforprocedureaccess
 Overall:staticscopingoftenencouragesmanyglobals
DynamicScope
– Basedoncallingsequencesofprogramunits,nottheirtextuallayout(temporalversusspatial)
– Referencestovariablesareconnectedtodeclarationsbysearchingbackthroughthechainofsubp
rogramcallsthatforcedexecutiontothispoint

ScopeExample
MAIN
-
declarationof
xSUB1
-declarationofx-
...
callSUB2
...S
UB2
...
-referencetox-
...
...
callSUB1
…
 Staticscoping
– ReferencetoxistoMAIN'sx
 Dynamicscoping
– ReferencetoxistoSUB1'sx
 EvaluationofDynamicScoping:
– Advantage:convenience
– Disadvantage:poorreadability

LocalReferencingEnvironments
 Def:Thereferencingenvironmentofastatementisthecollectionofallnamesthatarevisibleinthestateme
nt
 Inastatic-
scopedlanguage,itisthelocalvariablesplusallofthevisiblevariablesinalloftheenclosingscopes
 Asubprogramisactiveifitsexecutionhasbegunbuthasnotyetterminated
 Inadynamic-
scopedlanguage,thereferencingenvironmentisthelocalvariablesplusallvisiblevariablesinallacti
vesubprograms

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  Localvariablescanbestack-dynamic(boundtostorage)
– Advantages
 Supportforrecursion
 Storageforlocalsissharedamongsomesubprograms
– Disadvantages
 Allocation/de-allocation,initializationtime

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  Indirectaddressing
 Subprogramscannotbehistorysensitive
 Localvariablescanbestatic
– Moreefficient(noindirection)
– Norun-timeoverhead

3.3 ParameterPassingMethods–CO3
 Waysinwhichparametersaretransmittedtoand/orfromcalledsubprograms
– Pass-by-value
– Pass-by-result
– Pass-by-value-result
– Pass-by-reference
– Pass-by-name

Figure5.1ModelsofParameterPassing

 Thevalueoftheactualparameterisusedtoinitializethecorrespondingformalparameter
– Normallyimplementedbycopying
– Canbeimplementedbytransmittinganaccesspathbutnotrecommended(enforcingwriteprotectioni
snoteasy)
– Whencopiesareused,additionalstorageisrequired
– Storageandcopyoperationscanbecostly

Pass-by-Result(OutMode)
 Whenaparameterispassedbyresult,novalueistransmittedtothesubprogram;thecorrespondingformal
parameteractsasalocalvariable;itsvalueistransmittedtocaller‘sactualparameterwhencontrolisreturn
edtothecaller
– Requireextrastoragelocationandcopyoperation
 Potentialproblem:sub(p1,p1);whicheverformalparameteriscopiedbackwillrepresentthecurrentvalu
eofp1
Pass-by-Value-Result(InoutMode)
 Acombinationofpass-by-valueandpass-by-result
 Sometimescalledpass-by-copy

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  Formalparametershavelocalstorage
 Disadvantages:
– Thoseofpass-by-result
– Thoseofpass-by-value

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 Pass-by-Reference(InoutMode)
 Passanaccesspath
 Alsocalledpass-by-sharing
 Passingprocessisefficient(nocopyingandnoduplicatedstorage)
 Disadvantages
– Sloweraccesses(comparedtopass-by-value)toformalparameters
– Potentialsforun-wantedsideeffects
– Un-wantedaliases(accessbroadened)
Pass-by-Name(InoutMode)
 Bytextualsubstitution
 Formalsareboundtoanaccessmethodatthetimeofthecall,butactualbindingtoavalueoraddresstake
splaceatthetimeofareferenceorassignment
 Allowsflexibilityinlatebinding
ImplementingParameter-PassingMethods
 Inmostlanguageparametercommunicationtakesplacethrutherun-timestack
 Pass-by-referencearethesimplesttoimplement;onlyanaddressisplacedinthestack
 Asubtlebutfatalerrorcanoccurwithpass-by-referenceandpass-by-
valueresult:aformalparametercorrespondingtoaconstantcanmistakenlybechanged
ParameterPassingMethodsofMajorLanguages
 Fortran
– Alwaysusedtheinoutsemanticsmodel
– BeforeFortran77:pass-by-reference
– Fortran77andlater:scalarvariablesareoftenpassedbyvalue-result
 C
– Pass-by-value
– Pass-by-referenceisachievedbyusingpointersasparameters
 C++
– Aspecialpointertypecalledreferencetypeforpass-by-reference
 Java
– Allparametersarepassedarepassedbyvalue
– Objectparametersarepassedbyreference
 Ada
– Threesemanticsmodesofparametertransmission:in,out,inout;inisthedefaultmode
– Formalparametersdeclaredoutcanbeassignedbutnotreferenced;thosedeclaredincanbereferenced
butnotassigned;inoutparameterscanbereferencedandassigned
 C#
– Defaultmethod:pass-by-value
– Pass-by-referenceisspecifiedbyprecedingbothaformalparameteranditsactualparameterwithref
 PHP:verysimilartoC#
 Perl:allactualparametersareimplicitlyplacedinapredefinedarraynamed@_
TypeCheckingParameters
 Consideredveryimportantforreliability
 FORTRAN77andoriginalC:none
 Pascal,FORTRAN90,Java,andAda:itisalwaysrequired

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  ANSICandC++:choiceismadebytheuser
– Prototypes
 RelativelynewlanguagesPerl,JavaScript,andPHPdonotrequiretypechecking
MultidimensionalArraysasParameters
 Ifamultidimensionalarrayispassedtoasubprogramandthesubprogramisseparatelycompiled,thec
ompilerneedstoknowthedeclaredsizeofthatarraytobuildthestoragemappingfunction
MultidimensionalArraysasParameters:CandC++
 Programmerisrequiredtoincludethedeclaredsizesofallbutthefirstsubscriptintheactualparameter
 Disallowswritingflexiblesubprograms
 Solution:passapointertothearrayandthesizesofthedimensionsasotherparameters;theusermustinclud
ethestoragemappingfunctionintermsofthesizeparameters
MultidimensionalArraysasParameters:PascalandAda
 Pascal
– Notaproblem;declaredsizeispartofthearray‘stype
 Ada
– Constrainedarrays-likePascal
– Unconstrainedarrays-declaredsizeispartoftheobjectdeclaration
MultidimensionalArraysasParameters:Fortran
 Formalparameterthatarearrayshaveadeclarationaftertheheader
– Forsingle-dimensionarrays,thesubscriptisirrelevant
– Formulti-dimensionalarrays,thesubscriptsallowthestorage-mappingfunction
MultidimensionalArraysasParameters:JavaandC#
 SimilartoAda
 Arraysareobjects;theyareallsingle-dimensioned,buttheelementscanbearrays
 Eacharrayinheritsanamedconstant(lengthinJava,LengthinC#)thatissettothelengthofthearraywh
enthearrayobjectiscreated

DesignConsiderationsforParameterPassing
 Twoimportantconsiderations
– Efficiency
– One-wayortwo-waydatatransfer
 Buttheaboveconsiderationsareinconflict
– Goodprogrammingsuggestlimitedaccesstovariables,whichmeansonewaywheneverpossible
– Butpass-by-referenceismoreefficienttopassstructuresofsignificantsize

3.4 ParametersSubprogramsasparameters–CO3
 Itissometimesconvenienttopasssubprogramnamesasparameters
 Issues:
– Areparametertypeschecked?
– Whatisthecorrectreferencingenvironmentforasubprogramthatwassentasaparameter?
ParametersthatareSubprogramNames:ParameterTypeChecking
 CandC+
+:functionscannotbepassedasparametersbutpointerstofunctionscanbepassed;parameterscanbetype
checked

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  FORTRAN95typechecks

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  LaterversionsofPascaland
 Adadoesnotallowsubprogramparameters;asimilaralternativeisprovidedviaAda‘sgenericfacility
ParametersthatareSubprogramNames:ReferencingEnvironment
 Shallowbinding:Theenvironmentofthecallstatementthatenactsthepassedsubprogram
 Deepbinding:Theenvironmentofthedefinitionofthepassedsubprogram
 Adhocbinding:Theenvironmentofthecallstatementthatpassedthesubprogram
3.5 OverloadedSubprograms–CO3
 Anoverloadedsubprogramisonethathasthesamenameasanothersubprograminthesamereferenci
ngenvironment
– Everyversionofanoverloadedsubprogramhasauniqueprotocol
 C++,Java,C#,andAdaincludepredefinedoverloadedsubprograms
 InAda,thereturntypeofanoverloadedfunctioncanbeusedtodisambiguatecalls(thustwooverloade
dfunctionscanhavethesameparameters)
 Ada,Java,C++,andC#allowuserstowritemultipleversionsofsubprogramswiththesamename
3.6 GenericSubprograms–CO3
 Agenericorpolymorphicsubprogramtakesparametersofdifferenttypesondifferentactivations
 Overloadedsubprogramsprovideadhocpolymorphism
 Asubprogramthattakesagenericparameterthatisusedinatypeexpressionthatdescribesthetypeoft
heparametersofthesubprogramprovidesparametricpolymorphism
Examplesofparametricpolymorphism:C++
template<classType>
Typemax(Typefirst,Typesecond)
{returnfirst>second?first:second;
}
 Theabovetemplatecanbeinstantiatedforanytypeforwhichoperator>isdefined
intmax(intfirst,intsecond)
{returnfirst>second?first:second;
}
DesignIssuesforFunctions
 Aresideeffectsallowed?
– Parametersshouldalwaysbein-modetoreducesideeffect(likeAda)
 Whattypesofreturnvaluesareallowed?
– Mostimperativelanguagesrestrictthereturntypes
– Callowsanytypeexceptarraysandfunctions
– C++islikeCbutalsoallowsuser-definedtypes
– Adaallowsanytype
– JavaandC#donothavefunctionsbutmethodscanhaveanytype
User-DefinedOverloadedOperators
 OperatorscanbeoverloadedinAdaandC++
 AnAdaexample
Function“*”(A,B:inVec_Type):returnIntegeri
sSum:Integer:=0;
begin
forIndexinA‘rangeloop
Sum:=Sum+A(Index)*B(Index)en

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 dloop

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 returnsum;
end“*”;
…
c=a*b;--a,b,andcareoftypeVec_Type
3.7 Co-Routines–CO3
 Acoroutineisasubprogramthathasmultipleentriesandcontrolsthemitself
 Alsocalledsymmetriccontrol:callerandcalledcoroutinesareonamoreequalbasis
 Acoroutinecallisnamedaresume
 Thefirstresumeofacoroutineistoitsbeginning,butsubsequentcallsenteratthepointjustafterthelast
executedstatementinthecoroutine
 Coroutinesrepeatedlyresumeeachother,possiblyforever
 Coroutinesprovidequasi-
concurrentexecutionofprogramunits(thecoroutines);theirexecutionisinterleaved,butnotoverlapped

Figure5.2PossibleExecutionControls Figure5.3PossibleExecutionControls

Summary Figure5.4PossibleExecutionControlswithLoops
 Asubprogramdefinitiondescribestheactionsrepresentedbythesubprogram
 Subprogramscanbeeitherfunctionsorprocedures
 Localvariablesinsubprogramscanbestack-dynamicorstatic
 Threemodelsofparameterpassing:inmode,outmode,andinoutmode

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  Somelanguagesallowoperatoroverloading
 Subprogramscanbegeneric
 Aco-routineisaspecialsubprogramwithmultipleentries

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 UNIT-4
AbstractDataTypes

4.1 TheConceptofAbstraction–CO3
 Anabstractionisavieworrepresentationofanentitythatincludesonlythemostsignificantattributes
 Theconceptofabstractionisfundamentalinprogramming(andcomputerscience)
 Nearly all programming languages support process abstraction
withsubprograms
 Nearlyallprogramminglanguagesdesignedsince1980supportdataabstraction

4.2 IntroductiontoDataAbstraction–CO3
 AnAbstractDataTypeisauser-defineddatatypethatsatisfiesthefollowingtwoconditions:
– Therepresentationof,andoperationson,objectsofthetypearedefinedinasinglesyntacticunit
– Therepresentationofobjectsofthetypeishiddenfromtheprogramunitsthatusetheseobjects,sotheo
nlyoperationspossiblearethoseprovidedinthetype'sdefinition

AdvantagesofDataAbstraction
 Advantageofthefirstcondition
– Programorganization,modifiability(everythingassociatedwithadatastructureistogether),an
dseparatecompilation
 Advantagethesecondcondition
– Reliability--
byhidingthedatarepresentations,usercodecannotdirectlyaccessobjectsofthetypeordependonther
epresentation,allowingtherepresentationtobechangedwithoutaffectingusercode
LanguageRequirementsforADTs:
 Asyntacticunitinwhichtoencapsulatethetypedefinition
 Amethodofmakingtypenamesandsubprogramheadersvisibletoclients,whilehidingactualdefinitions
 SomeprimitiveoperationsmustbebuiltintothelanguageprocessorDesignIssues:
 Canabstracttypesbeparameterized?
 Whataccesscontrolsareprovided?

4.3 LanguageExamplesCO2,CO3,CO4
LanguageExamples:Ada
 Theencapsulationconstructiscalledapackage
– Specificationpackage(theinterface)
– Bodypackage(implementationoftheentitiesnamedinthespecification)
 InformationHiding
– Thespecpackagehastwoparts,publicandprivate
– Thenameoftheabstracttypeappearsinthepublicpartofthespecificationpackage.Thispartmayalsoi
ncluderepresentationsofunhiddentypes

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 – Therepresentationoftheabstracttypeappearsinapartofthespecificationcalledtheprivatepart
 Morerestrictedformwithlimitedprivatetypes
– Privatetypeshavebuilt-inoperationsforassignmentandcomparison
– LimitedprivatetypeshaveNObuilt-inoperations
 Reasonsforthepublic/privatespecpackage:
1. Thecompilermustbeabletoseetherepresentationafterseeingonlythespecpackage(itcannotsee
theprivatepart)
2. Clientsmustseethetypename,butnottherepresentation(theyalsocannotseetheprivatepart)
 Havingpartoftheimplementationdetails(therepresentation)inthespecpackageandpart(themethodbo
dies)inthebodypackageisnotgood

Onesolution:makeallADTspointers
Problemswiththis:
1. Difficultieswithpointers
2. Objectcomparisons
3. ControlofobjectallocationislostAnExam
pleinAda
packageStack_Packis
typestack_typeislimitedprivate;max_size:cons
tant:=100;
functionempty(stk:instack_type)returnBoolean;procedurepush(stk:i
noutstack_type;elem:inInteger);procedurepop(stk:inoutstack_type);
functiontop(stk:instack_type)returnInteger;private--
hiddenfromclients
typelist_typeisarray(1..max_size)ofInteger;typestack_ty
peisrecord
list:list_type;
topsub:Integerrange0..max_size):=0;endreco
rd;
endStack_Pack

LanguageExamples:C++
 BasedonCstructtypeandSimula67classes
 Theclassistheencapsulationdevice
 Alloftheclassinstancesofaclassshareasinglecopyofthememberfunctions
 Eachinstanceofaclasshasitsowncopyoftheclassdatamembers
 Instancescanbestatic,stackdynamic,orheapdynamic
 InformationHiding
– Privateclauseforhiddenentities
– Publicclauseforinterfaceentities
– Protectedclauseforinheritance(Chapter12)
 Constructors:
– Functionstoinitializethedatamembersofinstances(theydonotcreatetheobjects)
– Mayalsoallocatestorageifpartoftheobjectisheap-dynamic
– Canincludeparameterstoprovideparameterizationoftheobjects

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 – Implicitlycalledwhenaninstanceiscreated
– Canbeexplicitlycalled

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 – Nameisthesameastheclassname
 Destructors
– Functionstocleanupafteraninstanceisdestroyed;usuallyjusttoreclaimheapstorage
– Implicitlycalledwhentheobject‘slifetimeends
– Canbeexplicitlycalled
– Nameistheclassname,precededbyatilde(~)AnExamplein
C++
classstack{
private:
int*stackPtr,maxLen,topPtr;
public:
stack(){//
aconstructorstackPtr=ne
wint[100];maxLen=99;
topPtr=-1;
};
~stack()
{delete[]stackPtr;};voidpus
h(intnum){…};voidpop()
{…};
inttop(){…};
intempty(){…};
}
EvaluationofADTsinC++andAda
 C++supportforADTsissimilartoexpressivepowerofAda
 Bothprovideeffectivemechanismsforencapsulationandinformationhiding
 Adapackagesaremoregeneralencapsulations;classesaretypes
 Friendfunctionsorclasses-toprovideaccesstoprivatememberstosomeunrelatedunitsorfunctions
– NecessaryinC++
LanguageExamples:Java
 SimilartoC++,except:
– Alluser-definedtypesareclasses
– Allobjectsareallocatedfromtheheapandaccessedthroughreferencevariables
– Individualentitiesinclasseshaveaccesscontrolmodifiers(privateorpublic),ratherthanclauses
– Javahasasecondscopingmechanism,packagescope,whichcanbeusedinplaceoffriends
 Allentitiesinallclassesinapackagethatdonothaveaccesscontrolmodifiersarevisiblethroughoutth
epackage
AnExampleinJava
classStackClass{pri
vate:
privateint[]*stackRef;
privateint[]maxLen,topIndex;public
StackClass(){//aconstructor
stackRef=newint[100];
maxLen=99;
topPtr=-1;
};

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 public void push (intnum)
{…};public void pop () {…};
publicinttop(){…};
publicbooleanempty(){…};
}

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 LanguageExamples:C#
 BasedonC++andJava
 Addstwoaccessmodifiers,internalandprotectedinternal
 Allclassinstancesareheapdynamic
 Defaultconstructorsareavailableforallclasses
 Garbagecollectionisusedformostheapobjects,sodestructorsarerarelyused
 structsarelightweightclassesthatdonotsupportinheritance
 Commonsolutiontoneedforaccesstodatamembers:accessormethods(getterandsetter)
 C#providespropertiesasawayofimplementinggettersandsetterswithoutrequiringexplicitmethodcall
s

C#PropertyExample
publicclassWeather{
publicintDegreeDays{//
**DegreeDaysisapropertyget{returndegreeDays;
}
set{
if(value<0||value>30)
Console.WriteLine("Valueisoutofrange:
{0}",value);elsedegreeDays=value;}
}
privateintdegreeDays;
...
}
...
Weatherw=newWeather();
intdegreeDaysToday,oldDegreeDays;
...
w.DegreeDays=degreeDaysToday;
...
oldDegreeDays=w.DegreeDays;

4.4 ParameterizedAbstractDataTypes-CO4
 ParameterizedADTsallowdesigninganADTthatcanstoreanytypeelements(amongotherthings)
 Alsoknownasgenericclasses
 C++,Ada,Java5.0,andC#2005providesupportforparameterizedADTs
ParameterizedADTsinAda
 AdaGenericPackages
– Makethestacktypemoreflexiblebymakingtheelementtypeandthesizeofthestackgeneric
generic
Max_Size:Positive;
typeElem_Typeisprivate;pack
ageGeneric_Stackis
TypeStack_Typeislimitedprivate;
functionTop(Stk:inoutStackType)returnElem_type;
…
endGeneric_Stack;

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 PackageInteger_StackisnewGeneric_Stack(100,Integer);Pac
kageFloat_StackisnewGeneric_Stack(100,Float);
ParameterizedADTsinC++
 Classes can be somewhat generic by writing parameterized
constructorfunctions
classstack{
…

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 stack(intsize)
{stk_ptr=newint[size];
max_len=size-1;
top=-1;
};
…
}
stackstk(100);
 Thestackelementtypecanbeparameterizedbymakingtheclassatemplatedclass
template<classType>c
lassstack{
private:
Type*stackPtr;con
stintmaxLen;inttop
Ptr;
public:
stack(){
stackPtr=newType[100];
maxLen=99;
topPtr=-1;
}
…
}
ParameterizedClassesinJava5.0
 Genericparametersmustbeclasses
 Mostcommongenerictypesarethecollectiontypes,suchasLinkedListandArrayList
 Eliminatetheneedtocastobjectsthatareremoved
 Eliminatetheproblemofhavingmultipletypesinastructure
ParameterizedClassesinC#2005
 SimilartothoseofJava5.0
 Elementsofparameterizedstructurescanbeaccessedthroughindexing
SummaryofADT
 TheconceptofADTsandtheiruseinprogramdesignwasamilestoneinthedevelopmentoflanguages
 TwoprimaryfeaturesofADTsarethepackagingofdatawiththeirassociatedoperationsandinformationh
iding
 AdaprovidespackagesthatsimulateADTs
 C++dataabstractionisprovidedbyclasses
 Java‘sdataabstractionissimilartoC++
 Ada,C++,Java5.0,andC#2005supportparameterizedADTs

4.5 Object-OrientedProgramming–CO4
 Abstractdatatypes
 Inheritance
– InheritanceisthecentralthemeinOOPandlanguagesthatsupportit
 Polymorphism
Inheritance

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  Productivityincreasescancomefromreuse
– ADTsaredifficulttoreuse—alwaysneedchanges
– AllADTsareindependentandatthesamelevel
 Inheritanceallowsnewclassesdefinedintermsofexistingones,i.e.,byallowingthemtoinheritcommonp
arts

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  Inheritanceaddressesbothoftheaboveconcerns--
reuseADTsafterminorchangesanddefineclassesinahierarchy
Object-OrientedConcepts
 ADTsareusuallycalledclasses
 Classinstancesarecalledobjects
 Aclassthatinheritsisaderivedclassorasubclass
 Theclassfromwhichanotherclassinheritsisaparentclassorsuperclass
 Subprogramsthatdefineoperationsonobjectsarecalledmethods
 Callstomethodsarecalledmessages
 Theentirecollectionofmethodsofanobjectiscalleditsmessageprotocolor
messageinterface
 Messageshavetwoparts--amethodnameandthedestinationobject
 Inthesimplestcase,aclassinheritsalloftheentitiesofitsparent
 Inheritancecanbecomplicatedbyaccesscontrolstoencapsulatedentities
– Aclasscanhideentitiesfromitssubclasses
– Aclasscanhideentitiesfromitsclients
– Aclasscanalsohideentitiesforitsclientswhileallowingitssubclassestoseethem
 Besidesinheritingmethodsasis,aclasscanmodifyaninheritedmethod
– Thenewoneoverridestheinheritedone
– Themethodintheparentisoverriden
 Therearetwokindsofvariablesinaclass:
– Classvariables-one/class
– Instancevariables-one/object
 Therearetwokindsofmethodsinaclass:
– Classmethods–acceptmessagestotheclass
– Instancemethods–acceptmessagestoobjects
 Singlevs.MultipleInheritance
 Onedisadvantageofinheritanceforreuse:
– Createsinterdependenciesamongclassesthatcomplicatemaintenance
DynamicBinding
 Apolymorphicvariablecanbedefinedinaclassthatisabletoreference(orpointto)objectsoftheclassando
bjectsofanyofitsdescendants
 Whenaclasshierarchyincludesclassesthatoverridemethodsandsuchmethodsarecalledthroughapoly
morphicvariable,thebindingtothecorrectmethodwillbedynamic
 Allowssoftwaresystemstobemoreeasilyextendedduringbothdevelopmentandmaintenance
DynamicBindingConcepts
 Anabstractmethodisonethatdoesnotincludeadefinition(itonlydefinesaprotocol)
 Anabstractclassisonethatincludesatleastonevirtualmethod
 Anabstractclasscannotbeinstantiated

4.6 DesignIssuesforOOPLanguages–CO4
 TheExclusivityofObjects
 AreSubclassesSubtypes?

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  TypeCheckingandPolymorphism
 SingleandMultipleInheritance
 ObjectAllocationandDeAllocation

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  DynamicandStaticBinding
 NestedClasses
TheExclusivityofObjects
 Everythingisanobject
– Advantage-eleganceandpurity
– Disadvantage-slowoperationsonsimpleobjects
 Addobjectstoacompletetypingsystem
– Advantage-fastoperationsonsimpleobjects
– Disadvantage-resultsinaconfusingtypesystem(twokindsofentities)
 Includeanimperative-styletypingsystemforprimitivesbutmakeeverythingelseobjects
– Advantage-fastoperationsonsimpleobjectsandarelativelysmalltypingsystem
– Disadvantage-stillsomeconfusionbecauseofthetwotypesystems
AreSubclassesSubtypes?
 Doesan“is-a”relationshipholdbetweenaparentclassobjectandanobjectofthesubclass?
– Ifaderivedclassis-
aparentclass,thenobjectsofthederivedclassmustbehavethesameastheparentclassobject
 Aderivedclassisasubtypeifithasanis-arelationshipwithitsparentclass
– Subclasscanonlyaddvariablesandmethodsandoverrideinheritedmethodsin
“compatible”ways
TypeCheckingandPolymorphism
 Polymorphismmayrequiredynamictypecheckingofparametersandthereturnvalue
– Dynamictypecheckingiscostlyanddelayserrordetection
 Ifoverridingmethodsarerestrictedtohavingthesameparametertypesandreturntype,thecheckingcanbe
static
SingleandMultipleInheritance
 Multipleinheritanceallowsanewclasstoinheritfromtwoormoreclasses
 Disadvantagesofmultipleinheritance:
– Languageandimplementationcomplexity(inpartduetonamecollisions)
– Potentialinefficiency-dynamicbindingcostsmorewithmultipleinheritance(butnotmuch)
 Advantage:
– Sometimesitisquiteconvenientandvaluable
AllocationandDeAllocationofObjects
 Fromwhereareobjectsallocated?
– IftheybehavelinetheADTs,theycanbeallocatedfromanywhere
 Allocatedfromtherun-timestack
 Explicitlycreateontheheap(vianew)
– Iftheyareallheap-dynamic,referencescanbeuniformthruapointerorreferencevariable
 Simplifiesassignment-dereferencingcanbeimplicit
– Ifobjectsarestackdynamic,thereisaproblemwithregardtosubtypes
 Isdeallocationexplicitorimplicit?
DynamicandStaticBinding
 Shouldallbindingofmessagestomethodsbedynamic?
– Ifnoneare,youlosetheadvantagesofdynamicbinding
– Ifallare,itisinefficient

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  Allowtheusertospecify

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 NestedClasses
 Ifanewclassisneededbyonlyoneclass,thereisnoreasontodefinesoitcanbeseenbyotherclasses
– Canthenewclassbenestedinsidetheclassthatusesit?
– Insomecases,thenewclassisnestedinsideasubprogramratherthandirectlyinanotherclass
 Otherissues:
– Whichfacilitiesofthenestingclassshouldbevisibletothenestedclassandviceversa

4.6 SupportforOOPinSmalltalk–CO4
 SmalltalkisapureOOPlanguage
– Everythingisanobject
– Allobjectshavelocalmemory
– Allcomputationisthroughobjectssendingmessagestoobjects
– Noneoftheappearancesofimperativelanguages
– Allobjectedareallocatedfromtheheap
– Alldeallocationisimplicit
 TypeCheckingandPolymorphism
– Allbindingofmessagestomethodsisdynamic
 Theprocessistosearchtheobjecttowhichthemessageissentforthemethod;ifnotfound,searchthesu
perclass,etc.uptothesystemclasswhichhasnosuperclass
– TheonlytypecheckinginSmalltalkisdynamicandtheonlytypeerroroccurswhenamessageisse
nttoanobjectthathasnomatchingmethod
 Inheritance
– ASmalltalksubclassinheritsalloftheinstancevariables,instancemethods,andclassmethodsofi
tssuperclass
– Allsubclassesaresubtypes(nothingcanbehidden)
– Allinheritanceisimplementationinheritance
– Nomultipleinheritance
 EvaluationofSmalltalk
– Thesyntaxofthelanguageissimpleandregular
– Goodexampleofpowerprovidedbyasmalllanguage
– Slowcomparedwithconventionalcompiledimperativelanguages
– Dynamicbindingallowstypeerrorstogoundetecteduntilruntime
– Introducedthegraphicaluserinterface
– Greatestimpact:advancementofOOP

4.7 SupportforOOPinC++-CO4
 GeneralCharacteristics:
– EvolvedfromCandSIMULA67
– AmongthemostwidelyusedOOPlanguages
– Mixedtypingsystem
– Constructorsanddestructors
– Elaborateaccesscontrolstoclassentities
 Inheritance
– Aclassneednotbethesubclassofanyclass

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 – Accesscontrolsformembersare
– Private(visibleonlyintheclassandfriends)(disallowssubclassesfrombeingsubtypes)

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 – Public(visibleinsubclassesandclients)
– Protected(visibleintheclassandinsubclasses,butnotclients)
 Inaddition,thesubclassingprocesscanbedeclaredwithaccesscontrols(privateorpublic),whichdef
inepotentialchangesinaccessbysubclasses
– Privatederivation-inheritedpublicandprotectedmembersareprivateinthesubclasses
– Public derivation public and protected members are also public
andprotectedinsubclasses
InheritanceExampleinC++
classbase_class{pri
vate:
inta;floa
tx;
protected:
intb;flo
aty;publ
ic:intc;f
loatz;
};
classsubclass_1:publicbase_class{…};
//Inthisone,bandyareprotectedand
//candzarepublic
classsubclass_2:privatebase_class{…};
//Inthisone,b,y,c,andzareprivate,
//andnoderivedclasshasaccesstoany
//memberofbase_class
 Amemberthatisnotaccessibleinasubclass(becauseofprivatederivation)canbedeclaredtobevisiblethe
reusingthescoperesolutionoperator(::),e.g.,
classsubclass_3:privatebase_class{ba
se_class::c;
…
}
 Onemotivationforusingprivatederivation
– Aclassprovidesmembersthatmustbevisible,sotheyaredefinedtobepublicmembers;aderivedclass
addssomenewmembers,butdoesnotwantitsclientstoseethemembersoftheparentclass,eventhoug
htheyhadtobepublicintheparentclassdefinition
 Multipleinheritanceissupported
– Iftherearetwoinheritedmemberswiththesamename,theycanbothbereferencedusingthescopereso
lutionoperator
 DynamicBinding
– Amethodcanbedefinedtobevirtual,whichmeansthattheycanbecalledthroughpolymorphicva
riablesanddynamicallyboundtomessages
– Apurevirtualfunctionhasnodefinitionatall
– Aclassthathasatleastonepurevirtualfunctionisanabstractclass
 Evaluation
– C++providesextensiveaccesscontrols(unlikeSmalltalk)
– C++providesmultipleinheritance
– InC+

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 +,theprogrammermustdecideatdesigntimewhichmethodswillbestaticallyboundandwhichm
ustbedynamicallybound
 Staticbindingisfaster!
– Smalltalktypecheckingisdynamic(flexible,butsomewhatunsafe)
– Becauseofinterpretationanddynamicbinding,Smalltalkis~10timesslowerthanC++

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 4.8 SupportforOOPinJava–CO4
 BecauseofitscloserelationshiptoC++,focusisonthedifferencesfromthatlanguage
 GeneralCharacteristics
– Alldataareobjectsexcepttheprimitivetypes
– Allprimitivetypeshavewrapperclassesthatstoreonedatavalue
– Allobjectsareheap-
dynamic,arereferencedthroughreferencevariables,andmostareallocatedwithnew
– Afinalizemethodisimplicitlycalledwhenthegarbagecollectorisabouttoreclaimthestorageoccupie
dbytheobject
 Inheritance
– Singleinheritancesupportedonly,butthereisanabstractclasscategorythatprovidessomeoftheb
enefitsofmultipleinheritance(interface)
– Aninterfacecanincludeonlymethoddeclarationsandnamedconstants,
e.g.,
publicinterfaceComparable{
publicintcomparedTo(Objectb);}
– Methodscanbefinal(cannotbeoverriden)
 DynamicBinding
– InJava,allmessagesaredynamicallyboundtomethods,unlessthemethodisfinal(i.e.,itcannotbe
overriden,thereforedynamicbindingservesnopurpose)
– Staticbindingisalsousedifthemethodsisstaticorprivatebothofwhichdisallowoverriding
 Severalvarietiesofnestedclasses
 Allarehiddenfromallclassesintheirpackage,exceptforthenestingclass
 Nestedclassescanbeanonymous
 Alocalnestedclassisdefinedinamethodofitsnestingclass
– Noaccessspecifierisused
 Evaluation
– DesigndecisionstosupportOOParesimilartoC++
– Nosupportforproceduralprogramming
– Noparentlessclasses
– Dynamicbindingisusedas“normal”waytobindmethodcallstomethoddefinitions
– Usesinterfacestoprovideasimpleformofsupportformultipleinheritance

4.9 SupportforOOPinC#-CO4
 Generalcharacteristics
– SupportforOOPsimilartoJava
– Includesbothclassesandstructs
– ClassesaresimilartoJava‘sclasses
– structsarelesspowerfulstack-dynamicconstructs(e.g.,noinheritance)
 Inheritance
– UsesthesyntaxofC++fordefiningclasses
– Amethodinheritedfromparentclasscanbereplacedinthederivedclassbymarkingitsdefinitionwith
new
– Theparentclassversioncanstillbecalledexplicitlywiththeprefixbase:base.Draw()

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  Dynamicbinding
– Toallowdynamicbindingofmethodcallstomethods:

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  Thebaseclassmethodismarkedvirtual
 Thecorrespondingmethodsinderivedclassesaremarkedoverride
– Abstractmethodsaremarkedabstractandmustbeimplementedinallsubclasses
– AllC#classesareultimatelyderivedfromasinglerootclass,Object
 NestedClasses
– AC#classthatisdirectlynestedinanestingclassbehaveslikeaJavastaticnestedclass
– C#doesnotsupportnestedclassesthatbehavelikethenon-staticclassesofJava
 Evaluation
– C#isthemostrecentlydesignedC-basedOOlanguage
– ThedifferencesbetweenC#‘sandJava‘ssupportforOOParerelativelyminor

4.10 SupportforOOPinAda95–CO4
 GeneralCharacteristics
– OOPwasoneofthemostimportantextensionstoAda83
– Encapsulationcontainerisapackagethatdefinesataggedtype
– Ataggedtypeisoneinwhicheveryobjectincludesatagtoindicateduringexecutionitstype(thetagsare
internal)
– Taggedtypescanbeeitherprivatetypesorrecords
– Noconstructorsordestructorsareimplicitlycalled
 Inheritance
– Subclassescanbederivedfromtaggedtypes
– Newentitiesareaddedtotheinheritedentitiesbyplacingtheminarecorddefinition
– Allsubclassesaresubtypes
– Nosupportformultipleinheritance
 AcomparableeffectcanbeachievedusinggenericclassesExampleofaTag
gedType
PackagePerson_Pkgis
typePersonistaggedprivate;proced
ureDisplay(P:inoutPerson);
private
typePersonistaggedrec
ord
Name:String(1..30);Ad
dress:String(1..30);Ag
e:Integer;
endrecord;e
ndPerson_Pkg;
withPerson_Pkg;usePerson_Pkg;pac
kageStudent_Pkgis
typeStudentisnewPersonwithre
cord
Grade_Point_Average:Floa
t;Grade_Level:Integer;
endrecord;
procedureDisplay(St:inStudent)
;endStudent_Pkg;

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 //Note:DisplayisbeingoverriddenfromPerson_Pkg
 DynamicBinding
– Dynamicbindingisdoneusingpolymorphicvariablescalledclasswidetypes
 ForthetaggedtypePrtdon,theclasswidetypeisPerson‘class
– Otherbindingsarestatic

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 – Anymethodmaybedynamicallybound
– PurelyabstractbasetypescanbedefinedinAda95byincludingthereservedwordabstract
 Evaluation
– AdaofferscompletesupportforOOP
– C++offersbetterformofinheritancethanAda
– Adaincludesnoinitializationofobjects(e.g.,constructors)
– DynamicbindinginC-basedOOPlanguagesisrestrictedtopointersand/
orreferencestoobjects;Adahasnosuchrestrictionandisthusmoreorthogonal

ImplementingOOPsConstructs
 Twointerestingandchallengingparts
– Storagestructuresforinstancevariables
– Dynamicbindingofmessagestomethods
InstanceDataStorage
 Classinstancerecords(CIRs)storethestateofanobject
– Static(builtatcompiletime)
 Ifaclasshasaparent,thesubclassinstancevariablesareaddedtotheparentCIR
 BecauseCIRisstatic,accesstoallinstancevariablesisdoneasitisinrecords
– Efficient
DynamicBindingofMethodsCalls
 MethodsinaclassthatarestaticallyboundneednotbeinvolvedintheCIR;methodsthatwillbedynam
icallyboundmusthaveentriesintheCIR
– CallstodynamicallyboundmethodscanbeconnectedtothecorrespondingcodethruapointerintheCI
R
– Thestoragestructureissometimescalledvirtualmethodtables(vtable)
– Methodcallscanberepresentedasoffsetsfromthebeginningofthevtable
SummaryofOOPs
 OOprogramminginvolvesthreefundamentalconcepts:ADTs,inheritance,dynamicbinding
 Majordesignissues:exclusivityofobjects,subclassesandsubtypes,typecheckingandpolymorphism,si
ngleandmultipleinheritance,dynamicbinding,explicitandimplicitde-
allocationofobjects,andnestedclasses
 SmalltalkisapureOOL
 C++hastwodistincttypesystem(hybrid)
 JavaisnotahybridlanguagelikeC++;itsupportsonlyOOprogramming
 C#isbasedonC++andJava
 ImplementingOOPinvolvessomenewdatastructures

Concurrency
 Concurrencycanoccuratfourlevels:
– Machineinstructionlevel
– High-levellanguagestatementlevel
– Unitlevel
– Programlevel
 Becausetherearenolanguageissuesininstruction-andprogram-

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 levelconcurrency,theyarenotaddressedhere

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 MultiprocessorArchitectures
 Late1950s-onegeneral-
purposeprocessorandoneormorespecialpurposeprocessorsforinputandoutputoperations
 Early1960s-multiplecompleteprocessors,usedforprogram-levelconcurrency
 Mid-1960s-multiplepartialprocessors,usedforinstruction-levelconcurrency
 Single-InstructionMultiple-Data(SIMD)machines
 Multiple-InstructionMultiple-Data(MIMD)machines
– Independentprocessorsthatcanbesynchronized(unit-levelconcurrency)
CategoriesofConcurrency
 Athreadofcontrolinaprogramisthesequenceofprogrampointsreachedascontrolflowsthroughtheprog
ram
 CategoriesofConcurrency:
– Physicalconcurrency-Multipleindependentprocessors(multiplethreadsofcontrol)
– Logicalconcurrency-Theappearanceofphysicalconcurrencyispresentedbytime-
sharingoneprocessor(softwarecanbedesignedasifthereweremultiplethreadsofcontrol)
 Coroutines(quasi-concurrency)haveasinglethreadofcontrol
MotivationsforStudyingConcurrency
 Involvesadifferentwayofdesigningsoftwarethatcanbeveryuseful—manyreal-
worldsituationsinvolveconcurrency
 Multiprocessorcomputerscapableofphysicalconcurrencyarenowwidelyused

Subprogram-LevelConcurrency
 Ataskorprocessisaprogramunitthatcanbeinconcurrentexecutionwithotherprogramunits
 Tasksdifferfromordinarysubprogramsinthat:
– Ataskmaybeimplicitlystarted
– Whenaprogramunitstartstheexecutionofatask,itisnotnecessarilysuspended
– Whenatask‘sexecutioniscompleted,controlmaynotreturntothecaller
 Tasksusuallyworktogether
TwoGeneralCategoriesofTasks
 Heavyweighttasksexecuteintheirownaddressspace
 Lightweighttasksallruninthesameaddressspace
 Ataskisdisjointifitdoesnotcommunicatewithoraffecttheexecutionofanyothertaskintheprograminan
yway
TaskSynchronization
 Amechanismthatcontrolstheorderinwhichtasksexecute
 Twokindsofsynchronization
– Cooperationsynchronization
– Competitionsynchronization
 Taskcommunicationisnecessaryforsynchronization,providedby:
– Sharednonlocalvariables
– Parameters
– Messagepassing
Kindsofsynchronization
 Cooperation:TaskAmustwaitfortaskBtocompletesomespecificactivitybeforetaskAcancontinueitse

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 xecution,e.g.,theproducer-consumerproblem

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  Competition:Twoormoretasksmustusesomeresourcethatcannotbesimultaneouslyused,e.g.,ash
aredcounter
– Competitionisusuallyprovidedbymutuallyexclusiveaccess(approachesarediscussedlater)
–

Scheduler Figure6.1NeedforCompetitionSynchronization
 Providingsynchronizationrequiresamechanismfordelayingtaskexecution
 Taskexecutioncontrolismaintainedbyaprogramcalledthescheduler,whichmapstaskexecutiono
ntoavailableprocessors
TaskExecutionStates
 New-createdbutnotyetstarted
 Ready-readytorunbutnotcurrentlyrunning(noavailableprocessor)
 Running
 Blocked-hasbeenrunning,butcannotnowcontinue(usuallywaitingforsomeeventtooccur)
 Dead-nolongeractiveinanysense
LivenessandDeadlock
 Livenessisacharacteristicthataprogramunitmayormaynothave
– Insequentialcode,itmeanstheunitwilleventuallycompleteitsexecution
 Inaconcurrentenvironment,ataskcaneasilyloseitsliveness
 Ifalltasksinaconcurrentenvironmentlosetheirliveness,itiscalleddeadlock
DesignIssuesforConcurrency
 Competitionandcooperationsynchronization
 Controllingtaskscheduling
 Howandwhentasksstartandendexecution
 Howandwhenaretaskscreated
MethodsofProvidingSynchronization
 Semaphores
 Monitors
 MessagePassing

Semaphores
 Dijkstra-1965
 Asemaphoreisadatastructureconsistingofacounterandaqueueforstoringtaskdescriptors
 Semaphorescanbeusedtoimplementguardsonthecodethataccessesshareddatastructures

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  Semaphoreshaveonlytwooperations,waitandrelease(originallycalledPand
VbyDijkstra)

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  Semaphores can be used to provide both competition and
cooperationsynchronization
CooperationSynchronizationwithSemaphores
 Example:Asharedbuffer
 ThebufferisimplementedasanADTwiththeoperationsDEPOSITandFETCHastheonlywaystoaccess
thebuffer
 Usetwosemaphoresforcooperation:emptyspotsandfullspots
 Thesemaphorecountersareusedtostorethenumbersofemptyspotsandfullspotsinthebuffer
 DEPOSITmustfirstcheckemptyspotstoseeifthereisroominthebuffer
 Ifthereisroom,thecounterofemptyspotsisdecrementedandthevalueisinserted
 Ifthereisnoroom,thecallerisstoredinthequeueofemptyspots
 WhenDEPOSITisfinished,itmustincrementthecounteroffullspots
 FETCHmustfirstcheckfullspotstoseeifthereisavalue
– Ifthereisafullspot,thecounteroffullspotsisdecrementedandthevalueisremoved
– Iftherearenovaluesinthebuffer,thecallermustbeplacedinthequeueoffullspots
– WhenFETCHisfinished,itincrementsthecounterofemptyspots
 TheoperationsofFETCHandDEPOSITonthesemaphoresareaccomplishedthroughtwosemapho
reoperationsnamedwaitandrelease

Semaphores:WaitOperation
wait(aSemaphore)
ifaSemaphore‘scounter>0thendecrem
entaSemaphore‘scounter
else
putthecallerinaSemaphore‘squeueatte
mpttotransfercontroltoareadytask
--ifthetaskreadyqueueisempty,
--deadlockoccurs
end

Semaphores:ReleaseOperation
release(aSemaphore)
ifaSemaphore‘squeueisemptythenincreme
ntaSemaphore‘scounter
els
e putthecallingtaskinthetaskreadyqueuetransferco
ntroltoataskfromaSemaphore‘squeue
end

ProducerConsumerCode
semaphorefullspots,emptyspots;full
stops.count=0;emptyspots.c
ount=BUFLEN;taskproduc
er;
loop
--produceVALUE–-
wait(emptyspots);

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 {waitforspace}DEPOSIT(VALUE);
release(fullspots);
{increasefilled}endloop;
endproducer;

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 ProducerConsumerCode
taskconsumer;
loop
wait(fullspots);
{waittillnotempty}}FETCH(VALUE);
release(emptyspots);{increaseempty}
--consumeVALUE–-
endloop;
endconsumer;
CompetitionSynchronizationwithSemaphores
 Athirdsemaphore,namedaccess,isusedtocontrolaccess(competitionsynchronization)
– Thecounterofaccesswillonlyhavethevalues0and1
– Suchasemaphoreiscalledabinarysemaphore
 Notethatwaitandreleasemustbeatomic!
ProducerConsumerCode
semaphoreaccess,fullspots,emptyspots;access.co
unt=0;
fullstops.count=0;emptyspo
ts.count=BUFLEN;taskpro
ducer;
loop
--produceVALUE–-
wait(emptyspots);
{waitforspace}wait(access);
{waitforaccess)DEPOSIT(VALUE);
release(access);
{relinquishaccess}release(fullspots);
{increasefilled}
endloop;
endproducer;

ProducerConsumerCode
taskconsumer;
loop
wait(fullspots);
{waittillnotempty}wait(access);
{waitforaccess}FETCH(VALUE);
release(access);
{relinquishaccess}release(emptyspo
ts);{increaseempty}
--consumeVALUE–-
endloop;
endconsumer;
EvaluationofSemaphores
 Misuseofsemaphorescancausefailuresincooperationsynchronization,
e.g.,thebufferwilloverflowifthewaitoffullspotsisleftout
 Misuseofsemaphorescancausefailuresincompetitionsynchronization,
e.g.,theprogramwilldeadlockifthereleaseofaccessisleftout

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 Monitors
 Ada,Java,C#
 Theidea:encapsulatetheshareddataanditsoperationstorestrictaccess
 Amonitorisanabstractdatatypeforshareddata
CompetitionSynchronization
 Shareddataisresidentinthemonitor(ratherthanintheclientunits)
 Allaccessresidentinthemonitor

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 – Monitorimplementationguaranteesynchronizedaccessbyallowingonlyoneaccessatatime
– Callstomonitorproceduresareimplicitlyqueuedifthemonitorisbusyatthetimeofthecall
CooperationSynchronization
 Cooperationbetweenprocessesisstillaprogrammingtask
– Programmermustguaranteethatasharedbufferdoesnotexperienceunderfloworoverflow

EvaluationofMonitors Figure6.2CooperationSynchronization
 Abetterwaytoprovidecompetitionsynchronizationthanaresemaphores
 Semaphorescanbeusedtoimplementmonitors
 Monitorscanbeusedtoimplementsemaphores
 Supportforcooperationsynchronizationisverysimilaraswithsemaphores,soithasthesameproble
ms

MessagePassing
 Messagepassingisageneralmodelforconcurrency
– Itcanmodelbothsemaphoresandmonitors
– Itisnotjustforcompetitionsynchronization
 Centralidea:taskcommunicationislikeseeingadoctor--
mostofthetimeshewaitsforyouoryouwaitforher,butwhenyouarebothready,yougettogether,orrendez
vous
MessagePassingRendezvous
 Tosupportconcurrenttaskswithmessagepassing,alanguageneeds:
– Amechanismtoallowatasktoindicatewhenitiswillingtoacceptmessages
– Awaytorememberwhoiswaitingtohaveitsmessageacceptedandsome
“fair”wayofchoosingthenextmessage
 Whenasendertask‘smessageisacceptedbyareceivertask,theactualmessagetransmissioniscalled
arendezvous

AdaSupportforConcurrency
 TheAda83Message-PassingModel
– Adataskshavespecificationandbodyparts,likepackages;thespechastheinterface,whichisthec
ollectionofentrypoints:
taskTask_Exampleis
entryENTRY_1(Item:inInteger);en
dTask_Example;

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 TaskBody
 Thebodytaskdescribestheactionthattakesplacewhenarendezvousoccurs
 Ataskthatsendsamessageissuspendedwhilewaitingforthemessagetobeacceptedandduringtherendez
vous
 Entrypointsinthespecaredescribedwithacceptclausesinthebodyaccept
entry_name(formalparameters)do
…
endentry_name

ExampleofaTaskBody
taskbodyTask_Exampleisbe
gin
loop
acceptEntry_1(Item:inFloat)do
...
endEntry_1;
endloop;en
dTask_Example;

AdaMessagePassingSemantics
 Thetaskexecutestothetopoftheacceptclauseandwaitsforamessage
 Duringexecutionoftheacceptclause,thesenderissuspended
 acceptparameterscantransmitinformationineitherorbothdirections
 Everyacceptclausehasanassociatedqueuetostorewaitingmessages

Figure6.3RendezvousTimeLines

MessagePassing:Server/ActorTasks
 Ataskthathasacceptclauses,butnoothercodeiscalledaservertask(theexampleaboveisaservertask
)

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  Ataskwithoutacceptclausesiscalledanactortask
– Anactortaskcansendmessagestoothertasks
– Note:Asendermustknowtheentrynameofthereceiver,butnotviceversa(asymmetric)

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 Figure6.4GraphicalRepresentationofaRendezvous

Example:ActorTask
taskWater_Monitor;--specificationtaskbodybodyWater_Monitoris--
bodybegin
loop
ifWater_Level>Max_Level
thenSound_Alarm;
endif;
delay1.0;--Nofurtherexecution
--foratleast1second
endloop;en
dWater_Monitor;
MultipleEntryPoints
 Taskscanhavemorethanoneentrypoint
– Thespecificationtaskhasanentryclauseforeach
– Thetaskbodyhasanacceptclauseforeachentryclause,placedinaselectclause,whichisinaloop
ATaskwithMultipleEntries
taskbodyTellerisloo
p
select
acceptDrive_Up(formalparams)do
...
endDrive_Up;
...
or
acceptWalk_Up(formalparams)do
...
endWalk_Up;
...
endselect;en
dloop;
endTeller;

SemanticsofTaskswithMultipleacceptClauses

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  Ifexactlyoneentryqueueisnonempty,chooseamessagefromit
 Ifmorethanoneentryqueueisnonempty,chooseone,nondeterministically,fromwhichtoacceptam
essage
 Ifallareempty,wait
 Theconstructisoftencalledaselectivewait
 Extendedacceptclause-codefollowingtheclause,butbeforethenextclause
– Executedconcurrentlywiththecaller

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 CooperationSynchronizationwithMessagePassing
 ProvidedbyGuardedacceptclauses
whennotFull(Buffer)=>acceptDep
osit(New_Value)do
 Anacceptclausewithawithawhenclauseiseitheropenorclosed
– Aclausewhoseguardistrueiscalledopen
– Aclausewhoseguardisfalseiscalledclosed
– Aclausewithoutaguardisalwaysopen

SemanticsofselectwithGuardedacceptClauses:
 selectfirstcheckstheguardsonallclauses
 Ifexactlyoneisopen,itsqueueischeckedformessages
 Ifmorethanoneareopen,non-deterministicallychooseaqueueamongthemtocheckformessages
 Ifallareclosed,itisaruntimeerror
 Aselectclausecanincludeanelseclausetoavoidtheerror
– Whentheelseclausecompletes,thelooprepeats

ExampleofaTaskwithGuardedacceptClauses
 Note:Thestationmaybeoutofgasandtheremayormaynotbeapositionavailableinthegarage
taskGas_Station_Attendantis
entryService_Island(Car:Car_Type);entryGa
rage(Car:Car_Type);
endGas_Station_Attendant;

ExampleofaTaskwithGuardedacceptClauses
taskbodyGas_Station_Attendantisbegin
loop
select
whenGas_Available=>
acceptService_Island(Car:Car_Type)doFill_With_Gas(Car);
endService_Island;or
whenGarage_Available=>
acceptGarage(Car:Car_Type)doFix(Car
);
endGarage;else

endselect;e Sleep;
ndloop;
endGas_Station_Attendant;
CompetitionSynchronizationwithMessagePassing
 Modelingmutuallyexclusiveaccesstoshareddata
 Example--asharedbuffer
 Encapsulatethebufferanditsoperationsinatask
 Competitionsynchronizationisimplicitinthesemanticsofacceptclauses
– Onlyoneacceptclauseinataskcanbeactiveatanygiventime

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 TaskTermination
 Theexecutionofataskiscompletedifcontrolhasreachedtheendofitscodebody
 Ifataskhascreatednodependenttasksandiscompleted,itisterminated
 Ifataskhascreateddependenttasksandiscompleted,itisnotterminateduntilallitsdependenttasksareter
minated
TheterminateClause
 Aterminateclauseinaselectisjustaterminatestatement
 Aterminateclauseisselectedwhennoacceptclauseisopen
 Whenaterminateisselectedinatask,thetaskisterminatedonlywhenitsmasterandallofthedependentsofi
tsmasterareeithercompletedorarewaitingataterminate
 Ablockorsubprogramisnotleftuntilallofitsdependenttasksareterminated
MessagePassingPriorities
 ThepriorityofanytaskcanbesetwiththepragmaprioritypragmaPriority(expression);
 Thepriorityofataskappliestoitonlywhenitisinthetaskreadyqueue

BinarySemaphores
 ForsituationswherethedatatowhichaccessistobecontrolledisNOTencapsulatedinatask
taskBinary_Semaphoreise
ntryWait;
entryrelease;en
dBinary_Semaphore;
taskbodyBinary_Semaphoreisbe
gin
loop
acceptWait;acce
ptRelease;endlo
op;
endBinary_Semaphore;

ConcurrencyinAda95
 Ada95includesAda83featuresforconcurrency,plustwonewfeatures
– Protectedobjects:Amoreefficientwayofimplementingshareddatatoallowaccesstoashareddatastructu
retobedonewithoutrendezvous
– Asynchronouscommunication

Ada95:ProtectedObjects
 Aprotectedobjectissimilartoanabstractdatatype
 Accesstoaprotectedobjectiseitherthroughmessagespassedtoentries,aswithatask,orthroughprote
ctedsubprograms
 A protected procedure provides mutually exclusive read-write access
toprotectedobjects
 Aprotectedfunctionprovidesconcurrentread-onlyaccesstoprotectedobjects

AsynchronousCommunication
 Providedthroughasynchronousselectstructures
 Anasynchronousselecthastwotriggeringalternatives,anentryclauseoradelay

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 – Theentryclauseistriggeredwhensentamessage
– Thedelayclauseistriggeredwhenitstimelimitisreached

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 EvaluationoftheAda
 Messagepassingmodelofconcurrencyispowerfulandgeneral
 Protectedobjectsareabetterwaytoprovidesynchronizedshareddata
 Intheabsenceofdistributedprocessors,thechoicebetweenmonitorsandtaskswithmessagepassingisso
mewhatamatteroftaste
 Fordistributedsystems,messagepassingisabettermodelforconcurrency

JavaThreads
 TheconcurrentunitsinJavaaremethodsnamedrun
– Arunmethodcodecanbeinconcurrentexecutionwithothersuchmethods
– Theprocessinwhichtherunmethodsexecuteiscalledathread
ClassmyThreadextendsThread{
publicvoidrun(){…}
}
…
ThreadmyTh=newMyThread();myTh
.start();

ControllingThreadExecution
 TheThreadclasshasseveralmethodstocontroltheexecutionofthreads
– Theyieldisarequestfromtherunningthreadtovoluntarilysurrendertheprocessor
– Thesleepmethodcanbeusedbythecallerofthemethodtoblockthethread
– Thejoinmethodisusedtoforceamethodtodelayitsexecutionuntiltherunmethodofanotherthreadha
scompleteditsexecution

ThreadPriorities
 Athread‘sdefaultpriorityisthesameasthethreadthatcreateit
– Ifmaincreatesathread,itsdefaultpriorityisNORM_PRIORITY
 Threads defined two other priority constants, MAX_PRIORITY
andMIN_PRIORITY
 ThepriorityofathreadcanbechangedwiththemethodssetPriority

CompetitionSynchronizationwithJavaThreads
 Amethodthatincludesthesynchronizedmodifierdisallowsanyothermethodfromrunningontheobject
whileitisinexecution
…
public synchronized void deposit( int i)
{…} public synchronized int fetch() {…}
…
 Theabovetwomethodsaresynchronizedwhichpreventsthemfrominterferingwitheachother
 Ifonlyapartofamethodmustberunwithoutinterference,itcanbesynchronizedthroughsynchronizedstat
ement
synchronized(expression)
statement
CooperationSynchronizationwithJavaThreads
 CooperationsynchronizationinJavaisachievedviawait,notify,andnotifyAllmethods

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 – AllmethodsaredefinedinObject,whichistherootclassinJava,soallobjectsinheritthem
 Thewaitmethodmustbecalledinaloop

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  Thenotifymethodiscalledtotellonewaitingthreadthattheeventitwaswaitinghashappened
 ThenotifyAllmethodawakensallofthethreadsontheobject‘swaitlist

Java’sThreadEvaluation
 Java‘ssupportforconcurrencyisrelativelysimplebuteffective
 NotaspowerfulasAda‘stasks

C#Threads
 LooselybasedonJavabuttherearesignificantdifferences
 Basicthreadoperations
– Anymethodcanruninitsownthread
– AthreadiscreatedbycreatingaThreadobject
– Creatingathreaddoesnotstartitsconcurrentexecution;itmustberequestedthroughtheStartmet
hod
– AthreadcanbemadetowaitforanotherthreadtofinishwithJoin
– AthreadcanbesuspendedwithSleep
– AthreadcanbeterminatedwithAbort

SynchronizingThreads
 ThreewaystosynchronizeC#threads
– TheInterlockedclass
 Usedwhentheonlyoperationsthatneedtobesynchronizedareincrementingordecrementingofanintege
r
– Thelockstatement
 Usedtomarkacriticalsectionofcodeinathreadlock(expression){…}
– TheMonitorclass
 Provides four methods that can be used to provide more
sophisticatedsynchronization
C#’sConcurrencyEvaluation
 AnadvanceoverJavathreads,e.g.,anymethodcanrunitsownthread
 ThreadterminationiscleanerthaninJava
 Synchronizationismoresophisticated

Statement-LevelConcurrency
 Objective:Provideamechanismthattheprogrammercanusetoinformcompilerofwaysitcanmapthepro
gramontomultiprocessorarchitecture
 Minimizecommunicationamongprocessorsandthememoriesoftheotherprocessors
High-PerformanceFortran
 Acollectionofextensionsthatallowtheprogrammertoprovideinformationtothecompilertohelpitopti
mizecodeformultiprocessorcomputers
 Specifythenumberofprocessors,thedistributionofdataoverthememoriesofthoseprocessors,andtheali
gnmentofdata
PrimaryHPFSpecifications
 Numberofprocessors
!HPF$PROCESSORSprocs(n)

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  Distributionofdata
!HPF$DISTRIBUTE(kind)ONTOprocs::identifier_list
– kindcanbeBLOCK(distributedatatoprocessorsinblocks)orCY
CLIC(distributedatatoprocessorsoneelementatatime)

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  Relatethedistributionofonearraywiththatofanother
ALIGNarray1_elementWITHarray2_element
Statement-
LevelConcurrencyExampleREALli
st_1(1000),list_2(1000)INTEGERlist
_3(500),list_4(501)
!HPF$PROCESSORSproc(10)
!HPF$DISTRIBUTE(BLOCK)ONTOprocs::
list_1,list_2
!
HPF$ALIGNlist_1(index)WITHlis
t_4(index+1)
…
list_1(index)=list_2(index)list
_3(index)=list_4(index+1)
 FORALLstatementisusedtospecifyalistofstatementsthatmaybeexecutedconcurrently
FORALL(index=1:1000)
list_1(index)=list_2(index)
 Specifiesthatall1,000RHSsoftheassignmentscanbeevaluatedbeforeanyassignmenttakesplace

Summary
 Concurrentexecutioncanbeattheinstruction,statement,orsubprogramlevel
 Physicalconcurrency:whenmultipleprocessorsareusedtoexecuteconcurrentunits
 Logicalconcurrency:concurrentunitedareexecutedonasingleprocessor
 Two primary facilities to support subprogram concurrency:
competitionsynchronizationandcooperationsynchronization
 Mechanisms:semaphores,monitors,rendezvous,threads
 High-
PerformanceFortranprovidesstatementsforspecifyinghowdataistobedistributedoverthememoryunit
sconnectedtomultipleprocessors

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 ExceptionHandling&LogicProgrammingLanguage

IntroductiontoExceptionHandling
 Inalanguagewithoutexceptionhandling
– Whenanexceptionoccurs,controlgoestotheoperatingsystem,whereamessageisdisplayedandthep
rogramisterminated
 Inalanguagewithexceptionhandling
– Programsareallowedtotrapsomeexceptions,therebyprovidingthepossibilityoffixingtheproblem
andcontinuing
4.11 BasicConcepts–CO3
 Manylanguagesallowprogramstotrapinput/outputerrors(includingEOF)
 Anexceptionisanyunusualevent,eithererroneousornot,detectablebyeitherhardwareorsoftware,thatm
ayrequirespecialprocessing
 Thespecialprocessingthatmayberequiredafterdetectionofanexceptioniscalledexceptionhandling
 Theexceptionhandlingcodeunitiscalledanexceptionhandler

ExceptionHandlingAlternatives
 Anexceptionisraisedwhenitsassociatedeventoccurs
 Alanguagethatdoesnothaveexceptionhandlingcapabilitiescanstilldefine,detect,raise,andhandle
exceptions(userdefined,softwaredetected)
 Alternatives:
– Sendanauxiliaryparameterorusethereturnvaluetoindicatethereturnstatusofasubprogram
– Passanexceptionhandlingsubprogramtoallsubprograms

AdvantagesofBuilt-inExceptionHandling
 Errordetectioncodeistedioustowriteanditclutterstheprogram
 Exception handling encourages programmers to consider many
differentpossibleerrors
 Exceptionpropagationallowsahighlevelofreuseofexceptionhandlingcode

DesignIssues
 Howareuser-definedexceptionsspecified?
 Shouldtherebedefaultexceptionhandlersforprogramsthatdonotprovidetheirown?
 Canbuilt-inexceptionsbeexplicitlyraised?
 Arehardware-detectableerrorstreatedasexceptionsthatcanbehandled?
 Arethereanybuilt-inexceptions?
 Howcanexceptionsbedisabled,ifatall?
 Howandwhereexceptionhandlersspecifiedandwhataretheirscope?
 Howisanexceptionoccurrenceboundtoanexceptionhandler?
 Caninformationabouttheexceptionbepassedtothehandler?
 Wheredoesexecutioncontinue,ifatall,afteranexceptionhandlercompletesitsexecution?
(continuationvs.resumption)
 Issomeformoffinalizationprovided?

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 Figure7.1ExceptionHandlingControlFlow

4.12 ExceptionHandlinginAda–CO3
 TheframeofanexceptionhandlerinAdaiseitherasubprogrambody,apackagebody,atask,orablock
 Becauseexceptionhandlersareusuallylocaltothecodeinwhichtheexceptioncanberaised,theydonotha
veparameters
AdaExceptionHandlers
 Handlerform:
whenexception_choice{|exception_choice}=>statement_sequence
...
[whenothers=>statement_sequenc
e]
exception_choiceform:exceptio
n_name|others
 Handlersareplacedattheendoftheblockorunitinwhichtheyoccur
BindingExceptionstoHandlers
 Iftheblockorunitinwhichanexceptionisraiseddoesnothaveahandlerforthatexception,theexceptionis
propagatedelsewheretobehandled
– Procedures-propagateittothecaller
– Blocks-propagateittothescopeinwhichitappears
– Packagebody-
propagateittothedeclarationpartoftheunitthatdeclaredthepackage(ifitisalibraryunit,theprogrami
sterminated)
– Task-nopropagation;ifithasahandler,executeit;ineithercase,markit"completed"
Continuation
 Theblockorunitthatraisesanexceptionbutdoesnothandleitisalwaysterminated(alsoanyblockorunitto
whichitispropagatedthatdoesnothandleit)
OtherDesignChoices
 User-definedExceptionsform:
exception_name_list:exception;
 RaisingExceptionsform:
raise[exception_name]
– (theexceptionnameisnotrequiredifitisinahandler--inthiscase,itpropagatesthesameexception)
 Exceptionconditionscanbedisabledwith:
pragmaSUPPRESS(exception_list)
PredefinedExceptions

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  CONSTRAINT_ERROR-indexconstraints,rangeconstraints,etc.
 NUMERIC_ERROR-
numericoperationcannotreturnacorrectvalue(overflow,divisionbyzero,etc.)

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  PROGRAM_ERROR-calltoasubprogramwhosebodyhasnotbeenelaborated
 STORAGE_ERROR-systemrunsoutofheap
 TASKING_ERROR-anerrorassociatedwithtasks
Evaluation
 TheAdadesignforexceptionhandlingembodiesthestate-of-the-artinlanguagedesignin1980
 AsignificantadvanceoverPL/I
 AdawastheonlywidelyusedlanguagewithexceptionhandlinguntilitwasaddedtoC++

4.13 ExceptionHandlinginC++-CO3
 AddedtoC++in1990
 DesignisbasedonthatofCLU,Ada,andML
C++ExceptionHandlers
 ExceptionHandlersForm:
try{
--codethatisexpectedtoraiseanexception
}
catch(formalparameter){
--handlercode
}
...
catch(formalparameter){
--handlercode
}
ThecatchFunction
 catchisthenameofallhandlers--
itisanoverloadedname,sotheformalparameterofeachmustbeunique
 Theformalparameterneednothaveavariable
– Itcanbesimplyatypenametodistinguishthehandleritisinfromothers
 Theformalparametercanbeusedtotransferinformationtothehandler
 Theformalparametercanbeanellipsis,inwhichcaseithandlesallexceptionsnotyethandled

ThrowingExceptions
 Exceptionsareallraisedexplicitlybythestatement:throw[expression];
 Thebracketsaremetasymbols
 Athrowwithoutanoperandcanonlyappearinahandler;whenitappears,itsimplyre-
raisestheexception,whichisthenhandledelsewhere
 Thetypeoftheexpressiondisambiguatestheintendedhandler

UnhandledExceptions
 Anunhandledexceptionispropagatedtothecallerofthefunctioninwhichitisraised
 Thispropagationcontinuestothemainfunction

Continuation
 Afterahandlercompletesitsexecution,controlflowstothefirststatementafterthelasthandlerintheseque

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 nceofhandlersofwhichitisanelement
 Otherdesignchoices

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 – Allexceptionsareuser-defined
– Exceptionsareneitherspecifiednordeclared
– Functionscanlisttheexceptionstheymayraise
– Withoutaspecification,afunctioncanraiseanyexception(thethrowclause)
Evaluation
 Itisoddthatexceptionsarenotnamedandthathardware-andsystemsoftware-
detectableexceptionscannotbehandled
 Bindingexceptionstohandlersthroughthetypeoftheparametercertainlydoesnotpromotereadability

4.13 ExceptionHandlinginJava–CO3
 BasedonthatofC++,butmoreinlinewithOOPphilosophy
 AllexceptionsareobjectsofclassesthataredescendantsoftheThrowableclass
ClassesofExceptions
 TheJavalibraryincludestwosubclassesofThrowable:
– Error
o ThrownbytheJavainterpreterforeventssuchasheapoverflow
o Neverhandledbyuserprograms
– Exception
o User-definedexceptionsareusuallysubclassesofthis
o Hastwopredefinedsubclasses,IOExceptionandRuntimeException
e.g.,ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsExceptionandNullPointerException
JavaExceptionHandlers
 LikethoseofC+
+,excepteverycatchrequiresanamedparameterandallparametersmustbedescendantsofThrowable
 SyntaxoftryclauseisexactlythatofC++
 Exceptionsarethrownwiththrow,asinC+
+,butoftenthethrowincludesthenewoperatortocreatetheobject,asin:thrownewMyException();
BindingExceptionstoHandlers
 BindinganexceptiontoahandlerissimplerinJavathanitisinC++
– Anexceptionisboundtothefirsthandlerwithaparameteristhesameclassasthethrownobjectorananc
estorofit
 Anexceptioncanbehandledandrethrownbyincludingathrowinthehandler(ahandlercouldalsothrowad
ifferentexception)
Continuation
 Ifnohandlerisfoundinthemethod,theexceptionispropagatedtothemethod‘scaller
 Ifnohandlerisfound(allthewaytomain),theprogramisterminated
 Toensurethatallexceptionsarecaught,ahandlercanbeincludedinanytryconstructthatcatchesallex
ceptions
– SimplyuseanExceptionclassparameter
– Ofcourse,itmustbethelastinthetryconstruct
CheckedandUncheckedExceptions
 TheJavathrowsclauseisquitedifferentfromthethrowclauseofC++
 ExceptionsofclassErrorandRunTimeExceptionandalloftheirdescendantsarecalleduncheckedex
ceptions;allotherexceptionsarecalledcheckedexceptions

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  Checkedexceptionsthatmaybethrownbyamethodmustbeeither:
– Listedinthethrowsclause,or
– Handledinthemethod

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 OtherDesignChoices
 Amethodcannotdeclaremoreexceptionsinitsthrowsclausethanthemethoditoverrides
 Amethodthatcallsamethodthatlistsaparticularcheckedexceptioninitsthrowsclausehasthreealternativ
esfordealingwiththatexception:
– Catchandhandletheexception
– Catchtheexceptionandthrowanexceptionthatislistedinitsownthrowsclause
– Declareitinitsthrowsclauseanddonothandleit
ThefinallyClause
 Canappearattheendofatryconstruct
 Form:
finally{..}
 Purpose:Tospecifycodethatistobeexecuted,regardlessofwhathappensinthetryconstruct
Example
 Atryconstructwithafinallyclausecanbeusedoutsideexceptionhandling
try{
for(index=0;index<100;index++){
…
if(…){
return;
}//**endofif
}//
**endoftryclausefinally{
…
}//**endoftryconstruct
Assertions
 Statementsintheprogramdeclaringabooleanexpressionregardingthecurrentstateofthecomputati
on
 Whenevaluatedtotruenothinghappens
 WhenevaluatedtofalseanAssertionErrorexceptionisthrown
 Canbedisabledduringruntimewithoutprogrammodificationorrecompilation
 Twoforms
– assertcondition;
– assertcondition:expression;
Evaluation
 ThetypesofexceptionsmakesmoresensethaninthecaseofC++
 ThethrowsclauseisbetterthanthatofC++(ThethrowclauseinC++sayslittletotheprogrammer)
 Thefinallyclauseisoftenuseful
 TheJavainterpreterthrowsavarietyofexceptionsthatcanbehandledbyuserprograms
SummaryofExceptionHandling
 Adaprovidesextensiveexception-handlingfacilitieswithacomprehensivesetofbuilt-inexceptions.
 C+
+includesnopredefinedexceptions.Exceptionsareboundtohandlersbyconnectingthetypeofexpressio
ninthethrowstatementtothatoftheformalparameterofthecatchfunction
 JavaexceptionsaresimilartoC+
+exceptionsexceptthataJavaexceptionmustbeadescendantoftheThrowableclass.AdditionallyJa
vaincludesafinallyclause

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 4.14 LogicProgrammingIntroductionCO4
 Logic programming languages, sometimes called declarative
programminglanguages
 Expressprogramsinaformofsymboliclogic
 Usealogicalinferencingprocesstoproduceresults
 Declarativeratherthatprocedural:
– Onlyspecificationofresultsarestated(notdetailedproceduresforproducingthem)
Proposition
 Alogicalstatementthatmayormaynotbetrue
– Consistsofobjectsandrelationshipsofobjectstoeachother

SymbolicLogic
 Logicwhichcanbeusedforthebasicneedsofformallogic:
– Expresspropositions
– Expressrelationshipsbetweenpropositions
– Describehownewpropositionscanbeinferredfromotherpropositions
 Particularformofsymboliclogicusedforlogicprogrammingcalledpredicatecalculus

ObjectRepresentation
 Objectsinpropositionsarerepresentedbysimpleterms:eitherconstantsorvariables
 Constant:asymbolthatrepresentsanobject
 Variable:asymbolthatcanrepresentdifferentobjectsatdifferenttimes
– Differentfromvariablesinimperativelanguages

CompoundTerms
 Atomicpropositionsconsistofcompoundterms
 Compoundterm:oneelementofamathematicalrelation,writtenlikeamathematicalfunction
– Mathematicalfunctionisamapping
– Canbewrittenasatable

PartsofaCompoundTerm
 Compoundtermcomposedoftwoparts
– Functor:functionsymbolthatnamestherelationship
– Orderedlistofparameters(tuple)
 Examples:
student(jon)like(set
h,OSX)like(nick,wi
ndows)like(jim,linu
x)

FormsofaProposition
 Propositionscanbestatedintwoforms:
– Fact:propositionisassumedtobetrue
– Query:truthofpropositionistobedetermined

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  Compoundproposition:
– Havetwoormoreatomicpropositions
– Propositionsareconnectedbyoperators

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 LogicalOperators
Name Symbol Example Meaning
Negation  a anotb
Conjunction  ab aandb
Disjunction  ab aorb
Equivalence  ab aisequivalenttob
 abab aimpliesb
Implication
 bimpliesa

Quantifiers
Name Example Meaning
universal X.P ForallX,Pistrue
existential X.P ThereexistsavalueofXsuchthatPistrue

ClausalForm
 Toomanywaystostatethesamething
 Useastandardformforpropositions
 Clausalform:
– B1B2…BnA1A2…Am
– meansifalltheAsaretrue,thenatleastoneBistrue
 Antecedent:rightside
 Consequent:leftside
PredicateCalculusandProvingTheorems
 Auseofpropositionsistodiscovernewtheoremsthatcanbeinferredfromknownaxiomsandtheorems
 Resolution:aninferenceprinciplethatallowsinferredpropositionstobecomputedfromgivenpropositio
ns
Resolution
 Unification:findingvaluesforvariablesinpropositionsthatallowsmatchingprocesstosucceed
 Instantiation:assigningtemporaryvaluestovariablestoallowunificationtosucceed
 Afterinstantiatingavariablewithavalue,ifmatchingfails,mayneedto
backtrackandinstantiatewithadifferentvalue

TheoremProving
 Basisforlogicprogramming
 Whenpropositionsusedforresolution,onlyrestrictedformcanbeused
 Hornclause-canhaveonlytwoforms
– Headed:singleatomicpropositiononleftside
– Headless:emptyleftside(usedtostatefacts)
 MostpropositionscanbestatedasHornclauses

AnOverviewofLogicProgramming
 Declarativesemantics
– Thereisasimplewaytodeterminethemeaningofeachstatement
– Simplerthanthesemanticsofimperativelanguages

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  Programmingisnonprocedural
– Programsdonotstatenowaresultistobecomputed,butrathertheformoftheresult

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 TheOriginsofProlog
 UniversityofAix-Marseille
– Naturallanguageprocessing
 UniversityofEdinburgh
– Automatedtheoremproving

4.15 TheBasicElementsofProLogCO4
 EdinburghSyntax
 Term:aconstant,variable,orstructure
 Constant:anatomoraninteger
 Atom:symbolicvalueofProlog
 Atomconsistsofeither:
– astringofletters,digits,andunderscoresbeginningwithalowercaseletter
– astringofprintableASCIIcharactersdelimitedbyapostrophes
Terms:VariablesandStructures
 Variable:anystringofletters,digits,andunderscoresbeginningwithanuppercaseletter
 Instantiation:bindingofavariabletoavalue
– Lastsonlyaslongasittakestosatisfyonecompletegoal
 Structure:representsatomicproposition
functor(parameterlist)
FactStatements
 Usedforthehypotheses
 HeadlessHornclauses
female(shelley).
male(bill).father
(bill,jake).
RuleStatements
 Usedforthehypotheses
 HeadedHornclause
 Rightside:antecedent(ifpart)
– Maybesingletermorconjunction
 Leftside:consequent(thenpart)
– Mustbesingleterm
 Conjunction:multipletermsseparatedbylogicalANDoperations(implied)
ExampleRules
ancestor(mary,shelley):-mother(mary,shelley).
 Canusevariables(universalobjects)togeneralizemeaning:
parent(X,Y):-mother(X,Y).
parent(X,Y):-father(X,Y).
grandparent(X,Z):-parent(X,Y),parent(Y,Z).
sibling(X,Y):-mother(M,X),mother(M,Y),
father(F,X),father(F,Y).
GoalStatements
 Fortheoremproving,theoremisinformofpropositionthatwewantsystemtoproveordisprove–
goalstatement

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  SameformatasheadlessHorn
man(fred)
 Conjunctivepropositionsandpropositionswithvariablesalsolegalgoals
father(X,mike)
InferencingProcessofProlog
 Queriesarecalledgoals

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  Ifagoalisacompoundproposition,eachofthefactsisasubgoal
 Toproveagoalistrue,mustfindachainofinferencerulesand/orfacts.ForgoalQ:
B:-A
C:-B
…
Q:-P
 Processofprovingasubgoalcalledmatching,satisfying,orresolution
Approaches
 Bottom-upresolution,forwardchaining
– Beginwithfactsandrulesofdatabaseandattempttofindsequencethatleadstogoal
– Workswellwithalargesetofpossiblycorrectanswers
 Top-downresolution,backwardchaining
– Beginwithgoalandattempttofindsequencethatleadstosetoffactsindatabase
– Workswellwithasmallsetofpossiblycorrectanswers
 Prologimplementationsusebackwardchaining
SubgoalStrategies
 Whengoalhasmorethanonesubgoal,canuseeither
– Depth-firstsearch:findacompleteproofforthefirstsubgoalbeforeworkingonothers
– Breadth-firstsearch:workonallsubgoalsinparallel
 Prologusesdepth-firstsearch
– Canbedonewithfewercomputerresources
Backtracking
 Withagoalwithmultiplesubgoals,iffailtoshowtruthofoneofsubgoals,reconsiderprevioussubgoaltofi
ndanalternativesolution:backtracking
 Beginsearchwhereprevioussearchleftoff
 Cantakelotsoftimeandspacebecausemayfindallpossibleproofstoeverysubgoal
SimpleArithmetic
 Prologsupportsintegervariablesandintegerarithmetic
 isoperator:takesanarithmeticexpressionasrightoperandandvariableasleftoperand
AisB/17+C
 Notthesameasanassignmentstatement!
Example
speed(ford,100).speed(c
hevy,105).speed(dodge,
95).speed(volvo,80).tim
e(ford,20).time(chevy,2
1).time(dodge,24).time(
volvo,24).
distance(X,Y):- speed(X,Speed),
time(X,Time),
YisSpeed*Time.
Trace
• Built-instructurethatdisplaysinstantiationsateachstep
• Tracingmodelofexecution-fourevents:
– Call(beginningofattempttosatisfygoal)

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 – Exit(whenagoalhasbeensatisfied)

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 – Redo(whenbacktrackoccurs)
– Fail(whengoalfails)
Example

likes(jake,chocolate).likes(jake,ap
ricots).likes(darcie,licorice).likes(
darcie,apricots).

trace.likes(ja
ke,X),likes(da
rcie,X).

ListStructures
 Otherbasicdatastructure(besidesatomicpropositionswehavealreadyseen):list
 Listisasequenceofanynumberofelements
 Elementscanbeatoms,atomicpropositions,orotherterms(includingotherlists)
[apple,prune,grape,kumquat][]
(emptylist)
[X|Y](headXandtailY)
AppendExample
append([],List,List).
append([Head|List_1],List_2,[Head|List_3]):-
append(List_1,List_2,List_3).
ReverseExample
reverse([],[]).
reverse([Head|
Tail],List):-
reverse(Tail,Result),appen
d(Result,[Head],List).
DeficienciesofProlog
 Resolutionordercontrol
 Theclosed-worldassumption
 Thenegationproblem
 Intrinsiclimitations

4.16 ApplicationsofLogicProgramming–CO4
 Relationaldatabasemanagementsystems
 Expertsystems
 Naturallanguageprocessing
SummaryofLogicProgramming
 Symboliclogicprovidesbasisforlogicprogramming
 Logicprogramsshouldbenonprocedural
 Prologstatementsarefacts,rules,orgoals
 ResolutionistheprimaryactivityofaProloginterpreter

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  Althoughthereareanumberofdrawbackswiththecurrentstateoflogicprogrammingithasbeenusedinan
umberofareas

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 UNIT-5
FunctionalProgrammingLanguages&ScriptingLanguage

5.1 FunctionalProgrammingLanguageIntroduction–CO5
 ThedesignoftheimperativelanguagesisbaseddirectlyonthevonNeumannarchitecture
– Efficiencyistheprimaryconcern,ratherthanthesuitabilityofthelanguageforsoftwaredevelopment
 Thedesignofthefunctionallanguagesisbasedonmathematicalfunctions
– Asolidtheoreticalbasisthatisalsoclosertotheuser,butrelativelyunconcernedwiththearchitectureo
fthemachinesonwhichprogramswillrun

MathematicalFunctions
 Amathematicalfunctionisamappingofmembersofoneset,calledthedomainset,toanotherset,calle
dtherangeset
 Alambdaexpressionspecifiestheparameter(s)andthemappingofafunctioninthefollowingform
(x)x*x*x
forthefunctioncube(x)=x*x*x
LambdaExpressions
 Lambdaexpressionsdescribenamelessfunctions
 Lambdaexpressionsareappliedtoparameter(s)byplacingtheparameter(s)aftertheexpression
e.g.,((x)x*x*x)
(2)whichevaluatesto8
FunctionalForms
 Ahigher-
orderfunction,orfunctionalform,isonethateithertakesfunctionsasparametersoryieldsafunctionasitsr
esult,orboth
FunctionComposition
 Afunctionalformthattakestwofunctionsasparametersandyieldsafunctionwhosevalueisthefirsta
ctualparameterfunctionappliedtotheapplicationofthesecond
Form:hf°g
whichmeansh(x)f(g(x))
Forf(x)x+2andg(x)3*x,h
f°gyields(3*x)+2
Apply-to-all
 Afunctionalformthattakesasinglefunctionasaparameterandyieldsalistofvaluesobtainedbyapplyingt
hegivenfunctiontoeachelementofalistofparameters
Form:
Forh(x)x*x
(h,(2,3,4))yields(4,9,16)

5.2 FundamentalsofFunctionalProgrammingLanguages-CO5
 TheobjectiveofthedesignofaFPListomimicmathematicalfunctionstothegreatestextentpossible
 ThebasicprocessofcomputationisfundamentallydifferentinaFPLthaninanimperativelanguage

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 – Inanimperativelanguage,operationsaredoneandtheresultsarestoredinvariablesforlateruse
– Managementofvariablesisaconstantconcernandsourceofcomplexityforimperativeprogramming
 InanFPL,variablesarenotnecessary,asisthecaseinmathematics
ReferentialTransparency
 InanFPL,theevaluationofafunctionalwaysproducesthesameresultgiventhesameparameters

TheFirstFunctionalProgrammingLanguage:LISP–CO5

LISPDataTypesandStructures
 Dataobjecttypes:originallyonlyatomsandlists
 Listform:parenthesizedcollectionsofsublistsand/oratoms
e.g.,(AB(CD)E)
 Originally,LISPwasatypelesslanguage
 LISPlistsarestoredinternallyassingle-linkedlists
LISPInterpretation
 Lambdanotationisusedtospecifyfunctionsandfunctiondefinitions.Functionapplicat
ionsanddatahavethesameform.
e.g.,Ifthelist(ABC)isinterpretedasdataitisasimplelistofthreeatoms,A,BandC
Ifitisinterpretedasafunctionapplication,itmeansthatthefunctionnamedAisappliedtothetwopar
ameters,BandC
 ThefirstLISPinterpreterappearedonlyasademonstrationoftheuniversalityofthecomputationalcapabi
litiesofthenotation

5.3ML–CO5
 Astatic-scopedfunctionallanguagewithsyntaxthatisclosertoPascalthantoLISP
 Usestypedeclarations,butalsodoestypeinferencingtodeterminethetypesofundeclaredvariables
 Itisstronglytyped(whereasSchemeisessentiallytypeless)andhasnotypecoercions
 Includesexceptionhandlingandamodulefacilityforimplementingabstractdatatypes
 Includeslistsandlistoperations
MLSpecifics
 Functiondeclarationform:
funname(parameters)=body;
e.g.,funcube(x:int)=x*x*x;
– Thetypecouldbeattachedtoreturnvalue,asin
funcube(x):int=x*x*x;
– Withnotypespecified,itwoulddefaultto
int(thedefaultfornumericvalues)
– User-
definedoverloadedfunctionsarenotallowed,soifwewantedacubefunctionforrealparameters,itwo
uldneedtohaveadifferentname
– TherearenotypecoercionsinML
 MLselection
ifexpressionthenthen_expression
elseelse_expression

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 wherethefirstexpressionmustevaluatetoaBooleanvalue
 Patternmatchingisusedtoallowafunctiontooperateondifferentparameterforms
funfact(0)=1
|fact(n:int):int=n*fact(n–1)
 Lists
Literallistsarespecifiedinbrackets[3,5,7]
[]istheemptylist
CONSisthebinaryinfixoperator,::
4::
[3,5,7],whichevaluatesto[4,3,5,7]CARistheunaryoper
atorhd
CDRistheunaryoperatortlfunlengt
h([])=0
|
length(h::t)=1+length(t);funappend(
[],lis2)=lis2
|append(h::t,lis2)=h::append(t,lis2);
 Thevalstatementbindsanametoavalue(similartoDEFINEinScheme)valdistance=time*
speed;
– AsisthecasewithDEFINE,valisnothinglikeanassignmentstatementinanimperativelanguage

5.4 Haskell–CO5
 SimilartoML(syntax,staticscoped,stronglytyped,typeinferencing,patternmatching)
 DifferentfromML(andmostotherfunctionallanguages)inthatitispurelyfunctional(e.g.,novariabl
es,noassignmentstatements,andnosideeffectsofanykind)
SyntaxdifferencesfromML
fact0=1
factn=n*fact(n–
1)fib0=1
fib1=1
fib(n+2)=fib(n+1)+fibn
FunctionDefinitionswithDifferentParameterRanges
factn
|n==0=1
|n>0=n*fact(n–1)

subn
|n<10=0
|n>100=2
|
otherwise=1sq
uarex=x*x
- Worksforanynumerictypeofx
Lists
 Listnotation:Putelementsinbrackets
e.g.,directions=["north","south","east","west"]
 Length:#

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 e.g.,#directionsis4
 Arithmeticserieswiththe..operator
e.g.,[2,4..10]is[2,4,6,8,10]
 Catenationiswith++
e.g.,[1,3]++[5,7]resultsin[1,3,5,7]

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  CONS,CAR,CDRviathecolonoperator(asinProlog)
e.g.,1:[3,5,7]resultsin[1,3,5,7]
FactorialRevisited
product[]=1
product(a:x)=a*productxfactn
=product[1..n]
ListComprehension
 Setnotation
 Listofthesquaresofthefirst20positiveintegers:[n*n|n←[1..20]]
 Allofthefactorsofitsgivenparameter:
factorsn=[i|i←[1..ndiv2],
nmodi==0]
Quicksort
sort[]=[]sort
(a:x)=
sort[b|b←x;b<=a]++
[a]++
sort [b|b←x;b>a]
LazyEvaluation
 Alanguageisstrictifitrequiresallactualparameterstobefullyevaluated
 Alanguageisnonstrictifitdoesnothavethestrictrequirement
 Nonstrictlanguagesaremoreefficientandallowsomeinterestingcapabilities
– infinitelists
 Lazyevaluation-Onlycomputethosevaluesthatarenecessary
 Positivenumbers
positives=[0..]
 Determiningif16isasquarenumber
member[]b=False
member(a:x)b=(a==b)||memberxb
squares=[n * n|n← [0..]]
membersquares16
MemberRevisited
 Thememberfunctioncouldbewrittenas:member[]b=
False
member(a:x)b=(a==b)||memberxb
 However,thiswouldonlyworkiftheparametertosquareswasaperfectsquare;ifnot,itwillkeepgeneratin
gthemforever.Thefollowingversionwillalwayswork:
member2(m:x)n
|m<n=member2xn
|m==n=True
|otherwise=False

5.5 ApplicationsofFunctionalLanguages–CO5
 APLisusedforthrow-awayprograms
 LISPisusedforartificialintelligence
– Knowledgerepresentation

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 – Machinelearning
– Naturallanguageprocessing
– Modelingofspeechandvision
 Schemeisusedtoteachintroductoryprogrammingatsomeuniversities

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 ComparingFunctionalandImperativeLanguages
 ImperativeLanguages:
– Efficientexecution
– Complexsemantics
– Complexsyntax
– Concurrencyisprogrammerdesigned
 FunctionalLanguages:
– Simplesemantics
– Simplesyntax
– Inefficientexecution
– Programscanautomaticallybemadeconcurrent

SummaryofFunctionalProgrammingLanguages
 Functionalprogramminglanguagesusefunctionapplication,conditionalexpressions,recursion,a
ndfunctionalformstocontrolprogramexecutioninsteadofimperativefeaturessuchasvariablesand
assignments
 LISPbeganasapurelyfunctionallanguageandlaterincludedimperativefeatures
 SchemeisarelativelysimpledialectofLISPthatusesstaticscopingexclusively
 COMMONLISPisalargeLISP-basedlanguage
 MLisastatic-
scopedandstronglytypedfunctionallanguagewhichincludestypeinference,exceptionhandling,a
ndavarietyofdatastructuresandabstractdatatypes
 Haskellisalazyfunctionallanguagesupportinginfinitelistsandsetcomprehension.
 Purelyfunctionallanguageshaveadvantagesoverimperativealternatives,buttheirlowerefficiency
onexistingmachinearchitectureshaspreventedthemfromenjoyingwidespreaduse

Pragmatics
Asoftwaresystemoftenconsistsofanumberofsubsystemscontrolledorconnectedbyascript.Scriptingisapar
adigmcharacterizedby:
 Useofscriptstogluesubsystemstogether.
 Rapiddevelopmentandevolutionofscripts.
 Modestefficiencyrequirements.
 Veryhigh-levelfunctionalityinapplication-specificareas.

KeyConcepts
Thefollowingconceptsarecharacteristicofscriptinglanguages:
 Veryhigh-levelstringprocessing.
 Veryhigh-levelgraphicaluserinterfacesupport.
 Dynamictyping.

CaseStudy:PYTHON
 PYTHONwasdesignedintheearly1990sbyGuidovanRossum.
 IthasbeenusedtohelpimplementthesuccessfulWebsearchengineGOOGLE,andinavarietyofothe
rapplicationareasrangingfromsciencefiction(visualeffectsfortheStarWarsseries)torealscience(
computer-aideddesigninNASA).

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 ValuesandTypes
 PYTHONhasalimitedrepertoireofprimitivetypes:integer,real,andcomplexnumbers.
 Ithasnospecificcharactertype;single-
characterstringsareusedinstead.Itsbooleanvalues(namedFalseandTrue)arejustsmallintegers.
 PYTHONhasarichrepertoireofcompositetypes:tuples,strings,lists,dictionariesandobjects.APYTH
ONlistisaheterogeneoussequenceofvalues.
 Adictionary(sometimescalledanassociativearray)isaheterogeneousmappingfromkeystovalues,whe
rethekeysaredistinctimmutablevalues.
 Thefollowingcodeillustratestupleconstruction:
date=1998,"Nov",19
Nowdate[0]yields1998,date[1]yields‘‘Nov’’,anddate[2]yields19.

 The following code illustrates two list constructions, which construct

ahomogeneouslistandaheterogeneouslist,respectively:
primes=[2,3,5,7,11]
years=["unknown",1314,1707,date[0]]
Nowprimes[0]yields2,years[1]yields1314,years[3]yields1998,‘‘years[0]=843’’updatesthefirst
componentofyears,andsoon.Also,‘‘years.append(1999)’’ adds1999attheendofyears.

 Thefollowingcodeillustratesdictionaryconstruction:
phones={"David":6742,"Carol":6742,"Ali":6046}
Nowphones["Carol"]yields6742,phones["Ali"]yields6046,‘‘phones["Ali"]=1234’’
updatesthecomponentofphoneswhosekeyis‘‘Ali’’,andsoon.Also,‘‘David”inphonesreturnsTrue,an
d‘‘phones.keys()’’returnsalistcontaining‘‘Ali’’,‘‘Carol’’,and‘‘David’’ (innoparticularorder).

Variables,StorageandControl
 PYTHONsupportsglobalandlocalvariables.
 Variablesarenotexplicitlydeclared,simplyinitializedbyassignment.Afterinitialization,avariable
maylaterbeassignedanyvalueofanytype.
 PYTHON’srepertoireofcommandsincludeassignments,procedurecalls,conditional(if-
butnotcase-)commands,iterative(while-andfor-)commandsandexception-handlingcommands.
 However,PYTHONdiffersfromCinnotallowinganassignmenttobeusedasanexpression.
 PYTHONadditionallysupportssimultaneousassignment.
 Forexample:
y,m,d=date
assignsthethreecomponentsofthetupledatetothreeseparatevariables.Also:
m,n=n,m
conciselyswapsthevaluesoftwovariablesmandn.
(Actually,itfirstconstructsapair,thenassignsthetwocomponentsofthepairtothetwoleft-sidevariables)
 PYTHONif-andwhile-commandsareconventional.
 PYTHONfor-commandssupportdefiniteiteration.
 Wecaneasilyachievetheconventionaliterationoverasequenceofnumbersbyusingthelibraryprocedure
range(m,n),whichreturnsalistofintegersfrommthroughn−1.

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  PYTHONsupportsbreak,continue,andreturnsequencers.Italsosupportsexceptions,whichareobj
ectsofasubclassofException,andwhichcancarryvalues.

 ThefollowingcodecomputestheGreatestCommonDivisoroftwointegers,mandn:
p,q=m,n
whilep%q!=0:
p,q=q,p
%qgcd=q
 Notetheeleganceofsimultaneousassignment.
 Notealsothatindentationisrequiredtoindicatetheextentoftheloopbody.
 Thefollowingcodesumsthenumericcomponentsofalistrow,ignoringanynonnumericcomponents:
sum=0.0
forxinrow:
ifisinstance(x,
(int,float)):sum+=x

PYTHONExceptions
 Thefollowingcodepromptstheusertoenteranumericliteral,andstoresthecorrespondingrealnumberin
num:
whileTrue:
try:
response=raw_input("Enteranumericliteral:")nu
m=float(response)
break
exceptValueError:
print"Yourresponsewasill-formed."
Thiswhile-commandkeepspromptinguntiltheuserentersawell-
formednumericliteral.Thelibraryprocedureraw_input(...)displaysthegivenpromptandreturnsth
euser’sresponseasastring.Thetypeconversion‘‘float(response)’’
attemptstoconverttheresponsetoarealnumber.Ifthistypeconversionispossible,thefollowingbrea
ksequencerterminatestheloop.Ifnot,thetypeconversionthrowsaValueErrorexception,controlistr
ansferredtotheValueErrorexceptionhandler,whichdisplaysawarningmessage,andfinallytheloo
pisiteratedagain.

BindingsandScope
 APYTHONprogramconsistsofanumberofmodules,whichmaybegroupedintopackages.
 Withinamodulewemayinitializevariables,defineprocedures,anddeclareclasses.Withinaprocedurew
emayinitializelocalvariablesanddefinelocalprocedures.Withinaclasswemayinitializevariablecomp
onentsanddefineprocedures(methods).
 DuringaPYTHONsession,wemayinteractivelyissuedeclarations,commands,andexpressionsfro
mthekeyboard.
 Theseareallacteduponimmediately.Wheneverweissueanexpression,itsvalueisdisplayedonthescreen
.Wemayalsoimportanamedmodule(orselectedcomponentsofit)atanytime.
 PYTHONwasoriginallyadynamically-scopedlanguage,butitisnowstaticallyscoped.

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 ProceduralAbstraction
 PYTHONsupportsfunctionproceduresandproperprocedures.
 Theonlydifferenceisthatafunctionprocedurereturnsavalue,whileaproperprocedurereturnsnothing.
 SincePYTHONisdynamicallytyped,aproceduredefinitionstatesthenamebutnotthetypeofeachforma
lparameter.Thecorrespondingargumentmaybeofdifferenttypesondifferentcallstotheprocedure.

PYTHONProcedures
 Thefollowingfunctionprocedurereturnsthegreatestcommondivisorofitstwoarguments:
defgcd(m,n):
p,q=m,n
whilep%q!
=0:p,q=q,p%q
returnq
Herepandqarelocalvariables.
 ThefollowingproperproceduretakesadaterepresentedbyatripleandprintsthatdateinISOformat(e.g.,‘‘
2000-01-01’’):
defprint_date(date):
y,m,d=date
ifm="Jan":m
=1
elifm="Feb":m
=2
...
elifm="Dec":m
=12
print"%04d-%02d-%02d"%(y,m,d)
Herey,m,anddarelocalvariables.

PYTHONprocedurewithdynamictyping
 Thefollowingfunctionprocedureillustratestheflexibilityofdynamictyping.Itreturnstheminimumand
maximumcomponentofagivensequence:
defminimax(vals):
min=max=vals[0]
forvalinvals:
ifval<min:
min=val
elifval>max:max
=val
returnmin,max
 Inacalltothisprocedure,theargumentmaybeeitheratupleoralist.
 Ineffectithastworesults,whichwecaneasilyseparateusingsimultaneousassignment:
readings=[...]
low,high=minimax(readings)
 SomeolderlanguagessuchasChavelibraryprocedureswithvariablenumbersofarguments.
 PYTHONisalmostuniqueinallowingsuchprocedurestobedefinedbyprogrammers.
 Thisisachievedbythesimpleexpedientofallowingasingleformalparametertorefertoawholetuple(ordi
ctionary)ofarguments.

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 PYTHONprocedurewithavariablenumberofarguments
 Thefollowingproperprocedureacceptsanynumberofarguments,andprintsthemoneperline:
defprintall(*args):
forarginargs:
printarg
 Thenotation‘‘*args’’declaresthatargswillrefertoatupleofarguments.
 Allofthefollowingprocedurecallsworksuccessfully:
printall(name)printall(na
me,address)
printall(name,address,zipcode)

DataAbstraction
 PYTHONhasthreedifferentconstructsrelevanttodataabstraction:packages,modules,andclasses.
 Modulesandclassessupportencapsulation,usinganamingconventiontodistinguishbetweenpubli
candprivatecomponents.
 Apackageissimplyagroupofmodules.Amoduleisagroupofcomponentsthatmaybevariables,proc
edures,andclasses.
 Thesecomponentsmaybeimportedforusebyanyothermodule.Allcomponentsofamodulearepublic,ex
ceptthosewhoseidentifiersstartwith‘‘_’’ whichareprivate.
 Aclassisagroupofcomponentsthatmaybeclassvariables,classmethods,andinstancemethods.Apr
oceduredefinedinaclassdeclarationactsasaninstancemethodifitsfirstformalparameterisnamedse
lfandreferstoanobjectoftheclassbeingdeclared.Otherwisetheprocedureactsasaclassmethod.
 Toachievetheeffectofaconstructor,weusuallyequipeachclasswithaninitializationmethodnamed‘‘ini
t’’;thismethodisautomaticallycalledwhenanobjectoftheclassisconstructed.Instancevariablesarena
medusingtheusual‘‘.’’Notation(asinself.attr),andtheymaybeinitializedbytheinitializationmethodor
byanyothermethod.Allcomponentsofaclassarepublic,exceptthosewhoseidentifiersstartwith‘‘’’,whi
chareprivate.

PYTHONClass
 Considerthefollowingclass:
classPerson:
definit(self,sname,fname,gender,birth):self.s
urname=sname
self.forename=fname
self.female=(gender=="F"orgender=="f")self.bi
rth=birth
defget_surname(self):
returnself.surname
defchange_surname(self,sname):se
lf.surname=sname
defprint_details(self):
printself.forename+""+self.surname
 Thisclassisequippedwithaninitializationmethodandthreeotherinstancemethods,eachofwhichhasase
lfparameterandperhapssomeotherparameters.Inthefollowingcode:
dw=Person("Watt","David","M",1946)

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 theobjectconstructionontherightfirstcreatesanobjectofclassPerson;itthenpassestheabovearguments,
togetherwithareferencetothenewlycreatedobject,totheinitializationmethod.Thelatterinitializestheo
bject’sinstancevariables,whicharenamedsurname,forename,female,andbirth(andthusareallprivate).
 PYTHONsupportsmultipleinheritance:aclassmaydesignateanynumberofsuperclasses.Ambigu
ousreferencestoclasscomponentsareresolvedbysearchingthesuperclassesintheorderinwhichthe
yarenamedintheclassdeclaration.
 PYTHON’ssupportforobject-
orientedprogrammingisdevelopingbutisnotyetmature.Theuseofthe‘‘’’
namingconventiontoindicateprivacyisclumsyanderror-
prone;classcomponentsarepublicbydefault.Stillmoreseriously,variablecomponentscanbecreated(a
nddeleted)atanytime,byanymethodandevenbyapplicationcode.

SeparateCompilation
 PYTHONmodulesarecompiledseparately.Eachmodulemustexplicitlyimporteveryothermodule
onwhichitdepends.Eachmodule’ssourcecodeisstoredinatextfile.
 Forexample,amodulenamedwidgetisstoredinafilenamedwidget.py.Whenthatmoduleisfirstimp
orted,itiscompiledanditsobjectcodeisstoredinafilenamedwidget.pyc.
 Wheneverthemoduleissubsequentlyimported,itisrecompiledonlyifthesourcecodehasbeenedite
dinthemeantime.Compilationiscompletelyautomatic.
 ThePYTHONcompilerdoesnotrejectcodethatreferstoundeclaredidentifiers.Suchcodesimplyfailsifa
ndwhenitisexecuted.
ModuleLibrary
 PYTHONisequippedwithaveryrichmodulelibrary,whichsupportsstringhandling,markup,mathemat
icsandcryptography,multimedia,GUIs,operatingsystemservices,Internetservices,compilation,ands
oon.
 Unlikeolderscriptinglanguages,PYTHONdoesnothavebuilt-inhigh-
levelstringprocessingorGUIsupport.Instead,thePYTHONmodulelibraryprovidessuchfunction
ality.Forexample,therelibrarymoduleprovidespowerfulstringmatchingfacilitiesusingregularex
pressions.

SummaryofScriptingLanguages
 Thepragmaticissuesthatinfluencethedesignofscriptinglanguages:gluing,rapiddevelopmentand
evolution,modestefficiencyrequirements,andveryhigh-levelfunctionalityinrelevantareas.
 Theconceptscommontomostscriptinglanguages:veryhigh-
levelsupportforstringprocessing,veryhigh-levelsupportforGUIs,anddynamictyping.
 ThedesignofamajorscriptinglanguagePYTHON,resemblesaconventionalprogramminglanguage,ex
ceptthatitisdynamicallytyped,andthatitderivesmuchofitsexpressivenessfromarichmodulelibrary.


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