Understanding

M athematics
Textbook for Class X

Department of School Education

Ministry of Education and Skills Development
Royal Government of Bhutan
Published by
Department of School Education (DSE)
Ministry of Education and Skills Development (MoESD)
Royal Government of Bhutan
Tel: +975-8-271226 Fax: +975-8-271991
Copyright © 2003 DSE, MoESD, Thimphu
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the DSE,
MoESD,Thimphu.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Advisors
Dasho Pema Thinley, Secretary, Ministry of Education
Tshewang Tandin, Director, Department of School Education, Ministry of Education
Yangka, Director, Academic Affairs, Royal University of Bhutan
Karma Yeshey, Chief Curriculum Officer, CAPSD
Research, Writing, and Editing Bhutanese Reviewers
One, Two, ..., Infinity Ltd., Canada Rinzin Jamtsho, Tangmachu MSS
Chencho Wangdi, Punakha HSS
Authors Dechen Pelden, Ugyen Dorji HSS
Marian Small Kinley Wangdi, Lobesa LSS
John Grant McLoughlin Prem Khatiwara, Yangchenphug HSS
Chris Kirkpatrick Devi Charan, Nganglam HSS
David Wagner Tashi Penjore, Khuruthang MSS
David Zimmer Phuntsho Dukpa, Punakha HSS
Pema Dukpa, Wamrong LSS
Reviewers Sonam Bumtap, Yebilaptsa MSS
Ron Manuel Kinley Dorji, Gedu MSS
John Grant McLoughlin Ugyen Dorji, Jigme Sherabling HSS
David Pilmer Tau Tshering, Shaba MSS
Don Small Kailash Pradhan, Trongsa Sherabling HSS
Tara Small Mark Turner, Rinchen HSS
Gembo Tshering, BBED
Editors Mindu Gyaltshen, EMSSD
Jackie Williams Tandin Khorlo, Paro College of Education
Carolyn Wagner Nidup Dorji, College of Science and Technology
Karma Yeshey, CAPSD
Lobzang Dorji, CAPSD
Cover Concept and Design
Karma Yeshey and Ugyen Dorji, Curriculum Officers, CAPSD

Coordination
Karma Yeshey and Lobzang Dorji, Curriculum Officers, CAPSD

The Ministry of Education wishes to thank

• all teachers in the field who have given support and feedback on this project
• the World Bank, for ongoing support for school mathematics reform in Bhutan
• Drukgyel HSS and the students there, for their photos
• Thomson-Nelson Publishing Canada, for its publishing expertise and assistance

1st edition 2007 ISBN 99936-0-274-4

Reprint 2023

ii
 CONTENTS
FOREWORD vii

INTRODUCTION
How Mathematics Has Changed ix
Using Your Textbook x
Assessing Your Mathematical Performance xiv
The Classroom Environment xiv
Mathematical Tools xvi
Your Notebook xvi

UNIT 1 MATRICES AND NETWORKS

Getting Started 1

Chapter 1 Matrices
1.1.1 Introducing Matrices 2
1.1.2 Adding and Subtracting Matrices 5
1.1.3 Multiplying a Matrix by a Scalar 8
1.1.4 Multiplying Matrices 11

Chapter 2 Networks
1.2.1 EXPLORE: Travelling Networks 15
CONNECTIONS: The Seven Bridges of Konigsberg 16
GAME: Sprouts 16
1.2.2 Describing a Network With a Matrix 17
1.2.3 Solving Network Problems 22
UNIT 1 Revision 28

UNIT 2 COMMERCIAL MATH AND NUMBER

Getting Started 31

Chapter 1 Commercial Math

2.1.1 Purchasing Decisions 32
2.1.2 Compound Interest 36
CONNECTIONS: The Rule of 72 43
GAME: Target 200 43
2.1.3 Dividends and Stocks 44
2.1.4 Using Commercial Math 47

iii
Chapter 2 Radicals
2.2.1 EXPLORE: Representing Square Roots 52
2.2.2 Simplifying Radicals 53
2.2.3 Operations with Radicals 56
GAME: Five Radicals 61
Unit 2 Revision 62

UNIT 3 LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

Getting Started 65

Chapter 1 Linear Functions and Relations

3.1.1 Linear Functions 67
3.1.2 Applications of Linear Functions 72
3.1.3 Graphs of Linear Inequalities 78
3.1.4 EXPLORE: Transforming Linear Function Graphs 84
GAME: True or False 85

Chapter 2 Solving Systems of Linear Equations

3.2.1 Solving Algebraically — The Comparison Strategy 86
3.2.2 Solving Algebraically — The Substitution Strategy 91
3.2.3 Solving Algebraically — The Elimination Strategy 95
CONNECTIONS: Matrix Solution of a Linear Sytem 99
3.2.4 EXPLORE: Counting Solutions for Different Systems 100
UNIT 3 Revision 101

UNIT 4 MEASUREMENT
Getting Started 103

Chapter 1 Precision
4.1.1 Precision and Accuracy 105
CONNECTIONS: Precision Instruments 112
4.1.2 EXPLORE: Measurement Error 113

Chapter 2 Efficient Design

4.2.1 EXPLORE: Regular Polygons with a Constant Perimeter 115
4.2.2 2-D Efficiency 117
4.2.3 3-D Efficiency 121
CONNECTIONS: Animal Shapes and Sizes 125
UNIT 4 Revision 126

iv
UNIT 5 NON-LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Getting Started 127

Chapter 1 Graphing Functions

5.1.1 Forms of Quadratic Functions 129
5.1.2 Graphs of Quadratic Functions in Factored Form 135
5.1.3 EXPLORE: Transforming Quadratic Function Graphs 139
5.1.4 Relating Graphs of Quadratic Functions 141
CONNECTIONS: Parabolas and Paper Folding 148
5.1.5 EXPLORE: The Absolute Value Function 149

Chapter 2 Solving Non-Linear Equations

5.2.1 Factoring Quadratic Expressions 150
5.2.2 EXPLORE: Roots of Quadratic Equations 157
5.2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring 158
5.2.4 EXPLORE: Absolute Value Equations 162
GAME: Get the Points 162
UNIT 5 Revision 163

UNIT 6 DATA, STATISTICS, AND PROBABILITY

Getting Started 165

Chapter 1 Data Involving One Variable

6.1.1 Histograms and Stem and Leaf Plots 167
6.1.2 EXPLORE: Investigating Bin Width in Histograms 177
6.1.3 Histograms and Box and Whisker Plots 178
6.1.4 Data Distribution 186
CONNECTIONS: Normal Distribution and Sample Size 194

Chapter 2 Data Involving Two Variables

6.2.1 Correlation and Lines of Best Fit 195
6.2.2 Non-Linear Data and Curves of Best Fit 205
CONNECTIONS: Data Collection by Census 212

Chapter 3 Probability
6.3.1 Dependent and Independent Events 213
6.3.2 Calculating Probabilities 218
UNIT 6 Revision 223

v
UNIT 7 TRIGONOMETRY
Getting Started 227

Chapter 1 Defining Trigonometric Ratios

7.1.1 Using Similarity Properties to Solve Problems 229
7.1.2 EXPLORE: Special Ratios in Similar Triangles 235
CONNECTIONS: Using a Clinometer 237
7.1.3 The Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios 238
7.1.4 Trigonometric Identities 243

Chapter 2 Applying Trigonometric Ratios

7.2.1 Calculating Side Lengths and Angles 249
7.2.2 Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression 252
7.2.3 Areas of Polygons 255
GAME: Race to Five 259
7.2.4 Vectors and Bearings 260
CONNECTIONS: Relating Trigonometric Ratios to Circles 265
UNIT 7 Revision 266

UNIT 8 GEOMETRY
Getting Started 269

Chapter 1 Symmetry and Reasoning

8.1.1 2-D and 3-D Reflectional Symmetry 270
8.1.2 2-D and 3-D Rotational Symmetry 275
8.1.3 Reasoning 279

Chapter 2 Constructions
8.2.1 EXPLORE: Rigidity 284
8.2.2 Perpendiculars and Bisectors 285
8.2.3 Medians and Altitudes 291
CONNECTIONS: Paper Folding Constructions 295
GAME: Balancing Triangles 295
UNIT 8 Revision 296

GLOSSARY 297

ANSWERS 313

PHOTO CREDITS 377

MEASUREMENT REFERENCES 379

TRIG TABLE AND REFERENCES 380

vi
 FOREWORD
Provision of quality education for our children is a cornerstone policy of the Royal
Government of Bhutan. Quality education in mathematics includes attention to
many aspects of educating our children. One is providing opportunities and
believing in our children’s ability to understand and contribute to the advancement
of science and technology within our culture, history and tradition. To accomplish
this, we need to cater to children’s mental, emotional and psychological phases of
development, enabling, encouraging and supporting them in exploring, discovering
and realizing their own potential. We also must promote and further our values of
compassion, hard work, honesty, helpfulness, perseverance, responsibility,
thadamtsi (for instance being grateful to what I would like to call ‘Pham Kha Nga’,
consisting of parents, teachers, His Majesty the King, the country and the
Bhutanese people, for all the goodness received from them and the wish to
reciprocate these in equal measure) and ley-ju-drey — the understanding and
appreciation of the natural law of cause and effect. At the same time, we wish to
develop positive attitudes, skills, competencies, and values to support our children
as they mature and engage in the professions they will ultimately pursue in life,
either by choice or necessity.
While education recognizes that certain values for our children as individuals and
as citizens of the country and of the world at large, do not change, requirements in
the work place advance as a result of scientific, technological, and even political
advancement in the world. These include expectations for more advanced
interpersonal skills and skills in communications, reasoning, problem solving, and
decision-making. Therefore, the type of education we provide to our children must
reflect the current trends and requirements, and be relevant and appropriate. Its
quality and standard should stem out of collective wisdom, experience, research,
and thoughtful deliberations.
Mathematics, without dispute, is a beautiful and profound subject, but it also has
immense utility to offer in our lives. The school mathematics curriculum is being
changed to reflect research from around the world that shows how to help
students better understand the beauty of mathematics as well as its utility.

vii
The development of this textbook series for our schools, Understanding
Mathematics, is based on and organized as per the new School Mathematics
Curriculum Framework that the Ministry of Education has developed recently,
taking into consideration the changing needs of our country and international
trends. We are also incorporating within the textbooks appropriate teaching
methodologies including assessment practices which are reflective of international
best practices. The Teacher’s Guides provided with the textbooks are a resource
for teachers to support them, and will definitely go a long way in assisting our
teachers in improving their efficacy, especially during the initial years of teaching
the new curriculum, which demands a shift in the approach to teaching and
learning of Mathematics. However, the teachers are strongly encouraged to go
beyond the initial ideas presented in the Guides to access other relevant
resources and, more importantly to try out their own innovations, creativity and
resourcefulness based on their experiences, reflections, insights and professional
discussions.
The Ministry of Education is committed to providing quality education to our
children, which is relevant and adaptive to the changing times and needs as per
the policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan and the wish of our beloved King.
I would like to commend and congratulate all those involved in the School
Mathematics Reform Project and in the development of these textbooks.
I would like to wish our teachers and students a very enjoyable and worthwhile
experience in teaching, learning and understanding mathematics with the support
of these books. As the ones actually using these books over a sustained period of
time in a systematic manner, we would like to strongly encourage you to scrutinize
the contents of these books and send feedback and comments to the Curriculum
and Professional Support Division (CAPSD) for improvement with the future
editions. On the part of the students, you can and should be enthusiastic, critical,
venturesome, and communicative of your views on the contents discussed in the
books with your teachers and friends rather than being passive recipients of
knowledge.

Trashi Delek!

Thinley Gyamtsho
MINISTER
Ministry of Education
January of 2007

viii
 INTRODUCTION
How Mathematics Has Changed
Mathematics is a subject with a long history. Although newer mathematical ideas
are always being discovered, much of what you will be learning is mathematics
that has been known for hundreds of years, if not longer.
Mathematics is a study of quantity, space, structure, patterns and change. This
study at the school level is divided into 5 strands of content, namely, numbers
and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, and data and probability.
Nowadays, greater emphasis is given to conceptual understanding rather than on
memorizing and applying rote procedures. There are many reasons for this.
• In the long run, it is very unlikely that you will remember the mathematics you
learn unless it is meaningful. It is much harder to memorize something that does
not make sense than something that relates to what you already know.
• Some approaches to mathematics have not been successful; there are many
adults who are not comfortable with mathematics even though they were
successful in school. This indicates that a change in approach is necessary.
In your new textbook, the mathematics is made meaningful in many ways:

• Mathematics should be taught using contexts that are meaningful to you. They
can be mathematical contexts or real world contexts. Your new textbook uses
both Bhutanese and international contexts.
For example, in Unit 1 (Matrices and Networks) a task with an international
context involves multiplying a matrix by a scalar to determine the price in
ngultrums of several items priced in Thai baht. In Unit 6 (Data, Statistics, and
Probability) you will estimate the correlation coefficient of a graph that shows the
Olympic discus throw distances from 1908 to 1992 and examine data about the
mass of three types of apples grown in Canada.
Tasks with Bhutanese contexts involve calculating the slope of the wheelchair
ramp at the hospital in Paro (Unit 7 Trigonometry) and considering the precision of
a common balance used at a local market (Unit 4 Measurement). Meaningful
contexts will help you see and appreciate the value of mathematics.

Working with Thai baht, Olympic statistics, and data about apples grown in Canada

Introduction ix
 Dividing a triangular paddy field into half, calculating the slope of the wheelchair, and
using a common balance

• You will be asked to explain why something is true, not simply to state that it is
true. For example, you will be asked not only to demonstrate that the number of
lines of symmetry of a regular shape is always equal to the order of rotational
symmetry, but also to explain, using deductive reasoning, why this is so.
• When you discuss mathematical ideas, you will be expected to use the
processes of problem solving, communication, reasoning, making connections
(connecting mathematics to the everyday world and connecting mathematical
topics to each other), and representation (representing mathematical ideas in
different ways, such as graphs and tables). For example, in Unit 2 (Commercial
Math and Number), you will connect radicals (both rational and irrational numbers)
to the hypotenuse of right triangles, use reasoning to see how different
representations of radical expressions are equivalent, and communicate your
thinking while solving problems involving radicals.
• The reason you learn mathematics is to help you solve problems. In the real
world, you are not told when to apply particular mathematical skills. You just need
to know. You will be given opportunities to figure out when and how to apply the
concepts and skills you are learning in order to solve problems.
USING YOUR TEXTBOOK
Each unit has
• a Getting Started section
• two or three chapters, which divide the content of the unit into sections
• regular lessons and at least one Explore lesson
• a Game (usually)
• at least one Connections feature
• a Unit Revision
Getting Started
There are two parts to each Getting Started section: Use What You Know and
Skills You Will Need. Both will remind you of critical knowledge and terminology
you should have already learned that will be required in the unit.
• Use What You Know is an activity that you complete with a partner or in a small
group.
• Skills You Will Need is a review of the skills you will use in the unit.

x
Regular Lessons
• Lessons are numbered #.#.# — the first number tells the unit, the second
number the chapter, and the third number the lesson within the chapter.
For example, Lesson 4.2.1 is Unit 4, Chapter 2, Lesson 1 (the first lesson in
Chapter 2 of Unit 4).
• Each regular lesson is divided into five parts:
- A Try This task
- The exposition (the main ideas of the
- A question that revisits the Try This
- Examples
- Practising and Applying
Try This
• The Try This task is in a shaded box, like the example below from lesson 8.1.2
on page 275.
A baby is playing with a small cube block
that fits into a square hole in a bigger cube
block.

A. How many ways can the baby fit

the small cube block into the hole?

• The Try This is a brief task that you might do with a partner or in a small group. It
is related to the new learning, but you can complete it without the concepts and
skills that are the focus of the lesson. The new mathematics you are able to learn
in the exposition will make more sense to you if you do some related mathematics
before the teacher presents the lesson.
The Exposition
• The exposition appears in a box immediately following the Try This.
• The exposition presents the main concepts and skills of the lesson.
• Key mathematical terms are introduced and described. When a key term appears
for the first time in a unit, it is highlighted in bold type to indicate that it is found in
the glossary (at the back of the book).
• You are not expected to copy the exposition into your notebook either directly
from the book or from your teacher’s lecture.
Revisiting the Try This
• The revisiting the Try This question(s) follows the exposition and appears in a
shaded area, like this example from lesson 8.1.2 on page 275, which follows
from the above Try This about the small cube block.

B. i) How does the question in part A relate to rotational symmetry?

ii) What is the order of turn symmetry of the small cube? Explain.
{{{

• The question shows how your new learning relates to what you already learned
from the Try This task.

Introduction xi
Examples
• The Examples provide additional instruction by modelling how to approach
the questions you will meet in Practising and Applying. Each example is a bit
different from the others so that you have many models from which to work.
• Sometimes you work through the examples independently, sometimes in
pairs or in small groups, and sometimes with your teacher.
• What is special about the examples is that they show not only the formal
mathematical work in the left hand Solution column, but also what a student might
be thinking in the right hand Thinking column. This is intended to help you learn to
think mathematically. Many of the examples present two or even three different
solutions. The example below, from lesson 7.1.4 on page 247, shows two
possible ways to approach the task, Solution 1 and Solution 2.
Example 2 Using the Reciprocal Ratio
In a right triangle, sec x = 2. What is the value of x?
Solution 1 Thinking
1 1
If sec x = 2, then cos x = . • I knew that sec x = ,
2 cos x
so I used the secant ratio to
find cosine.
1
1
• I knew that cosine was for
2
x one of the angles in a 30°-60°-90° triangle.
I drew that triangle as half of an equilateral
1 triangle to help me figure out whether x was
2 30° or 60°.
• Cosine is based on the adjacent side, so the
The angle must be 60°. 1
angle with cosine of must be the 60° angle.
2
Solution 2 Thinking
1 • My calculator doesn’t have a
If sec x = 2, then cos x = .
2 button for sec–1 that gives the
1 angle if you enter the secant,
cos–1 = 60°
2 but it does have a button for
cos–1. That's why I used the
relationship between secant and cosine
to find the value of the cosine ratio.

Practising and Applying

• Depending on your teacher’s choice, you might work on the Practising and
Applying questions independently, with a partner, or in a group. You can use the
exposition and examples as references.
• The questions start out like those in the Examples and progress to questions
requiring more problem solving and more explanations. The last question brings
you back to one of the main points of the lesson.

xii
Explore Lessons
• An Explore lesson provides an opportunity for you to investigate some
mathematics. You may work with a partner or in a small group.
• Your teacher does not lecture in an Explore lesson. Instead, you work through
a problem by following the questions that direct your investigation.

Connections Feature
• The Connections feature takes many forms. Sometimes it is a relevant and
interesting historical note. Sometimes it relates the mathematical content of the
unit to the content of a different unit. Other times it relates the mathematical
content to a real world application. For example, in Unit 4, the CONNECTIONS
on page 125 connects the surface area to volume ratio (efficiency of shapes)
to the reason why animals have certain shapes and sizes.
• There is always one or more Connections feature in a unit.
• You might work in pairs or small groups to complete the task or answer the
question(s).

Game
• There is usually at least one Game in each unit.
• The Game is a way to practise skills and concepts introduced in the unit with a
partner or in small group.
• The required materials and rules are listed in the book. Usually there is a sample
shown to help you understand the rules.

Unit Revision
• The Unit Revision is an opportunity to review the lessons in the unit.
• There is always a mixture of skill, concept, and problem solving questions.
• The order of the questions in the Unit Revision usually follows the order of the
lessons in the unit.
• You can work with a partner or on your own, as your teacher suggests.

Glossary
At the end of the book, there is a glossary of new mathematical trminology and
definitions. The glossary also contains other important mathematical terms from
previous classes. There is also a set of instructional terms commonly used in the
units (for example, justify, explain, predict, …). These are intended to help you
understand what is expected of you.

Answers
• Answers to most of the numbered questions are provided in the back of the
textbook. Answers that are lengthy explanations are not included; your teacher
has these answers.
• Questions with letters, such as A or B, do not have answers in the back of the
book. Your teacher has the answers to these questions.
• There is often more than one possible answer to a question. This is indicated in
the answers by the phrase Sample Response. When you see an answer starting
with the words Sample Response, your answer may still be correct even if it does
not match the answer given.
Introduction xiii
ASSESSING YOUR MATHEMATICAL PERFORMANCE

Forms of Assessment
Your teacher will observe and report on your mathematical performance.
Sometimes your teacher will collect information about what you understand in
order to change the way you are taught. Other times your teacher will use
information about your performance to give you a mark.

Assessment Criteria
• Your teacher should inform you about what mathematical content will be
assessed and how it will be assessed. For example, you should know if the intent
of the assessment is to focus on skills and application or on problem solving.
• Your mark and all assessments should reflect the curriculum for Class IX.
The proportions of the mark assigned for each unit should reflect both the time
spent on the unit and the importance of the unit.
• All assessment should have a balance of skills, applications, concepts, and
problem solving. The balance will vary depending on the unit and purpose of the
assessment.
• Your teacher should inform you whether a test is being marked numerically,
using a letter grade, or whether a rubric is being used. A rubric is a chart that
describes criteria for your work, usually in four levels of performance. If a rubric is
used, your teacher should let you see it before you start on the task.

Determining a Mark or Grade

In determining your mark, your teacher might use a combination of tests,
assignments, projects, performance tasks, and homework.

THE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

In almost every lesson, you will be engaged in some work either on your own, in
pairs, or in small groups (either in the Try This or during an Explore lesson). Being
engaged in your learning helps you learn better.
While you are working on your own, in pairs or in groups, communication plays a
significant role in every lesson. Through communication you can clarify your
thinking and show your teacher and classmates what you understand.

You should always share your responses, even if they are different from those
offered by other students. It is only in this way that you will really be engaged in
the mathematical thinking instead of being a spectator.

xiv
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Manipulatives
• All students, including those who are already
good at mathematics, can benefit from using
manipulative materials. For example, Unit 2
makes frequent use of algebra tiles to represent
polynomials concretely. Although some students
can be successful without these materials,
everyone can benefit from their use. You will start
to see not only how to perform algebraic
manipulations, but why they are done the way
they are.
• Manipulative materials are important in Class IX
in the units on polynomials, probability, geometry, Algebra tiles for polynomials
and measurement.

Appropriate Calculator Use

• In Class X, like in class IX, calculator should be used
as a regular tool. At this point in your mathematical
education, you are no longer being asked simply to
perform routine calculations. Calculations are now part
of more sophisticated mathematical tasks that are the
real focus of your learning.
• You may not have the same type of calculator as
your classmates, so specific instructions for how to use
your calculator are not provided in the textbook. Your
teacher can help you learn to use your calculator
correctly.

YOUR NOTEBOOK
• It is valuable for you to have a well-organized, neat notebook to look back at to
review the main mathematical ideas you have learned. However, it is also
important for you to feel comfortable doing rough work in that notebook rather
than doing it elsewhere and then wasting valuable time copying your rough work
neatly into your notebook. If you do rough work on other paper, which will certainly
happen from time to time, it may not be necessary to copy it into your notebook.
• Your teacher will sometimes point out important points to record in your
notebook. You should also make your own decisions about which ideas to include
in your notebook.

Introduction xiv
 UNIT 1 MATRICES AND NETWORKS
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. The numbers 1 to 9 can be arranged in a magic 4 ? 8
square so that all rows, columns, and diagonals add
to the same value. Complete this magic square. 9 5 ?
B. The magic sum is the sum of each row, column, or
diagonal. What is the magic sum of this magic square?
? 7 ?

C. Create your own magic square using each number from 1 to 9.

D. i) Combine the magic square in part A with your magic square from part C
to create a 3 × 3 square of numbers. Do this by adding pairs of numbers that are
in the same position, as shown below.

A B C J K L A+J B+K C+L

D E F M N O D+M E+N F+O

+ =
G H I P Q R G+P H+Q I+R

ii) Is the new 3 × 3 square of numbers magic? How do you know?

E. i) Multiply your magic square from part C by 0.5 to create a new 3 × 3 square
of numbers. Do this by multiplying each value in your magic square by 0.5.
ii) Is the 3 × 3 square of numbers magic? How do you know?
iii) Did you expect this? Why?

Skills You Will Need

1. Find the sum.
a) –1 + 3 b) –4 + (–2) c) 3 + (–10) d) –18 + (–6)

2. Find the difference.

a) –1 – 3 b) –4 – (–2) c) 3 – (–10) d) –18 – (–6)

3. Find the product.

a) 2 × (–2) b) –6 × 2 c) –10 × (–4) d) –8 × (–9)

4. Calculate.
a) 0.3 + 1.8 b) 2.3 – 1.8 c) 3 ÷ 1.5 d) 2.8 ÷ 0.7

5. Find the product.

a) 0.3 × 0.7 b) 1.2 × 30 c) 0.84 × 12 d) 1.2 × 15

Reprint 2023 1
Chapter 1 Matrices
1.1.1 Introducing Matrices

Try This
This chart displays information about friendships.
If two people are friends, there is a 1 in the chart.
If they are not friends, there is a 0.
Dema Sonam Nima Karma
Yuden 0 0 1 1
Thinley 1 0 0 1
Pema 0 1 0 1

A. i) Who has the most friends?

ii) How do you know?

A matrix (plural is matrices) is a rectangular array of items used to store and

display information. The information can be numbers, shapes, or other symbols.
An example of a matrix is shown below.
Matrix B
ª4 3 1 0 º
« »
«7 3 1 8 »
«¬5 9 1 4»¼

• Each item inside the matrix is an element. The element that is in the 3rd row,
2nd column of Matrix B is 9. You can write (3, 2) as the address of the element.
You should write the row number first and then the column number.
• The matrix itself has no row or column labels, but sometimes column or row
labels are used to make it clear what the numbers represent.
• Open square brackets are often used on the left and right of the matrix.
• The size, or dimensions, of a matrix tells the number of rows and then the
number of columns. Matrix B is a 3-by-4 matrix, or 3 × 4 matrix, since it is
3 rows by 4 columns. You read this as “B is a three-by-four matrix.”
A 3 × 4 matrix has different dimensions than a 4 × 3 matrix.
• A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called a square matrix.
• A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix.
• A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix.

B. i) What part of the friendship chart above is a matrix?

ii) How do you know it is a matrix?

Reprint 2023 2
Examples
Example 1 Using a Matrix to Describe a Shape
What matrix might describe this shape?

Solution Thinking
• I used a 2 × 6 matrix
ª0 3 3 8 8 11º because each vertex has
« » 2 coordinates (an x- and a
¬0 5 9 9 5 0 ¼
y-coordinate) and there are
6 vertices.
Each column describes the
coordinates of each of the six • I could have used a 6 × 2 matrix instead,
vertices—the 1st row is the with each row describing the coordinates
x-coordinate and the 2nd row is the
of one vertex.
y-coordinate.
• I started at the bottom left corner of
the shape and went clockwise:
(0, 0), (3, 5), (3, 9), (8, 9), (8, 5), (11, 0),
but I could have started at a different
point and moved in the opposite direction.

Example 2 Using Matrices to Describe Factors

Lobzang factored every multiple of 3 from 6 to 30 into prime factors. He used a
matrix to show how many times each prime factor — 2, 3, 5, and 7 — appeared in
each number. Create Lobzang’s matrix.
Solution Thinking
6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 • I used a 4 × 9 matrix
2 ª 1 0 2 0 1 0 3 0 1º because I knew there were
3 « 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 1» 4 prime factors and
« »
5 «0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1» 9 multiples.
« »
7 ¬0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0¼ • I began with the first
column for the multiple 6. Since 6 = 2 × 3,
Each column lists the number of there is 1 of prime factor 2, 1 of prime
each prime factor (2, 3, 5, and 7) factor 3, 0 of prime factor 5, and 0 of
there are in the factored form of prime factor 7.
each multiple of 3 (6, 9, 12, ..., 30).
• I completed the remaining columns the
same way.

Reprint 2023 3
Practising and Applying
1. Identify the element in the fourth row, 5. Andu kept a record of his archery
third column of this matrix. scores in his last five matches

ªA C F Gº [125 134 122 117 109]

« »
«D S R E»
a) What are the dimensions of this row
«B C A O»
« » matrix?
«K M A C» b) How could a matrix with different
«¬D B F I »¼ dimensions show the same
information?
2. Create these matrices.
a) any 3 × 2 matrix 6. Kezang, Sangay, and Choden
make ghos and kiras. Here is what
b) a 3 × 1 matrix with 0 in the second row they have made so far this year.
c) any size matrix with 0 at (3, 2)
Ghos Kiras
3. The Government of Bhutan plans Kezang ª5 6º
economic growth using 5-year plans. « 4 2»
Sangay « »
This matrix shows the first year for the « »¼
Choden ¬ 3 3
first nine 5-year plans.

ª1 1961º a) What does the sum of the elements

«2 in each row tell you?
« 1966 »»
b) What does the sum of the elements
«3 1971» in each column tell you?
« »
«4 1976 »
«5 1981» 7. Each column of this matrix
« » describes the coordinates of one of
«6 1987 »
«7 the vertices of a shape. Describe the
1992 » shape.
« »
«8 1997 »
« » ª0 2 8 6º
¬9 2002¼
«0 4 4 0»
¬ ¼
a) What are the dimensions of this
matrix? 8. Use a matrix to show the number of
b) Why is a two-column matrix suitable times the prime factors 2, 3, 5, and 7
for showing this information? appear in each of the multiples of 4
from 4 to 40.
4. List four people: two people in your
family and two classmates. Create a 9. A multiplication table shows the
4 × 4 matrix to show which of the four results of multiplying each number
people know each other — use a 1 to from 0 to 9 by each number from
show they know each other and a 0 to 0 to 9. Why might someone call a
show they do not know each other. multiplication table a square matrix?

Reprint 2023 4
1.1.2 Adding and Subtracting Matrices

Try This
These two matrices show the reported population of Bhutan in three age
categories in 2001 and 2003.
2001 2003
Under 15 years ª285,658 º Under 15 years ª294,258 º
15 to 64 years «419,308 » 15 to 64 years «374,637 »
« » « »
65 years and over «¬ 29,374 »¼ 65 years and over «¬ 30,055 »¼

A. i) Use the two matrices to find the change in population in each age category
from 2001 to 2003.
ii) Arrange the information about population change in a matrix.

• You can add or subtract matrices that have numerical elements, but the matrices
must have the same dimensions.
• When you add or subtract matrices, you find the sum of, or difference between,
the elements in the same positions in the matrices.
2 + 10 = 12

ª2 1 0º ª 10 3 0.5º ª12 4 0.5º

« 4 3 2» + « − 2 1 − 4 » = « »
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ 2 4 − 2¼
2 – 10 = –8

ª2 1 0º ª 10 3 0.5º ª−8 −2 −0.5º

« » – «− 2 1 − 4 » = « »
¬ 4 3 2¼ ¬ ¼ ¬6 2 6 ¼

B. When you answered part A, did you add or subtract the matrices? Why?

Examples
Example Interpreting Sums and Differences of Matrices
Matrix A describes how many hours Deki, Dorji, and Karma spent on their English,
math, and Dzongkha homework one night. Matrix B describes how many hours
they spent the next night.
a) Add the matrices. What do the elements of the sum matrix tell you?
b) Subtract the matrices. What do the elements of the difference matrix tell you?
English Math Dzongkha English Math Dzongkha
ª0.8 1 0.5º ª0.3 1.2 0. 7 º
A = «« 1 0.9 0.6»» B = ««0.5 1.1
»
0. 8 »
«¬ 1 1 0.5»¼ «¬0.5 1.3 0.7»¼
[Continued]

Reprint 2023 5
Example Interpreting Sums and Differences of Matrices [Continued]
Solution Thinking
a) A + B a) I checked to
make sure the
ª0.8 + 0.3 1 + 1.2 0.5 + 0.7º
matrices were the
= «« 1 + 0.5 0.9 + 1.1 0.6 + 0.8»»
same size so I
«¬ 1 + 0.5 1 + 1.3 0.5 + 0.7»¼ could add them —
they’re both 3-by-3.
ª1.1 2.2 1.2º
• I added the elements in the
= ««1.5 2.0 1.4»»
same position in each matrix.
«¬1.5 2.3 1.2»¼

The elements describe how much time each

of the three students spent altogether on their
English, math, and Dzongkha homework over
both nights.
b) Since the matrices are the
b) A – B
same size, I knew I could
ª0.8 − 0.3 1 − 1.2 0.5 − 0.7º subtract them.
= «« 1 − 0.5 0.9 − 1.1 0.6 − 0.8»» • I subtracted A – B but I could
«¬ 1 − 0.5 1 − 1.3 0.5 − 0.7»¼ have subtracted B – A.
• I subtracted the elements in
ª0.5 − 0.2 − 0.2º the same position in each
= ««0.5 − 0.2 − 0.2»» matrix.
«¬0.5 − 0.3 − 0.2»¼ • I know with A – B a negative
number means the student spent
The elements describe how many more hours more time on the second night
each student studied in each subject on the
and a positive number means the
first night than the second.
student spent more time on the
first night.

Practising and Applying

1. Which matrix pairs can be added? 2. Add or subtract these matrices.
A. [3 2 1 0.5] [4 2 0.3 1] ª 9 0.3 4 º ª − 4 0 .9 1 . 9 º
a) « » + « »
¬ − 2 5 0 .8 ¼ ¬ 2 − 3 0.3¼
ª3 2 º ª4 2 0.3º
B. « » «1 0 3 »
¬ 1 0.5¼ ¬ ¼ ª− 8 − 4º ª 0 .3 − 8 º
b) « » + « »
¬7 0 ¼ ¬ − 0 .5 2 ¼
ª 4 2º
ª2 3 0 º «0.3 − 2»
C. « » « » ª 8 − 11º ª − 5 2.3 º
¬ 4 2 − 2¼ «¬ 0 0 »¼ c) « 1.9 3.2 » – «« − 2 1.8 »»
« »
«¬− 8.4 6 »¼ «¬0.4 − 2.5»¼

Reprint 2023 6
3. The two matrices below describe 6. The first matrix below describes the
average high temperatures (Matrix A) number of different Nu notes that Dorji’s
and low temperatures (Matrix B) in father and mother each had saved. The
degrees Celsius at three locations for second matrix describes the Nu notes
three different months. they added to their savings.
Jan. May Aug.
10 20 50 100 10 20 50 100
ª 9.4 23.5 25.3º Paro
F ª2 10 5 2º F ª1 0 1 5º
A = «« 16.1 27.2 31.4 »» Punakha « » M «¬0 0 0 6»¼
M ¬ 1 20 3 1¼
«¬20.4 30.1 30.2»¼ Trashigang
Create a matrix that shows the number
Jan. May Aug. of notes each has in savings.
ª− 5.8 10.6 14.7 º Paro
7. Dorji added Matrices A and B. The
B = «« 4.2 14.8 19.8 »» Punakha
sum matrix was the same as Matrix B.
«¬ 10.5 20.8 22.7»¼ Trashigang What did Matrix A look like?

a) Calculate A – B. What do the ª −3 8 0.2 1.9 º

elements in the difference matrix B= « »
represent? ¬− 2.4 − 3 5.2 6.8¼
b) Calculate B – A. What do the 8. a) Create three different 3 × 2 matrices
elements in the difference matrix and call them Matrices A, B, and C.
represent? b) Calculate A + B.
4. The matrices below describe the c) Add your answer for part b) to
number of animals two farmers already Matrix C.
had (A) and the number they have just d) Calculate B + C.
been given by family members (B). e) Add your answer for part d) to
Matrix A.
Cat Dog Pig Chicken f) What do you notice? Why do you
ª2 3 2 1º Farmer 1 think this happened?
A= « »
¬1 4 3 0¼ Farmer 2 9. Sonam added Matrices A and B. The
Cat Dog Pig Chicken sum matrix was Matrix C below.
ª 1 0 0 1º Farmer 1
B= « » ª− 4 0 − 8 5 º
¬0 1 1 1¼ Farmer 2 C= « »
¬ 17 − 3 28 − 4¼
Create a matrix to show how many
a) What could Matrices A and B have
animals of each type each farmer has.
been? Find two possible answers.
5. a) Create two different 2 × 5 b) Suppose A – B = C instead. What
matrices. Call them Matrices A and B. could Matrices A and B have been?
Find two possible answers.
b) Calculate A – B.
c) Calculate B – A. 10. Describe a situation where you
d) What do you notice about the signs might add or subtract matrices.
of the elements of the resulting
11. Why does it make sense that
matrices in parts b) and c)? Why do
matrices must have the same
you think this happened?
dimensions to be added or subtracted?

Reprint 2023 7
1.1.3 Multiplying a Matrix by a Scalar

Try This
The row matrix below describes the prices of a
number of items in Thai currency, called baht.
Meal Bottle of water Candy bar Haircut

50 9 27 60

A. i) Find the price of each item in ngultrums (1 baht = Nu 1.16).

ii) Arrange the information about prices in ngultrums in a matrix.

You can multiply a matrix by a single value, called a scalar. To do this, you
multiply each element in the matrix by that value. For example, the 2 × 2 matrix
below is multiplied by the scalar 0.5.

ª22 16º ª0.5 x 22 0.5 x 16º ª11 8 º

0.5 × « » = « » = « »
¬10 8 ¼ ¬ 0.5 x 10 0.5 x 8 ¼ ¬ 5 4¼

B. When you answered part A, how was it like multiplying a matrix by a scalar?

Examples
Example 1 Combining Operations to Calculate With Matrices
Two matrices, A and B, are defined as shown below.
ª4 1 0º ª2 4 3 º
A= « » B= « »
¬5 10 2¼ ¬ 1 3 4¼
How many negative elements are there in 3 × A – 2 × B?
Solution Thinking
ª3 x 4 3 x1 3 x 0º ª12 3 0º • I multiplied Matrix A by
3A = « » = « »
¬3 x 5 3 x 10 3 x 2¼ ¬15 30 6¼ the scalar 3.

ª2 x 2 2 x 4 2 x 3 º ª4 8 6º • I multiplied Matrix B by
2B = « » = « »
¬ 2 x 1 2 x 3 2 x 4¼ ¬2 6 8¼ the scalar 2.

ª12 3 0º ª4 8 6º
3A – 2B = « » – « » • I subtracted 3A – 2B.
¬15 30 6¼ ¬2 6 8¼

ª8 − 5 − 6º
= « »
¬13 24 − 2¼
• I counted the number of negative
There are three negative elements. elements in the final matrix.

Reprint 2023 8
Example 2 Multiplying a Matrix by a Scalar to Dilatate a Shape
You can dilatate (enlarge or reduce) a shape by
multiplying a matrix that describes the coordinates
of its vertices by a single value.
Multiply the matrix of coordinates for this shape
by 2. Describe the resulting shape.

ª0 0 5 10 º
«0 10 10 0 »
¬ ¼

Solution Thinking
ª0 0 5 10 º • I multiplied each element
2× « »
¬0 10 10 0 ¼ in the shape’s matrix by the
scalar 2 to get the matrix
ª2 x 0 2 x 0 2 x 5 2 x 10 º of coordinates for the new
= « »
¬2 x 0 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 0 ¼ shape.

ª0 0 10 20º
= « »
¬0 20 20 0 ¼

The resulting shape: • I plotted the coordinates (0, 0), (0, 20),
(10, 20) and (20, 0) and connected them.

• I noticed the shape looked the same

but bigger. It was a dilatation image.
One of the vertices, (0, 0), didn’t move
so that must be the dilatation centre.

The new shape is similar — it's 2 times

the width, 2 times the height, and
4 times the area of the original shape.

Practising and Applying

1. Multiply. ª24 16º
«10 15»»
ª 2 0 .4 º b)
2
× «
a) 3 × « » «9
¬0.8 1 ¼
3 31»
« »
¬18 21¼

ª 8 1.2 4º ª− 2 − 5º
c) 0.6 × « » d) –3 × « »
¬3.5 0.6 5 ¼ ¬0.4 0.9¼

Reprint 2023 9
2. Given Matrices A and B below, 5. The populations of some Bhutanese
calculate each. districts in 2005 are listed in the matrix
a) 2A + B below. Suppose each population grew
by 2.1% per year for the next two years.
b) A – 2B
Describe the populations of the four
c) 2A + 2B districts in 2006 and in 2007 using two
d) B – 2A matrices.
Bumthang Thimphu Chukha Mongar
ª 2 0 − 3º ª0 1 2º [16,116 98,676 74,387 37,069]
A = «« 9 1 − 2»» B = ««2 − 1 0»»
«¬− 3 2 8 »¼ «¬1 − 3 5»¼ 6. Find the missing values.

3. Matrix C below describes the ª− 4 5 º ª− 20 25 º

«
0 » = «« 15
»
coordinates of the vertices of a shape. a) ? × « 3 0 »»
«¬0.5 − 2»¼ «¬ 2.5 − 10»¼
ª4 3 3 5 º
C= « »
¬3 4 5 4 ¼
ª? ? ?º ª− 8 12 16 º
« » « »
a) How do you know it is a b) 2 × «? ? ?» = « 40 − 36 32 »
quadrilateral? «¬? ? ?»¼ «¬ 76 32 − 28»¼
b) Draw the shape on grid paper.
c) Create a matrix for a new shape by ª? ?º ª 0.75 3.5º
multiplying Matrix C by 0.5. c) ? × « » = « »
¬? ?¼ ¬− 1.25 2 ¼
d) Plot the new coordinates. How has
the shape changed?
7. The matrix below shows the number
of cell phone minutes used by Chhimi
4. The matrix below describes the price and Gyeltshen over the past 7 days.
of 1 kg of four items in Bhutan in Describe a situation where you might
ngultrums. Use matrix multiplication to want to multiply this matrix by a scalar.
show the prices in United States (U.S.)
dollars in a matrix. (Use the exchange ª30 10 20 0 0 30 12º
rate, 1 U.S. dollar = Nu 63.5) « »
¬12 15 22 36 4 10 18¼
Beef Cheese Rice Flour
P = [80 280 25 16] 8. Why can you always multiply a matrix
of any size by a scalar?

1 U.S. dollar = Nu 63.5

Reprint 2023 10
1.1.4 Multiplying Matrices

Try This
A company owns two hotels — one in Paro and one in Thimphu.
• Matrix A shows the rates each hotel charged tourists and government employees
during one week in April.
• Matrix B shows the number of guests paying each rate at each hotel that week.
Matrix A (Nu) Matrix B (Guests)
Tourist Rate Government Rate
Paro ª1100 950 º Tourists ª25º
Thimphu «¬1050 950 »¼ « »
Government ¬12 ¼
Employees

A. How much did each hotel earn that week?

• Two matrices can be multiplied if the number of columns in the first matrix equals
the number of rows in the second matrix. When comparing dimensions of matrices
to see if they can be multiplied, the two inner numbers must match.
For example:
You can multiply 4 × 1 and 1 × 3 matrices, but not 4 × 1 and 2 × 3 matrices.

• The dimensions of the product matrix are based on the number of rows in the
first matrix and the number of columns in the second matrix.
For example:
Multiplying a 3 × 2 matrix by a 2 × 5 matrix results in a 3 × 5 matrix.
• To multiply matrices, you multiply each element in a row of the first matrix by the
corresponding element in a column of the second matrix and then add the
products.
For example:
Suppose you have Matrix A and Matrix B below. You know you can multiply them,
since the number of columns in A matches the number of rows in B. You also
know that the product matrix will be 3-by-3 because 3-by-2 × 2-by-3 = 3-by-3.

ª 1 2º
ª7 8 9º
A = ««3 4»» B= «10 11 12» (3 × 2) × (2 × 3)
«¬5 6 »¼ ¬ ¼

The element in the 3rd row, 2nd column of the product matrix is the result of
multiplying the elements in the 3rd row of Matrix A by the elements in the
2nd column of Matrix B and adding the products (see next page).

Reprint 2023 11
 A B A×B Product Matrix
ª 1 2º ª? ?º ª? ? ?º
?
«3 4» × ª 7 8 9 º = «? » «
?» = «? ? ?»
»
« » « » « ?
¬10 11 12 ¼
«¬5 6 »¼ «¬? 5 × 8 + 6 × 11 ?»¼ «¬? 106 ?»¼

Each element is found in a similar way.

For example, the element in the 2nd row, 1st column of the product matrix below
comes from multiplying 3 and 4 in the 2nd row of Matrix A by 7 and 10 in the
1st column of Matrix B and adding the products.
A B A×B Product Matrix
ª 1 2º ª 1x 7 + 2 x 10 1x 8 + 2 x 11 1x 9 + 2 x 12 º ª27 30 33 º
«3 4» × ª 7 8 9 º = «3 x 7 + 4 x 10 3 x 8 + 4 x 11 3 x 9 + 4 x 12» = « 61 68 75 »
« » «10 11 12» « » « »
«¬5 6 »¼ ¬ ¼ «¬5 x 7 + 6 x 10 5 x 8 + 6 x 11 5 x 9 + 6 x 12»¼ «¬95 106 117»¼

B. Why could you have multiplied the matrices to solve part A?

Examples
Example 1 Multiplying Matrices to Solve a Problem
Matrix A shows four students’ marks on homework, tests, and an examination.
The teacher calculates a final grade by weighting homework, tests, and the exam
as percentages, as described in Matrix B. What is each student’s final grade?
Homework Tests Exam
ª80 70 77º Zangmo
« » ª0.3º Homework
90 78 82» Wangmo « »
A = « B = «0 . 2 » Tests
«75 85 87» Phurba
« » «¬0.5»¼ Exam
¬85 71 78¼ Chitrabir

Solution Thinking
• To get a final grade for
ª80 70 77 º ª?º each student, I needed to
« » ª0.3º « » multiply the homework
90 78 82» » ?
A×B= « × ««0.2» = « » marks by 30% (0.3), the
«75 85 87 » «?»
« » «¬0.5»¼ « » test marks by 20% (0.2),
¬85 71 78 ¼ ¬?¼ and the exam marks by 50% (0.5), and
add them together. I knew I could do
ª80 x 0.3 + 70 x 0.2 + 77 x 0.5º
«90 x 0.3 + 78 x 0.2 + 82 x 0.5» that by multiplying the matrices.
= « » • I knew I could multiply Matrices A
«75 x 0.3 + 85 x 0.2 + 87 x 0.5»
« » and B, because they are 4 × 3 and 3 × 1.
¬ 85 x 0.3 + 71 x 0.2 + 78 x 0.5 ¼ I also knew the product matrix would
be 4 × 1 (4 × 3 and 3 × 1).

Reprint 2023 12
Solution Thinking
ª76.5º • I knew that the order of
« » the rows in the product
83.6»
=« matrix was the same as in
« 83 »
« » Matrix A so I knew which
¬78.7¼ mark went with each
student.
The final grades are
• I rounded the marks to the nearest
77 for Zangmo
whole number.
84 for Wangmo
83 for Phurba
79 for Chitrabir

Example 2 Multiplying Matrices to Transform a Shape

You can transform a shape by multiplying matrices.
Matrix R below is a matrix that will transform a shape.
Matrix C shows the coordinates of the vertices of this
shape.

ª1 0 º ª5 7 12 10º
R= « » C= « »
¬0 − 1¼ ¬2 5 5 2 ¼

Multiply the two matrices R × C to create a matrix of

vertices for a new shape. What effect did Matrix R
have on the shape?
Solution Thinking
ª 1 0 º ª5 7 12 10º • I knew I
R×C= « » ׫ »
¬0 − 1¼ ¬2 5 5 2 ¼ could multiply
R and C
ª1× 5 + 0 × 2 1× 7 + 0 × 5 1× 12 + 0 × 5 1× 10 + 0 × 2º because the
= « »
¬0 × 5 − 1× 2 0 × 7 − 1× 5 0 × 12 − 1× 5 0 × 10 − 1× 2¼ matrices are
2 × 2 and 2 × 4.
ª 5 7 12 10º
=« »
¬−2 −5 −5 −2¼ • I plotted the coordinates
of the product matrix.

• I noticed that the shape

was reflected in the
x-axis.

Reprint 2023 13
Practising and Applying
1. a) Which pairs of different matrices 6. a) Why does the order matter when
can be multiplied and in what order? you multiply these matrices?

ª2 0 º ª2 1 3 º ª4 0 º
A= « » B= « » « »
¬3 1¼ ¬0 4 1¼ A = «1 2 » B = [2 5 1]
«¬0 − 1»¼
ª2 0 1º ª 1 0º
C = ««0 1 1»» D = ««3 0»» b) Create two 2 × 2 matrices, A and B.
«¬2 0 1»¼ «¬0 2»¼ Is A × B equal to B × A? Try a different
pair. Explain.
b) Multiply all possible pairs of matrices
from part a). 7. In a sports tournament, teams get
2 points for a win, 1 for a tie, and 0 for a
loss. Matrix A describes the number of
2. Suppose you multiplied two matrices
wins, ties, and losses for five teams.
and the product matrix was 4 by 2.
W T L
a) What size matrices might you have
multiplied? ª6 1 1º
« »
b) How do you know you are correct? «4 2 2»
A = «3 5 0»
« »
3. a) Draw a hexagon on a coordinate «3 0 5»
grid. Create matrix B for its coordinates. «¬ 1 2 5»¼
ª −1 0º
b) A = « » . Multiply A × B.
¬ 0 − 1¼ a) What matrix would you multiply by to
c) Plot the new coordinates. calculate the total points per team? Call
d) What happened to the shape? this Matrix B.
b) Would you calculate A × B or B × A?
4. Dorji has these notes: Why?

Type of Nu note Number of notes 8. Describe a situation for each:

50 10
100 20 a) when you might multiply a matrix
500 6 by a scalar
b) when you might multiply two
Calculate the total value of his notes by matrices
multiplying two matrices.
9. Suppose you multiplied a 3 × 2
5. a) What numbers are missing? matrix and a 2 × 4 matrix.
a) What would be the dimensions of the
ª2 3º ª? ?º ª2 3º product matrix?
« »×« »= « »
¬5 1¼ ¬0 ?¼ ¬5 1¼ b) How would you calculate the element
in the second row, third column of the
b) What do you notice about the result product matrix?
in part a)?

Reprint 2023 14
Chapter 2 Networks
1.2.1 EXPLORE: Travelling Networks

Each set of connected roads below represents a rubbish truck route. To be

efficient, the truck does not want to drive a road more than once. Each route is
called a network and each road in the route or network is called an edge.

Network 1 Network 2 Network 3

Network 4 Network 5 Network 6

A. To determine which routes the truck 8 edges 6 vertices

can travel without driving any road more
than once in either direction, follow each
with your pencil. Which networks can
you follow, covering each edge only
once, without lifting your pencil?
B. For each network, count the number
of edges that meet at each vertex. Note
which vertices have even and odd
numbers of edges. What do you notice
about the networks you chose in part A? Each path is called an edge.
C. Make your own network with at least A vertex is a point where two or
ten edges that can be travelled by more edges meet.
covering each edge only once, without
lifting your pencil.

Reprint 2023 15
CONNECTIONS: The Seven Bridges of Konigsberg

Leonhard Euler, pronounced Oiler, (1707–1783), was a famous Swiss

mathematician who studied network problems. One of the problems for which he
is famous is called the Seven Bridges of Konigsberg. (Konigsberg, now called
Kaliningrad, is a city in Russia.)
A river ran through the city. Seven C
bridges were built so that people could get
from one part of the city to another. Euler
B A
wondered if someone could travel across
all seven bridges exactly once, travelling
through each point and beginning and D
ending at the same point on the map to
the right.
1. Do you think it is possible? Try it to find out.
2. Can you do it by starting and ending at different points? Explain.

GAME: Sprouts

Sprouts was invented by an American mathematician named John Conway.

• Player 1 connects two vertices by drawing an edge (from one vertex to another)
or connects a vertex to itself by a loop (an edge that starts and ends at the same
vertex). He or she then creates a new vertex near the middle of that edge or loop.
• Player 2 then connects two vertices with an edge or draws a loop at a vertex and
then creates a new vertex near the middle of that edge or loop.
• The two players continue in this fashion, taking turns, following these rules:
- No more than three edges can meet at a vertex.
- No edge can cross another edge.
- The winner is the last person to draw an edge or loop.
In the sample game below, Player 2 will win because he or she can draw an edge
connecting F and G while creating a new vertex H. After six turns, there will be
three edges at each vertex except for H, so H cannot be connected to any other
vertex. And, a loop at H would result in four edges meeting at H.

Play the game with a partner. Allow each player to play first.

Reprint 2023 16
1.2.2 Describing a Network with a Matrix

Try This
The networks below are called directed graphs (or digraphs) because you
travel them in the direction that is shown on the edges.
Digraph 1 Digraph 2 Digraph 3

A. i) Travel each digraph. Start at the * and end at the #, following the arrows.
Try to cover each edge only once, without lifting your pencil.
ii) Which networks can you travel without repeating an edge?

You can use a square matrix, called an adjacency matrix, to describe a digraph.
To create an adjacency matrix
• list the vertices of the digraph across the top and down the side of the matrix
• for each row, count the number of direct edges from that vertex to the vertex
listed for each column
For example, Matrix N below is the adjacency matrix for the digraph next to it.
The first row of the matrix describes the number of edges from vertex A to each
vertex: A, B, C, and D. The elements are 1 1 0 0 because there is
• 1 direct edge from A to A (a loop)
• 1 direct edge from A to B
• 0 direct edges from A to C
• 0 direct edges from A to D [Note that there is an edge between D and A, but it is
from D to A, not from A to D.]
The remaining rows are filled in the same way.
Matrix N
To
A B C D
A ª1 1 00º Number of edges from
B «0 0 0 »
0» vertex A to each vertex:
«
From

A, B, C, and D
C «0 1 00»
«
D 1 0 1 0»
¬ ¼

Notice that the total of the elements in the adjacency matrix equals the total
number of directed edges in the digraph, in this case, 5.

Reprint 2023 17
You can also create a digraph from an adjacency matrix. To create the digraph
• draw a dot for each vertex in the matrix and label it with a different letter
• for the first row of the matrix, draw each number of direct edges from the vertex
for that row to the vertex listed at the top of each column
• repeat the previous step for each row of the matrix
For example.
Adjacency Matrix R below is 3 by 3. That means there are 3 vertices in the
digraph: A, B, and C. The second row of the matrix (vertex B), 2 1 1, means
• 2 direct edges from B to A
• 1 direct edge from B to itself (a loop)
• 1 direct edge from B to C
Matrix R
To
A B C
A ª0 0 1º
« »
From

B «2 1 1»
C «¬ 1 0 0»¼

• If there are edges in opposite directions between vertices, the edges can be
replaced by one edge with no arrow. For example, the edge from A to C and the
edge from C to A can be replaced by a single edge with no arrow. It is understood
that the edge without an arrow between A and C is directed both from C to A and
from A to C.

Simplify a digraph by replacing two opposite directed edges with one edge with no arrow

B. Create an adjacency matrix for one of the digraphs from part A.

Examples
Example 1 Describing a Digraph with a Matrix
a) Create a matrix to describe this digraph showing Druk Air flights.
b) Simplify the digraph further and describe what you did.

Legend
Ko Ka Ko = Kolkata
P = Paro
Ka = Kathmandu
B = Bangkok
G = Gaya
D = Delhi

Reprint 2023 18
Solution Thinking
a) a) I used a 6 × 6 matrix for
B D G Ka Ko P the 6 cities.
ª
B 0 0 1 0 1 0º • For each flight path, or
« »
D «0 0 0 1 0 0» edge with an arrow, I found
G «1 0 0 0 0 1» the row where it starts and
« » the column where it ends and then put a 1
Ka «0 1 0 0 0 1»
there, e.g., for the edge from P to Ka,
Ko «1 0 0 0 0 1»
I put a 1 in the P row-Ka column.
P «¬0 0 1 1 1 0¼
»
• For edges with no arrows, I put a 1 for
each way because no arrow means you can
travel both ways, e.g., for the edge
between Ko and P, I put a 1 in the
Ko row-P column and a 1 in the
P row-Ko column.
• I used a 0 if there were no edges.
• I checked by counting the cities you could
get to from each city and the numbers are
right — 2 for Ko, Ka, B, and G, 1 for D, and
3 for P.

b) A simpler, but equivalent, digraph b) I know that if you see an edge with no
would be this one: arrow, it's really two edges, one going one
Ko P way and the other going the opposite way.
Ka
So all of the edges in the simplified
digraph are really two edges.
G D

I replaced the two edges going in

opposite directions with one edge
with no arrow for the edges between
P and Ka, between B and G, and
between Ka and D.

Reprint 2023 19
Example 2 Creating a Digraph to Match an Adjacency Matrix
This matrix describes a digraph. Create a digraph for the matrix.
ª0 2 1º
«0 0 2»
« »
«¬ 1 1 1»¼

Solution Thinking
A B C I labelled the rows and
A ª0 2 1º columns of the matrix
B ««0 0 2»» A, B, and C, so it was
C «¬ 1 1 1»¼ easier to figure out.

Step 1 Step 1: I started with 3 vertices,

A, B, C, because the matrix is 3 × 3.
I knew C connected to itself because
there is a 1 in the C row-C column, so
I drew a loop at C.

Step 2 Step 2: I drew these edges:

• 2 from A to B and 1 from A to C
• 2 from B to C
• 1 from C to A and 1 from C to B

Possible Step 3 Possible Step 3: I knew that, if I

wanted to simplify the digraph, I could
replace any two edges going in opposite
directions with one edge with no arrow.

Reprint 2023 20
Practising and Applying
1. Describe each digraph with a matrix. 5. Geographical regions are inter-
connected with power lines so that
a) regions can send electrical power to
other regions in times of demand or
excess. This matrix describes an
electrical network among four regions.
Draw two different digraphs to show the
b) c) network.

ª0 1 1 1º
«0
« 0 0 1»»
«1 0 0 1»
2. Draw a digraph for each matrix. « »
¬1 1 1 0¼
ª0 2 2º
ª1 1º
a) « » b) «« 1 0 0»»
¬1 1¼ 6. Why is there usually more than one
«¬2 1 1»¼ digraph for an adjacency matrix?

ª0 1 0 1º
ª0 1 1º 7. Listed below are the number of direct
«0 0 1 0»»
c) « d) «« 1 0 1»» flights between three cities:
«0 1 0 1» • 10 from Hong Kong to Tokyo
« » «¬ 1 1 0»¼
¬0 0 0 0¼ • 11 from Tokyo to Hong Kong
• 8 from Tokyo to Bangkok
3. A 4 × 4 adjacency matrix has all zeros • 9 from Bangkok to Tokyo
on the diagonal. What does this tell you
about loops on the digraph? • 5 from Hong Kong to Bangkok
ª0 º • 3 from Bangkok to Hong Kong
« » Create a digraph for this information.
« 0 »
« 0 »
« » 8. Look at the matrices in question 2.
¬ 0¼
From just looking at each matrix, how
can you tell each of the following?
4. a) You can use a digraph to describe a) the number of vertices in the digraph
an ecosystem. Draw a digraph to
represent this information. b) if there are loops in the digraph
c) that two vertices are not connected
Predator Food
d) the total number of edges that travel
Insects
away from a vertex
Caterpillars Plants
Songbirds e) the total number of edges that travel
Toads
toward a vertex
Hawks
Songbirds
9. How can you tell how complicated a
Songbirds Caterpillars
digraph will be from just looking at the
Toads
numbers in its adjacency matrix?
Songbirds Insects
Insects

b) Create the adjacency matrix.

Reprint 2023 21
1.2.3 Solving Network Problems

Try This
A new helicopter company wants to fly helicopters between the district centres on
the map shown below. The number of daily return trips planned each way for each
day is shown. For example, each day there will be 3 trips from Paro to Thimphu
and 3 trips from Thimphu to Paro. To get from one place to another, sometimes
you have to stop at a location between them. This is called a one-stopover trip.

A. How many one-stopover trips are there between Paro and Jakar? How do
you know?

• To determine the total number of one-stopover trips between any two locations in
a network, you can create a digraph and then count the trips.
For example, this is a digraph of a network:

From analysing at the digraph, you can

figure out that there are 10 one-stopover
trips between pairs of vertices:
• 1 from A to B (A-D-B)
• 1 from A to C (A-B-C)
• 2 from A to E (A-B-E and A-D-E)
You call it a one-stopover trip, • 1 from B to B (B-C-B)
even if you are starting and • 1 from B to E (B-C-E)
ending at the same place. • 1 from C to C (C-B-C)
• 1 from C to E (C-B-E)
• 1 from D to C (D-B-C)
• 1 from D to E (D-B-E)

Reprint 2023 22
• Another way to figure out the number of one-stopover trips between vertices in
a network is to create an adjacency matrix of the digraph (M1) and then multiply it
by itself, or square it. Each element in the squared matrix (M2) is the number of
one-stopover trips between vertices.
For example:
The squared matrix below (M2) shows the number of one-stopover trips in the
digraph at the bottom of page 22. Note that the elements of M2 total 10, which is
the same as the number of one-stopover trips found from analysing the digraph.
M1 M1 M2
ª0 1 0 1 0º ª0 1 0 1 0º ª0 1 1 0 2º Each element of M2
« » « » « »
«0 0 1 0 1» «0 0 1 0 1» «0 1 0 0 1» represents a one-stopover
«0 1 0 0 1» × «0 1 0 0 1» = «0 0 1 0 1» trip involving 2 edges, 1
« » « » « » whereas each element of M
«0 1 0 0 1» «0 1 0 0 1» «0 0 1 0 1» represents a no-stopover trip
«¬0 0 0 0 0»¼ «¬0 0 0 0 0»¼ «¬0 0 0 0 0»¼ involving 1 edge.

• To understand how the squared matrix (M2) relates to the digraph, you can
examine how one element is calculated.
The element 2 is calculated by multiplying numbers in the
A B C D E A row of the left-hand matrix by numbers in the E column of
A ª0 1 1 0 2º the right-hand matrix and adding them:
« »
B «0 1 0 0 1» 2=0×0 + 1×1 + 0×1 + 1×1 + 0×0
C «0 0 1 0 1»
« » Think about each part of the calculation:
D «0 0 1 0 1»
E «¬0 0 0 0 0»¼ 0 × 0 means 0 paths from A to A and 0 paths from A to E, so
there are 0 one-stopover trips from A to E through A.
1 × 1 means 1 path from A to B and then 1 from B to E, so
there is 1 one-stopover trip from A to E: A-B-E.
0 × 1 means 0 paths from A to C and 1 from C to E. Since
there is no way to get from A to C, there are 0 one-stopover
trips from A to E through C.
1 × 1 means 1 path from A to D and then 1 from D to E, so
there is 1 one-stopover trip from A to E through D: A- D- E.
0 × 0 means 0 paths from A to E and 0 paths from E to E, so
there are 0 one-stopover trips from A to E through E.
• Notice that
- the row of zeros next to E in the matrix means there are 0 one-stopover trips that
begin at E
- the column of zeros under A means there are 0 one-stopover trips that end at A
• If you were to cube the original adjacency matrix instead of squaring it, the
elements in the cubed matrix (M3) would be the number of two-stopover trips.
Each element in M3 would represent a trip involving 3 edges of the digraph.

B. Create an adjacency matrix for the helicopter network from part A and then
square the matrix. Which element in the squared matrix is the answer to part A?

Reprint 2023 23
Examples
Example 1 Determining the Number of Trips
This digraph represents a network of flights.
A B

C D

a) How many one-stopover trips are there

from A to D?
b) How many two-stopover trips are there
from A to D?
Solution 1 Thinking
A B a) I analysed the digraph
and counted the number
of one-stopover trips from
D
C A to D:

a) There are 2 one-stopover trips from • A-B-D

A to D. • A-C-D
b) I analysed the digraph and counted
b) There are 2 two-stopover trips from the two-stopover trips from A to D:
A to D. • A-B-C-D
• A-C-B-D
Solution 2 Thinking
a) a) I created an adjacency
A B C D A B C D matrix for the digraph.
A ª0 1 1 0º ª0 1 1 0º I knew that if I squared
« » « » it, the result would be a
B 0 0 1 1
« » × «0 0 1 1»
C 1 1 0 1»
« «1 1 matrix of one-stopover
0 1»
« » « » trips.
D ¬0 1 1 0¼ ¬0 1 1 0¼

A B C D
• To find the number of one stopover
A ª1 1 1 2º
« » trips from A to D, I looked at the
B 1 2 1 1 element in the A row-D column of the
= « »
C «0 2 3 1» squared matrix.
« »
D ¬1 1 1 2¼

There are 2 one-stopover trips from

A to D.

Reprint 2023 24
Solution Thinking
b) b) I knew that if I cubed
A B C D A B C D
the adjacency matrix, the
A ª0 1 1 0º ª1 1 1 2º
« » « » result would be a matrix
B «0 0 1 1» «1 2 1 1»
× of two-stopover trips.
C «1 1 0 1» «0 2 3 1»
• I knew that multiplying the squared
D «¬0 1 1 0»¼ «
¬1
»
1 1 2¼
matrix by the adjacency matrix is the
A B C D same as cubing the adjacency matrix.
A ª1 4 4 2º I put the original matrix as the first
« » matrix and the squared matrix as the
B «1 3 4 3»
= second one.
C «3 4 3 5»
« » • To find the number of two-stopover
D ¬1 4 4 2¼
trips from A to D, I looked at element
There are 2 two-stopover trips from in the A row-D column of the cubed
A to D. matrix.

Example 2 Comparing Bi-directional and One-Directional Networks

The two networks shown below are the same except that one has edges that go
in both directions and one has edges that go in one direction only.
Compare the number of one-stopover trips from one vertex to another in the two
networks. What do you notice? Why do you think that happens?

A A

B C B C
Network 1 Network 2

Solution Thinking
Network 1 adjacency matrix • I created the adjacency matrices
A B C for both networks first.
A ª0 1 1º
B «1 »
« 0 1»
C «¬ 1 1 0»¼

Network 2 adjacency matrix

A B C
A ª0 1 0º
« »
B «0 0 1»
C «¬ 1 0 0»¼
[Continued]

Reprint 2023 25
Example 2 Comparing Bi-directional and One-Directional Networks [Cont'd]
Solution Thinking
One-stopover trips for Network 1 • I squared both
A B C matrices to calculate
ª0 1 1º ª0 1 1º A ª2 1 1º the number of one-
« » « » « » stopover trips for
« 1 0 1» × « 1 0 1» = B « 1 2 1»
« 1 1 0» « 1 1 0» « 1 1 2» each network.
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ C ¬ ¼

One-stopover trips for Network 2

A B C
ª0 1 0º ª0 1 0º A ª0 0 1º
« » « » « »
«0 0 1» × «0 0 1» = B « 1 0 0»
«¬ 1 0 0»¼ «¬ 1 0 0»¼ C «¬0 1 0»¼

Network 1 Network 2
A B C A B C
A ª2 1 1º A ª0 0 1º
B «« 1 2 1»» B « 1 0 0»
« »
C «¬ 1 1 2»¼ C «¬0 1 0»¼

A to A different • I compared the two matrices.

A to B different The only elements that were the
A to C same same were the one-stopover trips
B to A same from A to C, from B to A, and
B to B different from C to B.
B to C different
C to A different
C to B same
C to C different

The only one-stopover paths that were the

same described the reverses of the three
one-directional paths.

Practising and Applying

1. The digraph below shows direct a) Use the digraph to count the one-
flights among three airports. stopover trips between pairs of airports.
A Include A to A, B to B, and C to C.
b) Square the adjacency matrix to
determine the number of one-stopover
trips between pairs of airports.
B C

Reprint 2023 26
2. a) Create a digraph for this matrix 6. a) Create an adjacency matrix for this
and then use it to answer the questions digraph.
below.
ª0 1 1º
« »
«1 1 1»
«0 0 0»
¬ ¼
b) Calculate the matrix that shows the
b) How many one-stopover trips are
number of one-stopover trips between
there between each pair of vertices?
any two vertices. Why are there no
c) How many two-stopover trips are zeros in the matrix?
there between each pair of vertices?
c) Draw another digraph for which there
3. Check your answer to question 2 are always one-stopover trips between
part a) by squaring the adjacency any two vertices. Explain how you know
matrix. Check your answer to part b) your digraph is correct.
by cubing the adjacency matrix.
7. a) Why might someone think of the
passing of the ball in a soccer game as
4. Below is a rectangle with its
a network?
diagonals shown.
b) Suppose you were to create an
adjacency matrix to describe the
passing of the ball. What would the
square of that matrix tell you?

a) Create an adjacency matrix.

b) Use the matrix to calculate the
number of one-stopover trips from any
vertex of the rectangle to any other.
What do you notice?
c) Repeat part b) for two-stopover trips. 8. Suppose you created an adjacency
matrix for the digraph below and then
5. Create a network to squared it. How do you know the
represent flights element in the second row, fourth
between three column of the squared matrix has to
airports where some be 0?
flights go in both
directions and some
do not. How many
one-stopover paths
are possible between
any two of the
airports? Explain.

Reprint 2023 27
UNIT 1 Revision

1. Create a 3 × 4 matrix with more 6. Matrices A and B describe the

negative than positive elements. numbers of boys and girls in three
schools in March and again in
2. Describe three situations for which November.
someone might use matrices.
March November
3. a) Which pairs of matrices below can Boys Girls Boys Girls
you add? How do you know? ª340 320 º ª330 322º
b) Add the pairs of matrices you chose « » « »
A = «215 245 » B = «217 241»
for part a). «¬128 144 »¼ «¬135 140 »¼
c) Which pairs of matrices can you
subtract? a) Calculate A – B.
d) Subtract the pairs of matrices you b) What do the elements of the
chose for part c). Why are there two resulting matrix describe?
possible answers?
c) Can A + B be calculated? Explain.
ª2 − 1 0 3 º d) Why are the elements in the result of
« » A + B meaningless?
A = «0 1 − 5 3»
«¬0 2 1 0»¼ 7. a) Multiply these two matrices two
ways: A × B and B × A.
ª 1 − 1 0 0º
« » ª 1 0º
B = «− 2 2 3 1» ª0 1 2º
« »
«¬ 1 0 1 0»¼ A = «3 1» B= « »
«¬0 2»¼ ¬2 − 1 0 ¼
ª2 1 0º
«0 − 3 3»» b) What do you notice about the
C= « dimensions of the product matrices?
«2 0 0»
« »
¬0 1 0¼ 8. What numbers are missing in the
matrices below?
4. The coordinates of the three vertices
of a triangle are listed in this matrix. ª? 3º
« »
ª1 0 − 1 2 º «2 1» ª2 ? º
ª0 10 6 º « » × = « »
T= « ¬0 ? 1 − 1¼ «− 1 0» ¬3 1¼
» « »
¬ 4 8 − 2¼ ¬0 1¼
a) Plot the points on a grid.
b) Multiply the matrix by 1.5. 9. a) If Matrix A is a 3-by-4 matrix and
Matrix B is a 4-by-3 matrix, why can you
c) Plot the new coordinates.
multiply both A × B and B × A?
d) What happened to the shape?
b) Suppose you multiplied two matrices
5. Suppose you were to multiply a 3 × 4 and the result was a 3 × 2 matrix. What
matrix by the scalar 3. What will the could have been the dimensions of the
dimensions of the resulting matrix be? two matrices?

Reprint 2023 28
10. Two of these matrices below were 14. This graph represents a network of
multiplied resulting in a product matrix. trekking trails.
a) Which matrix is the product matrix?
b) Which two matrices were multiplied?
In what order were they multiplied?
Matrix A Matrix B Matrix C
ª 1º
« − 3»
ª1 2 1 0º ª0 º « »
« » « » «5 »
¬3 0 2 3¼ ¬− 5¼ a) Create the adjacency matrix for the
« »
¬ − 6¼ network.
b) How many trips are there from A to C
11. The digraph below represents a with one stopover? two stopovers?
network of houses. A house is located
at each vertex. Where would you have 15. Digraphs can be used to represent
to start and end to walk all the paths tournaments. Each vertex in the graph
between the houses, visiting each below represents a team and each
house only once and travelling each edge represents a game played so far
path only once? Why? between two teams. Each team must
play one game against each other
team. How do you know the tournament
is not over yet?

12. Create an adjacency matrix for each

digraph.
a)

b)

13. Create a digraph for this adjacency

matrix.
ª 1 0 1º
« »
« 1 1 0»
«¬0 2 1»¼

Reprint 2023 29
Reprint 2023 30
 UNIT 2 COMMERCIAL MATH AND NUMBER
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. Copy and complete the grid pattern. Round to four decimal places.

1.012 = 1.022 = 1.032 =

1.013 = 1.023 = 1.033 =

1.014 = 1.024 = 1.034 =

1.015 = 1.025 = 1.035 =

1.016 = 1.026 = 1.036 =

B. Do the differences across each row increase or decrease as

the base increases? Explain why your answer makes sense.

C. Do the differences down each column increase or decrease as

the exponent increases? Explain why your answer makes sense.

Skills You Will Need

1. The legs of a right-angle triangle are 12 cm and 5 cm.
a) What is the length of the hypotenuse?
b) A similar triangle has a perimeter of 120 cm. What is the length of
its hypotenuse? How do you know?

2. How do you know that 40 is only twice as much as 10 ?

3. Determine the amount of interest earned over 5 years when Nu 6000 is

invested at a simple interest rate of 7% per annum. Show your work.

4. a) 40 represents 25% of a number. What is the number?

b) 25 represents 40% of a number. What is the number?
c) Which is greater: 25% of 40 or 40% of 25? Explain.

5. A whole number raised to the exponent 6 must be both a perfect square

and a perfect cube. Why?

Reprint 2023 31
Chapter 1 Commercial Math
2.1.1 Purchasing Decisions

Try This
Store A marked the price of an item at Nu 2000 and then offered a discount
of 10%. Store B marked the identical item at a different price and offered a
discount of 20%. In the end, the selling prices were the same.
A. What was the marked price at Store B?

• A discount is the amount that is taken off the marked price (the initial price
assigned to the item), usually to encourage a purchase. A percent discount is
the percentage of the marked price that the discount represents.
• The selling price is found by applying the percent discount to the marked price.
It can be calculated in different ways.
For example, an item with a marked price of Nu 800 is discounted by 25%. The
selling price can be calculated in these two ways:
Subtract the discount from Subtract the percent discount from 100% and
the marked price calculate that percentage of the marked price
800 – 25% × 800 (100 – 25)% × 800 = 75% × 800
= 800 – 0.25 × 800 = 800 - 200 = 0.75 × 800
= Nu 600 = Nu 600
Both of these methods work because a discount of 25% means the selling price is
100% – 25% = 75% of the marked price.

• If the selling price and the marked price are known, the percent discount can
be calculated in different ways.
For example, the selling price of an item is Nu 2250 and the marked price is
Nu 3000. The percent discount can be calculated in these two ways:
Find the percent of the marked price Find the discount
that the selling price represents marked price – selling price
selling price = 3000 – 2250
× 100
marked price = Nu 750
2250 Find the percentage of the marked
= × 100
3000 price the discount represents
= 0.75 × 100 750
× 100
= 75% 3000
Subtract that percent from 100% = 0.25 × 100
100% – 75% = 25% = 25%
• The markup is the amount by which the marked price exceeds the price the
seller paid to obtain the goods, the cost price. Sellers mark up items in order
to make a profit. The percent markup is the percentage of cost price the markup
represents.

Reprint 2023 32
For example, the marked price of an item in a store is Nu 3700. The storeowner
paid a cost price of Nu 2500 for the item. The markup and percent markup can
be calculated as shown below:
Subtract the cost price from the marked price
3700 – 2500 = Nu 1200
Find the percentage of the cost price that the markup represents
1200
× 100 = 0.48 × 100 = 48%
2500

• If you know the cost price and percent markup, you can calculate the selling
price. For example, a storeowner paid a cost price of Nu 1750 for an item and
marks it up 75%. The selling price can be calculated as shown below:
Cost price × (1 + percent markup as a decimal) = 1750 × 1.75 = Nu 3062.5
• Commission is an amount a salesperson earns based on his or her sales.
Commission is intended to encourage the salesperson to bring in more business.
A salesperson's entire income can be based on commission or commission
can be a supplement to his or her income. The percent commission, or rate
of commission, is the percentage of sales that the salesperson earns.
For example, a car salesperson, who receives a rate of commission of 10% on
each sale, sells a car for Nu 400,000. The commission can be calculated like this:
400,000 × 10% = 400,000 × 0.10 = Nu 40,000

B. The percent discount applied to the same item in Store B is double that of
Store A. However, both stores sell the item for the same selling price.
What is the ratio of Store B's marked price to Store A's marked price? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Calculating Percent Discount
A restaurant meal usually costs Nu 80. A special rate of Nu 60 is offered for lunch
on Thursdays only. Calculate the percent discount.
Solution 1 Thinking
selling price
× 100 • I calculated the ratio of the selling
marked price price to the marked price and
60 multiplied by 100 to figure out what
= × 100 = 75% percentage the selling price was of
80
the marked price.
100% – 75% = 25%
• I subtracted that percent from 100%.
Percent discount was 25%.
Solution 2 Thinking
marked price – selling price • I calculated the discount by
= 80 – 60 = Nu 20 subtracting the selling price from
the marked price
20
× 100 = 25% • I found what percent the selling
80
price was of the marked price.
Percent discount was 25%.

Reprint 2023 33
Example 2 Calculating Percent Markup
A compound bow is sold for Nu 45,000.
a) Determine the percent markup if the shop owner paid a cost price of Nu 15,000.
b) The shop owner paid Nu 2500 for delivery and other expenses in addition to
the cost price of Nu 15,000. Re-calculate the percent markup.
Solution Thinking
a) Markup a) I calculated the markup by
45,000 – 15,000 = Nu 30,000 subtracting the cost price from
Percent markup the selling price.
30,000 • I then used a ratio to compare
× 100 = 200%
15,000 the markup to the cost price
The percent markup is 200%. and multiplied by 100 to calculate
a percentage.
b) Cost price and related expenses b) I calculated how much the shop owner paid
15,000 + 2500 = Nu 17,500 for the item, including cost price, delivery,
and other expenses.
Markup
• I calculated the markup amount by
45,000 – 17,500 = Nu 27,500
subtracting what the shop owner paid for the
Percent markup item from its selling price.
27,500
× 100 = 157.14% • I then used a ratio to compare the markup
17,500
amount to what the shop owner paid and
The percent markup is 157.14%. multiplied by 100 to calculate a percentage.

Example 3 Calculating Commission Amount and Rate of Commission

A salesperson had total sales of Nu 60,000.
a) The salesperson is awarded a commission amount of Nu 3000. Determine the
rate of commission.
b) Suppose the salesperson is to be paid a rate of commission of 7%. Determine
the amount of commission the salesperson would earn.
Solution Thinking
3000 a) I calculated the ratio of
a) × 100 = 5%
60,000 the commission amount to
total sales and multiplied by
The rate of commission is 5%.
100 to figure out what
percentage the commission
was of sales.

b) 7% of 60,000 = 0.07 × 60,000 b) All I had to do was calculate 7%, or 0.07,

of 60,000.
= Nu 4200
The commission amount would be
Nu 4200.

Reprint 2023 34
Practising and Applying
1. A vendor sells 1 kg of oranges for 5. Dorji is a car salesperson. He is paid
Nu 25. If you buy 4 kg, you pay Nu 80. Nu 1000 each week plus an additional
3% commission on sales.

a) How much per kilogram do you pay

if you buy 4 kg? a) Determine Dorji’s total income for
b) What is the percent discount per a week in which sales were Nu 70,000.
kilogram when you buy 4 kg compared b) Dorji's goal is to earn Nu 5000 each
to 1 kg? week. What is the minimum amount of
weekly sales required to earn this level
2. The marked price of an item was of income?
Nu 140 before it was discounted to
Nu 112. Jigme mentally calculated 6. Explain why a percent markup of
the percent discount. He figured that, more than 100% is reasonable to
because the price was reduced by consider but a percent discount of more
1 than 100% is not reasonable.
Nu 28, which is of Nu 112, the
4
percent discount had to be 25%. 7. Give an example of a situation where
Is Jigme's thinking correct? Explain. commission paid as a percent would be
less than commission paid as an
3. Which of the following options is amount of Nu 500 per sale.
better for the buyer? Explain.
Option A: 8. a) Explain why you cannot determine
20% markup on an item with a cost whether a markup of Nu 100 or a
price of Nu 480 markup of 7% is greater.
Option B: b) Give an example of a situation where
15% discount on the same item that a markup of Nu 100 would be greater
has a marked price of Nu 700 than a 7% markup.
b) Give an example of a situation where
4. A shop owner is trying to get rid of a markup of Nu 100 would be less than
items to make room for new items so a 7% markup.
she is offering huge discounts. She has
discounted an item by 50% to a selling 9. Why do you think discounts,
price which is the same as the cost markups, and commissions are usually
price of the item. What percent markup described as percents?
did the shop owner originally place on
this item? Justify your answer with an
example.

Reprint 2023 35
2.1.2 Compound Interest

Try This
A product costs Nu 30 to manufacture. The cost is marked up 20% when the
manufacturer sells it to a local business person. The business person marks it up
another 20% before selling the product to the shopkeeper. Finally, the shopkeeper
marks up the price another 20% before selling the product to the customer.
A. Compared to the original manufacturing cost of the product, determine
the percent markup actually charged to each person:
i) the business person ii) the shopkeeper iii) the customer

• Recall that simple interest is a percentage of the principal, which is the amount
of money that is borrowed or invested. Simple interest only applies to the principal.
For example, if you invested Nu 10,000 at 4% simple interest once a year,
also written p.a. (per annum), your investment will be worth
Nu 10,000 + 4% of Nu 10,000 = Nu 10,400 at the end of one year
Nu 10,400 + 4% of Nu 10,000 = Nu 10,800 at the end of two years
Nu 10,800 + 4% of Nu 10,000 = Nu 11,200 at the end of three years, and so on

• Compound interest is different from simple interest in that you also earn or pay
interest on interest already earned. Compound interest is described using
a per annum percentage rate and a frequency of compounding.
For example, the following tables compare two Nu 10,000 investments over
a five-year period, one at 4% simple interest p.a. and the other at 4% compound
interest p.a. compounded annually.
Simple Interest on Nu 10,000 Compound Interest on Nu 10,000
Interest Total in Interest Total in
Year earned bank at end Year earned bank at end
(4%) of year (4%) of year
1 400.00 10,400.00 1 400.00 10,400.00
2 400.00 10,800.00 2 416.00 10,816.00
3 400.00 11,200.00 3 432.64 11.248.64
4 400.00 11,600.00 4 449.95 11,698.59
5 400.00 12,000.00 5 467.94 12,166.53

Notice that the two types of interest yield the same amount at the end of Year 1
but after that the total amount earned grows faster with compound interest than
with simple interest. Compound interest yields Nu 16 more than simple interest at
the end of Year 2, Nu 48.64 more at the end of Year 3, Nu 98.59 more at the end
of Year 4, and Nu 166.53 more at the end of Year 5.
• Compound interest is usually compounded annually, but sometimes it is more
frequent: compounded semi-annually (every six months), quarterly (every three
months), monthly (every month), or daily (every day). The more frequently the
interest compounds, the more you earn or pay, since you start earning or paying
interest on interest before the year is over.

Reprint 2023 36
• When an interest rate is stated, it is a per annum rate. However, if the interest
period is more frequent than annual, the actual interest rate for the period is the
appropriate fraction of the per annum rate.
For example:
0.05
5% p.a. compounded semi-annually is or 2.5% per half year (semi-annual).
2
0.05
5% p.a. compounded quarterly is or 1.25% per three months (quarterly).
4

r nt
The formula for compound interest calculations is A = P(1 + ) , where
n
A = amount earned or paid
P = initial amount invested or borrowed, known as the principal
r = interest rate for a year
n = number of interest periods in one year
t = time expressed in years
For example, the value of a Nu 10,000 investment at 4% p.a. compounded
annually for 5 years could be represented as
r nt 0.04 1 × 5
A = P(1 + ) → A = 10,000 (1 + ) = 12,166.53
n 1

The table below shows why this value and the formula make sense.
Year 1 2 3 4 5
Amount
10,000.00 10,400.00 10,816.00 11,248.64 11,698.59
to start
Interest 400.00 416.00 432.64 449.95 467.94
Amount
10,400.00 10,816.00 11,248.64 11,698.59 12,166.53
at end
Multiplier 1.041 1.042 1.043 1.044 1.045
of 10,000 = 1.04 = 1.0816 = 1.1249 = 1.1699 = 1.2167

• The frequency of the compounding affects the result.

For example, if the Nu 10,000 investment had been at a rate of 4% p.a.
compounded semi-annually (twice a year) for 5 years, the result would be more:
r nt 0.04 2 × 5
A = P(1 + ) → A = 10,000 (1 + ) = 12,189.94 (instead of 12,166.53).
n 2
There is Nu 23.41 more because interest is earned on interest more frequently.

• Although compounding is favourable to investors, it also adds to debts that must

be repaid when money is borrowed.

B. i) Explain how the idea of a compound interest rate of 20% per period
could be useful in explaining how the markup process worked in part A.
ii) Calculate (1.20)3. Compare the result with the percent markup that the
customer paid.

Reprint 2023 37
Examples
Example 1 Compound Interest on Investments
Determine the value of a Nu 5000 investment after two years if it is invested at
an interest rate of 7% p.a. compounded at each frequency:
a) annually b) semi-annually c) quarterly d) monthly e) daily
What do you notice?
Solution Thinking
r nt I used the compound interest formula
A = P(1 + )
n and substituted the correct values.

a) A = 5000(1.07)1 × 2 a) The exponent was 1 × 2 because

= Nu 5724.50 the interest is calculated 1 time each
year for 2 years.
0.07 2 × 2
b) A = 5000(1 + ) b) The exponent was 2 × 2 because the interest
2
is calculated 2 times a year for 2 years. I divided
= Nu 5737.62 the interest rate of 0.07 by 2, since that’s the rate
for each half-year.
0.07 4 × 2 c) The exponent 4 × 2 means there are 8 interest
c) A = 5000(1 + )
4 periods, 4 each year for 2 years. The interest rate
= Nu 5744.41 is divided by 4 because that’s the rate for each
quarter of a year.
0.07 12 × 2 d) The exponent 12 × 2 means there are 24 interest
d) A = 5000(1 + )
12 periods, 12 each year for 2 years. The interest rate
= Nu 5749.03 is divided by 12 because that’s the rate for each
month.
0.07 365 × 2 e) The exponent 365 × 2 means there are 730
e) A = 5000(1 + )
365 interest periods, 365 each year for 2 years.
= Nu 5751.29 The interest rate is divided by 365 because that’s
the rate for each day.
The interest earned • The interest earned was Nu 724.50 (annually),
increased as the
Nu 737.62 (semi-annually), Nu 744.41 (quarterly),
compounding frequency
increased. Nu, 749.03 (monthly), and Nu 751. 29 (daily).

Example 2 Compound Interest on Loans

Ugyen borrows Nu 3000 from a lender who charges an interest rate of 18% p.a.
compounded monthly. Ugyen agrees to pay Nu 1000 at the end of each month
until the loan has been repaid.
a) Will Ugyen be able to pay back the loan in three months?
b) How much will Ugyen owe after making his first payment?
c) Determine how many payments Ugyen will make and the amount of his final
payment.
d) Find the amount of interest to be paid by Ugyen over the term of the loan.

Reprint 2023 38
Solution Thinking
a) No, he will not be able to pay it back in a) I knew that Ugyen had
three months because he will only have to pay back the principal
paid back Nu 3000, which will not cover of the loan plus interest.
the interest on the loan.

b) Interest in the first month b) To calculate the

amount of interest for one month,
0.18
3000 × = Nu 45 I divided the p.a. rate of 18% by 12.
12
Amount owing after the first month
3000 + 45 = Nu 3045
Amount still owing after first payment
3045 – 1000 = Nu 2045

c) Interest in the second month c) To calculate how much he will owe

after the second month, I added
0.18
2045 × = Nu 30.68 the Nu 2045 he owed after the first
12
month to the interest charged on
Amount owing after the second month
that amount for the second month.
2045 + 30.68 = Nu 2075.68
Amount still owing after second payment
2075.68 – 1000 = Nu 1075.68
Interest in the third month • To calculate how much he will owe
0.18 after the third month, I added
1075.68 × = Nu 16.14 the Nu 1075.68 he owed after the
12
Amount owing after the third month second month to the interest charged
1075.68 + 16.14 = Nu 1091.82 on that amount for the third month.
Amount still owing after third payment
1091.82 – 1000 = Nu 91.82
Interest in the fourth month • Since he would only owe Nu 91.82
0.18 after the third month, I knew
91.82 × = Nu 1.38
12 the next and fourth payment will be
Amount owing after the fourth his last.
91.82 + 1.38 = Nu 93.20
There are four payments, three at
Nu 1000 and a final payment of Nu 93.20.

d) Total amount of interest paid d) Alternatively, I could have added

Total payments – principal up the interest he will pay each
month:
= (1000 + 1000 + 1000 + 93.20) – 3000
= Nu 93.20 45 + 30.68 + 16.14 + 1.38 = Nu 93.20

Reprint 2023 39
Example 3 Calculating an Interest Rate
Karma borrowed Nu 20,000. He repaid the loan at the end of 4 years with a
single payment of Nu 35,680. What interest rate was charged, if the compounding
was semi-annual?
Solution Thinking
Create an equation • I substituted
the values I knew into
r nt
A = P(1 + ) the compound
n
interest formula.
A = 35,680 P = 20,000
n=2 t=4 r=?
r 2×4
35,680 = 20,000(1 + )
2

• I wanted to get rid of the

Solve the equation for r
exponent 8 from the expression
r 8
35,680 = 20,000(1 + ) r
(1 + )8 in order to isolate the
2
2
variable r, so I raised both sides
1 1
ª r º8
35,680 8 = «20,000 × (1 + ) 8 » 1
¬ 2 ¼ of the equation to the power.
8
1 1
r 1
35,680 8 = 20,000 8 × (1 + ) • I knew 35,680 8 = 8
35,680
2
1
r
3.7073 = 3.4485(1 + ) and 20,000 8
= 8
20,000 .
2
r
1.0750 = 1 + • I finished solving for r to find
2
the rate of interest.
r
1.0750 – 1 = 1 – 1 +
2
r
0.0750 =
2
r
0.0750 × 2 = ×2
2
0.15 = r
The interest rate was 15% p.a. compounded
semi-annually.

Reprint 2023 40
Example 4 Relating Interest Rates
Pema’s bank is paying an interest rate of 14% p.a. compounded monthly.
What would the equivalent annual interest rate be if it were paid over each
time period?
a) i) 1 year compounded annually ii) 5 years compounded annually
b) What simple interest rate earned over 5 years would be equivalent?
Solution Thinking
a) i) Calculate A for Nu 1 invested for 1 year a) i) I used a
at 14% p.a. compounded monthly: principal of Nu 1 to
r 0.14 12 × 1 make the calculation
A = P(1 + )nt = 1(1 + ) = Nu 1.1493 simpler.
n 12
Nu 0.1493 interest is earned in 1 year and • I substituted
Nu 0.1493 is 14.93% of Nu 1. r = 0.14, n = 12, and
t = 1 into the formula.
An interest rate of 14% p.a. compounded
monthly is equivalent to an interest rate of • I thought of A as Nu 1 + r, with
14.93% p.a. compounded annually for 1 year. r representing the interest rate.

ii) An interest rate of 14% p.a. compounded ii) It doesn't matter if it's 1 year
monthly is equivalent to an interest rate of or 5 years, the annual interest
14.93% p.a. compounded annually for each rate is the same because the
of the 5 years. frequency of the compounding is
the same each year (annually) and
interest rates are annual (that's
what p.a. means).

b) Calculate A for Nu 1 invested for 5 years at b) I used a principal of Nu 1 again

14% p.a. compounded monthly: and substituted r = 0.14, n = 12,
r 0.14 12 × 5 and t = 5 into the formula.
A = P(1 + )nt = 1(1 + ) = Nu 2.01 • I thought of A as Nu 1 + 5r,
n 12
where r represented the simple
Nu 1.01 simple interest earned over 5 years
interest rate p.a.
means Nu 0.20 (1.01 ÷ 5 = 0.202) is earned
in 1 year.
Nu 0.20 is 20.2% of Nu 1.
14% p.a. compounded monthly for 5 years is
equivalent to 20.2% simple interest for
5 years.

Reprint 2023 41
Practising and Applying
1. Pema invested Nu 3200 in an 6. Phuntso borrowed Nu 30,000 at
account for four years. The value of 16% p.a. compounded annually. She
the investment at the end of four years agreed to the following payment plan:
was Nu 4000. Determine the rate of
• Nu 10,000 at the end of the first year
simple interest that was earned.
• Nu 15,000 at the end of the second
2. An amount of Nu 600 is invested in year
a savings account earning 4% interest • A final payment of the remaining
p.a. compounded quarterly. amount at the end of the third year
a) How much money will be in the a) Determine the amount of the final
account at the end of the first year? payment.
b) How much will be in the account at b) Find the amount of interest Phuntso
the end of the second year? paid altogether.

7. Deki borrowed Nu 12,000 at a rate of

interest compounded quarterly. The
balance was Nu 10,950 after making
her first quarterly payment of Nu 1500.
What was the interest rate?

8. A bank advertises a lending rate of

12% p.a. compounded monthly. What
is the equivalent rate compounded
annually?
3. Repeat question 2 using a simple
9. Nu 25,000 is invested at each
interest rate of 4% p.a. What do you
interest rate:
observe?
I: 9% p.a. compounded quarterly
4. Sonam borrowed Nu 9000 from a II: 9% p.a. compounded annually
bank. Calculate the amount of interest
III: 9% p.a. simple interest
she will pay in one year at each interest
rate: a) What is the value of each investment
after 1 year? 10 years? 20 years?
a) 12% p.a. compounded monthly
b) Graph each investment on the same
b) 12% p.a. compounded semi-annually
grid, with time (years) along the
c) 12% p.a. compounded annually horizontal axis and amount (Nu) along
the vertical axis. Use a different colour
5. A loan for Nu 10,000 is to be repaid for each graph.
in monthly payments of Nu 300. What c) What do the shapes of the graphs tell
is the balance on the loan after each you about the effect of the different
period of time, if the interest rate is interest rates?
14% p.a. compounded monthly?
a) one month 10. Explain how compound interest
b) two months behaves like exponential growth
whereas simple interest reflects linear
(constant) growth.

Reprint 2023 42
CONNECTIONS: The Rule of 72

The Rule of 72 suggests that an investment will approximately double in 72 ÷ r

years at a rate of r % compounded annually.
1. Check the validity of the Rule of 72 using any investment amount and two
different rates for r.
2. Would you expect a rate of 12% p.a. compounded monthly to more than double
an investment in six years? Explain.
3. How many months does it actually take for an investment earning
12% compounded monthly to more than double in value?

GAME: Target 200

Play this game with two spinners and two dice. Spinner A
Two to four people can play.
• On your turn, spin a per annum interest rate using
14% 13%
Spinner A and how often the interest is compounded
using Spinner B.
• Roll a pair of dice. Multiply the two-digit number you
roll by 100 to determine the principal you will invest. 15% 12%
For example, a roll of 2 and 3 could be Nu 2300 or
Nu 3200.
• Your score is the sum of the digits of the total Spinner B
amount your investment will be worth in one year,
rounded to the nearest ngultrum.
• The first player with 200 or more points wins. Annually Monthly

For example:
Semi-
Spin for interest rate: 13% monthly Quarterly
annually
Roll for principal: 3 and 5, so Nu 5300 or Nu 3500
0.13 12
Calculate investment value: 5300(1+ ) = 6032
12
Score: 6 + 0 + 3 + 2 = 11 points
0.13 12
Calculate investment value: 3500(1+ ) = 3983
12
Score: 3 + 9 + 8 + 3 = 23 points
Choose Nu 3500 and score 23 points.

Reprint 2023 43
2.1.3 Dividends and Stocks

Try This
Sonam wants to start a small business. To get started, she needs Nu 100,000.
She asks ten members of her family to invest in the business to provide her some
of this money. She promises to pay back the money with interest in a year.
A. If ten family members each invest Nu 10,000 and Sonam promises to pay 12%
simple interest, how much will she owe each person at the end of the year?

• One way to earn money is to buy shares, also called stocks, in corporations.
This money is used by the corporation to do its business. As a shareholder,
you earn money in the form of dividends from the company. Dividends are
usually given annually as a percentage of the value of the shares, called the
dividend rate, which is often higher than interest rates offered for money invested
in a bank account. Shareholders might earn even more money by selling their
shares in the future for a price that is higher than the price they paid. They can
also earn more if they reinvest their dividend earnings each year.
• Companies can choose to offer them for sale to the public after getting approval
from the government. There are usually two types of shares:
- Equity shares, where profit is shared equally among the shareholders
- Preferential shares, where the percentage applied to calculate the dividend is
fixed by the company
• The printed price on the share is called the face value. The selling price of the
share might be higher, lower, or the same as the face value. The price at which
shares are sold is called the market price.
- If market price is greater than face value, you say the shares were sold at a
premium.
- If market price is less than face value, you say the shares were sold at a
discount.
- If market price and face value are the same, you say the shares were sold at par.
• To decide whether an investment is a good one, you can calculate a yield
percentage, which is the ratio of the dividends earned to the money invested.
This table shows part of a stock report for six companies (November, 2006).
Listed Best sell Last sale
Issue price price
company price
BBCL 100 200 100
Notice that the
BBPL 100 100 shares listed
BCCL 1,000 8,500 6,000 here were sold
either at par or
BDL 100 140 100
at a premium.
BFAL 100 510
BNB 100 750 700

Reprint 2023 44
B. i) How is Sonam’s arrangement in part A like selling shares in a company?
ii) Is it more like equity shares or like preferential shares? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Calculating How Many Shares Can be Purchased
Dawa invests Nu 125,000 in RICB shares with a face value of Nu 100 but are
being sold at a premium of 25%. How many shares can Dawa buy?
Solution 1 Thinking
• Dawa is buying shares at a premium of 25%,
1.25 × 100 so the market price is 25% more than the
= Nu 125 face value. I multiplied Nu 100 by 1.25
(125%) to calculate the market price of each
125,000 ÷ 125 share.
= 1000
• To figure out how many shares she can buy, I divided the
Dawa can buy 1000 amount she is investing by the market price.
shares.

Example 2 Calculating Dividends Earned

BNB declares a 25% dividend rate on its stock. Rinchen owns 200 shares, each
with a face value of Nu 100.
a) What dividend amount will Rinchen receive?
b) Rinchen bought the shares originally at a premium of 30%. What is the yield
percentage?
c) Would Rinchen have been better off investing his money in a savings account
paying 8% simple interest? Explain.
Solution Thinking
a) Dividend amount = FV × r × n a) I calculated the
- FV is the face value of each share dividend amount by finding
- r is the dividend rate 25% or 0.25 of the face
- n is the number of shares value of each share (FV × r)
Dividend amount = 100 × 0.25 × 200 and then multiplying by the
= Nu 5000 number of shares (n).

b) Dividend amount = Nu 5000 b) To calculate the yield percentage,

I compared the dividend amount to the
Original Investment = 200 × (100 × 1.3)
original investment amount using a ratio.
= Nu 26,000
• To calculate the original investment
5000 5 amount, I multiplied the number of
= = 19.23% shares (200) by the premium price of
26000 26
each share (Nu 100 × 130%) — the
The yield percentage is 19.23%. premium price is what he paid for the
[Continued] shares originally.

Reprint 2023 45
Example 2 Calculating Dividends Earned [Continued]
Solution Thinking
c) No, a yield c) Investing in stocks may seem attractive
percentage of 19.23% because of the potential for high yields but
is much better than an stocks are riskier than savings accounts. If
8% interest rate, so the
Rinchen had to sell his shares at a huge
stock was the better
choice. discount, the savings account might have
been the better investment.

Practising and Applying

1. What is the market price of each 5. Penjor Wangdi earned a dividend
stock? amount of Nu 990 from 50 shares of
stock with a face value of Nu 100.
Face Number Premium
Stock value of or a) What was the dividend rate?
(Nu) shares discount b) How much more would he have
10% earned if the rate had been 5% higher?
A 100 200
premium c) If he sells his shares at a premium of
20% 10%, how much money will he receive
B 500 100
discount from the sale?
15%
C 1000 50 6. You want to buy Nu 20,000 shares,
discount
with a face value of Nu 100, at par. To
2. Kinley has Nu 85,000 to invest in a be able to do this, you borrow 60% of
stock. For each stock in question 1 the price at an interest rate of 12% p.a.
how many shares can he purchase? compounded annually. The annual
dividend rate is 18%. At the end of the
3. The companies issuing each of the first year, how much more will you earn
stocks in question 1 each declare a in dividends than pay in interest on your
22% dividend rate. loan?
a) Calculate the dividend amount for
7. Suppose you had Nu 25,000 to
150 shares of each stock.
invest in shares that are being sold at
b) Calculate the yield percentage for par. How much more would you earn if
each stock. the shares paid a dividend rate of 30%
c) Which was the best investment? than if they paid a dividend rate of 5%?
Explain.
8. What might lead a company to pay
4. Yangdon bought 50 shares of a stock higher dividend rates? Explain.
that had a face value of Nu 100 but
were selling at a discount of 15%. A 9. a) Why might someone invest in
25% dividend rate was paid at the end stocks instead of earning interest in
of one year. She then sold the stock at a savings account?
a 10% premium. b) Why might someone prefer a savings
a) How much profit did she make? account over investing in stocks?
b) How much was her profit as
a percentage of her investment?

Reprint 2023 46
2.1.4 Using Commercial Math

Try This
Kailash has a choice of investing Nu 1000 with Bank A at 3.93% p.a. compounded
monthly or with Bank B at 4% p.a. compounded annually. He predicts the
investment with Bank A will be better of the more frequent compounding.
A. Without calculating, do you agree with Kailash's prediction? Explain.
B. Compare how much each option will yield after each period of time.
i) 1 year ii) 10 years iii) 20 years

Before making a decision about investing, it is important to compare the financial

alternatives. When information about investments is given in different forms,
the comparison will require some calculations.
For example, suppose you have Nu 1500 to invest:
- If you have the choice of 3.75% p.a. compounded semi-annually or
3.75% p.a. compounded quarterly, the comparison is easy — the more frequent
compounding (quarterly) is better.
- If you have the choice of 3.75% p.a. compounded semi-annually or
3.5% p.a. compounded semi-annually, the comparison is also easy — the higher
interest rate (3.75%) is better.
- However, if you have the choice of the following three investments, the
comparison is not so easy and some calculations are required:
Investment A Investment B Investment C
4% p.a. simple interest 3.75% p.a. compounded 3.5% p.a. compounded
semi-annually quarterly

Value of Nu 1500 After 1 year

Investment A Investment B Investment C
r nt r nt
Nu 1500 × (1.04) A = P(1 + ) A = P(1 + )
n n
= Nu 1560
0.0375 2 0.035 4
= 1500(1 + ) = 1500(1 + )
2 4
= Nu 1556.77 = Nu 1553.19
Investment A is best after 1 year.

Value of Nu 1500 After 10 years

Investment A Investment B Investment C
Nu 1500 + 10 × Nu 60 r nt r nt
A = P(1 + ) A = P(1 + )
= Nu 2100 n n
0.0375 20 0.035 40
= 1500(1 + ) = 1500(1 + )
2 4
= Nu 2174.92 = Nu 2125.36
Investment B is best after 10 years.

Reprint 2023 47
• Another way to compare investments is to calculate equivalent interest rates.
For example, if you are given the following two investment options, you could find
the equivalent interest rate for one of the options under the same compounding
conditions as the other and then compare them.
Investment 1: Nu 1000 at 14% p.a. Investment 2: Nu 1000 at 14.5% p.a.
compounded monthly for 1 year compounded annually for 1 year
Nu 1000 at 14% p.a. compounded monthly for 1 year Refer to Lesson 2.1.2,
Example 4, page 41,
= Nu 1000 at 14.93% p.a. compounded annually for 1 year Relating Interest
Now you can compare the two investment options because Rates for how to find
they have same compounding frequency: equivalent rates

Investment 1: Nu 1000 at 14.93% p.a. Investment 2: Nu 1000 at 14.5% p.a.

compounded annually for 1 year compounded annually for 1 year
Investment 1 is the better option.

C. i) Which of Kailash's investment options in part A is the better choice?

ii) What three factors do you have to consider when comparing investment
options? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Paying Off a Loan
Yeshey wishes to purchase a car priced at Nu 300,000 (3 Lakhs).
• He must pay a 25% down payment but can borrow the other 75% from the bank.
• The bank charges an interest rate of 15% p.a. compounded monthly on the loan.
• His monthly payments will be Nu 5000 for as long as necessary.
a) Determine the balance of the loan at the end of the first month.
b) How much less interest will he pay in the second month than in the first month?
c) He is hoping to pay off the loan in 4 years. Do you think that is realistic? Explain.
Solution Thinking
a) Amount of the loan a) I found 75% of
75% of 300,000 = 0.75 × 300,000 = 225,000 the cost of the car to
calculate how much he
Interest charged in first month
will have to borrow.
0.15
225,000 × = Nu 2812.50 • I calculated the
12
interest on the loan for one month.
Balance after first month Since the interest is compounded
225,000 + 2812.50 = Nu 227,812.50 monthly, the monthly interest
Balance after first payment charge is calculated by dividing
227,812.50 – 5000 = Nu 222,812.50 15% (0.15) by 12.

Reprint 2023 48
Solution Thinking
b) Interest charged in second month b) I multiplied the balance of
0.15 the loan after one month by
222,812.50 × = Nu 2785.16
12 the monthly interest rate
to calculate the interest for
Comparison of interest in two months
the second month.
2812.50 – 2785.16 = Nu 27.34
• I compared the interest
He will pay Nu 27.34 less interest in charged in the two months by
the second month.
subtracting.

c) Nu 225,000 ÷ Nu 5000/month = 45 months c) I calculated how many years

it would take him to pay off just
45 months is 3 years and 9 months.
the principal, without any
That leaves him 3 months of payments of interest, based on monthly
Nu 5000 per month to pay off all the interest
payments of Nu 5000.
on the loan. He could pay it off if the total
interest were Nu 15,000 or less.
• I estimated the interest for
He owed interest of Nu 2812.50 and
the first year.
Nu 2785.16 in the first two months, so
the interest in the first year alone is probably
more than 12 × Nu 2000 = Nu 24,000.
Yeshey cannot pay off the loan in four years.

Example 2 Comparing Payment Options

Kinley is purchasing a new computer for Nu 50,000 and has been offered two
payment options:
Option A: Pay Nu 2250 at the end of each month for 30 months.
No down payment is required.
Option B: Pay 25% as a down payment and then make payments of Nu 10,000
every six months until the loan has been repaid. The interest charged on
any outstanding balance after each payment is 15% p.a. compounded
semi-annually.
Which option would you recommend to Kinley? Why?
Solution Thinking
• I compared the interest
charges for the two options.

Interest amount for Option A • With Option A, the interest

(30 × Nu 2250) – Nu 50,000 charged is hidden — it is
= Nu 17,500 the difference between the
amount Kinley pays for the computer (making
30 payments of Nu 2250) and the actual cost
[Continued] (Nu 50,000).

Reprint 2023 49
Example 2 Comparing Payment Options [Continued]
Solution Thinking
Loan amount for Option B • Calculating the interest
0.75 × Nu 50,000 = Nu 37,500 amount for Option B was more
difficult because the interest
Amount still owing after 6 months amount changed each time a
0.15 payment was made. I had to
37,500 × (1 + ) – 10,000
2 look at each six-month period to see the
= Nu 30,312.50
balance and the interest.
Amount still owing after 12 months • I first calculated how much the loan would
0.15 be. Since the down payment was 25% of
30,312.50 × (1 + ) – 10,000 Nu 50,000, the loan would be 75% of
2
= Nu 22,585.94 Nu 50,000.

Amount still owing after 18 months • For each six-month period, I multiplied
0.15 0.15
22,585.94 × (1 + ) – 10,000 the amount still owing by 1 + to
2 2
= Nu 14,279.89 calculate the amount owing and then
subtracted the Nu 10,000 payment.
Amount still owing after 24 months
0.15
14,279.89 × (1 + ) – 10,000 • After 24 months, there was a balance of
2
= Nu 5350.87 Nu 5350.87, so I calculated the interest
charged on that amount to figure out what
Last payment the last payment would be.
0.15
5350.87 × (1 + )
2 • I calculated the total interest by
= Nu 5752.19
subtracting the amount of the loan
Total interest paid using Option B (Nu 37,500) from the total amount Kinley
4 × 10,000 + 5752.19 – 37,500 paid (four payments of Nu 10,000 each plus
a final payment of Nu 5752.19).
= Nu 8252.19

Total interest paid using Option A • It makes sense that Option B would charge
Nu 17,500 less interest because she wouldn't pay
interest on 25% of the cost (the down
I recommend Kinley take Option B, payment).
if she can afford the down
payment, because she would pay
less than half as much interest.

Reprint 2023 50
Practising and Applying
1. Which is the best option to pay off 5. The winner of a lottery can choose
a loan of Nu 20,000? Which is the to receive Nu 10,000 monthly for the
worst? Show your work. rest of his or her life or receive a
Option 1: Pay Nu 23,000 at the end of one-time amount of Nu 1,000,000.
one year a) Which option would you choose?
Option 2: Pay off the loan at the end Why?
of one year at an interest rate of b) Why might someone choose the
14.6% p.a. compounded semi-annually other option?
Option 3: Pay off the loan at the end
of one year at an interest rate of 14% 6. A university wishes to establish a
p.a. compounded monthly scholarship fund. The fund must earn
enough interest so that scholarships
worth a total value of Nu 2,000,000 can
2. You intend to invest Nu 60,000 in a be awarded annually from the interest
bank for 10 years to have enough to earned. The fund is guaranteed to earn
pay for your child’s education. What at least 8% annually. What principal
interest rate compounded monthly do must be invested to be able to earn
you have to earn if you want the enough interest?
investment to grow to Nu 90,000 in
10 years?
7. A car lot owner pays his salespeople
a commission of 10% on total sales.
3. An investment is placed in an The owner wants to make a profit of
account that guarantees an increase of 1 Lakh on each car. The cost price of a
25% in three years. car is Nu 90,000. What must the selling
a) What interest rate compounded price of the car be for the owner to
annually must the account earn? make a profit and pay commission?
b) Will the investment increase from
its original value by 50% in six years 8. a) Sangay repaid a loan of Nu 10,500
(assuming the same rate used in by paying Nu 12,000 at the end of a
part a) applies)? Explain. year. What interest rate compounded
annually was Sangay charged?
4. A company offers a “no interest” b) Suppose Sangay was charged the
option on their computer sales. same interest rate but the compounding
A computer can be paid for in a single was semi-annual and he made a
payment at the end of one year with no payment of Nu 6,000 after six months.
interest. However, an administration fee How much would Sangay have to pay
of Nu 4000 is required at the end of at the end of a year to pay off the loan?
the year, in addition to the full payment
of the price of the computer. 9. A loan can be repaid in a year
a) If the computer is sold for Nu 50,000, (principal and interest) by paying
what interest rate would be equivalent Nu 1,000 at the end of each month or
to this arrangement? by paying Nu 12,000 at the end of the
year. Without calculating, decide which
b) If the computer is sold for Nu 25,000, option has the lower interest rate.
what interest rate would be equivalent Explain your thinking.
to this arrangement?

Reprint 2023 51
Chapter 2 Radicals
2.2.1 EXPLORE: Representing Square Roots

You can use the Pythagorean theorem to help you represent and
understand square roots.

III

II

A. The three line segments above join intersection points on the grid.
Which segment represents 2 ? 5 ? 8 ? How do you know?

B. Use the diagram above to help you explain why 8 could also be described
as 2 × 2 or 2 2 .

C. On a piece of grid paper, mark off a 10 square-by-10 square grid. Find the
lengths of all other possible line segments that join two grid intersection points.
Express each length as an integer, as a square root, or as an integer multiple
of a square root, for example, 2 2 .

D. i) Which lengths in part C are you certain represent rational numbers?

Explain.
ii) Which lengths do you think are not rational numbers? Explain.

Reprint 2023 52
2.2.2 Simplifying Radicals

Try This
The spiral to the right, called 1 unit Archimedes'
1 unit Spiral
Archimedes’ spiral, was created by
starting with a right triangle with legs
of length 1 unit and adding on right 1 unit
triangles, each with a base of 1 unit,
using the hypotenuse of the previous
triangle as the other leg.
1 unit
A. Measure the lengths of the
hypotenuses of the first triangle and
of the seventh triangle. How do the
lengths compare?
1 unit

1 unit
1 unit
First triangle
1 unit

• You have already been introduced to irrational numbers like 2 .

They are numbers that cannot be written as repeating or terminating decimals.
• When you calculate 2 on a calculator, you get the approximate value of
the number, 1.414213562... . When it is written in radical form, 2 , the value
is exact.
1

• The square root of 2 can also be written as a power: 2 = 2 2

We know this because of the exponent laws.

1 1 1 1

If 2 × 2 = 2 and 2 2 × 2 2 = 2, then 2 = 22 . In general, n = n2 .

• The relationship between the root of a number and a fractional exponent

can be extended to other roots besides square roots.
For example.
- The cube root of 8, which is written as 3
8 , is 2 since 2 × 2 × 2 or 23 = 8.
1
3 3
8 can also be written as 8 .
- The fourth root of 16, which is written as 4
16 , is 2 since 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 or 24 = 16.
1
4
16 can also be written as 16 4 . 1
q q
In general, n =n .

Reprint 2023 53
• Sometimes it is possible to write a radical in an equivalent or simplified form.
For example, 300 can be written as 10 3 because 300 = 100 × 3
= 100 × 3 = 10 3
We know this because of the exponent laws.
1 1 1 1
n
ab = (ab ) and (ab ) = a × b .
n n n n
In general, n
ab = n
a ×n b.

• An expression such as 300 is called an entire radical. An entire radical can

be rational like 100 , but most are irrational like 3 (1.732050808...).
• An expression like 10 3 is called a mixed radical because consists of an
integer multiplied by a radical that is irrational, 10 × 3 = 10 3 .
• When you simplify a radical, you keep the number in an exact form but create a
mixed radical with the least possible value under the root sign, 300 = 10 3 , or
you get rid of the root sign altogether, 100 = 10.
• One way to simplify a radical is to look for perfect powers as factors under the
root sign and then take their roots outside the root sign.
For example: 18 = 9×2 = 9 × 2 =3 2
150 = 25 × 6 = 25 × 6 =5 6
3 3 3
54 = 27 × 2 = 3 3 2
27 × 2 = 3

• The principles that apply to numerical radical expressions also apply to

algebraic radical expressions.
For example: b8 = b 4 × b 4 = b4 4
b8 = 4
b 2 × b 2 × b 2 × b 2 = b2
3
b8 = 3
b2 × b2 × b2 × b2 = 3
b2 × b2 × b2 × 3
b 2 = b2 × 3
b2

B. i) Use the Pythagorean theorem to complete the chart below. Express each
length as an entire radical and, if possible, as a simplified mixed radical.
Triangle 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hypotenuse
length
ii) What do you notice about the hypotenuse lengths of the first and seventh
triangles? How does that explain what you observed in part A?
C. If the spiral were extended, which triangle would have a hypotenuse that
is twice the length of the seventh triangle's hypotenuse? How do you know?

Examples
Example Simplifying Radicals
Express each radical in a simplified form.
a) 20 b) 200 c) 180 d) 3
80

Reprint 2023 54
Solution Thinking
a) 20 = 45 = 4 × 5 =2 5 For each
radical in parts
a) to c),
b) 200 = 100  2 = 100 × 2 = 10 2 I looked for
factors that
c) 180 = 9  20 = 9 × 20 = 3 20 were perfect squares: 4,
100, and 9. For part d),
3 20 = 3 4  5 = 3 × 4 × 5 =3×2× 5
I looked for a factor that
=6 5 was a perfect cube: 8.
In part c), I realized that 3
d) 3
80 = 3
8  10 = 3
8 × 3
10 = 2 3 10
20 could be simplified
further because 20 = 4 × 5.

Practising and Applying

1. Write each radical in simplified form. 6. Is it possible to find a value of n
a) 48 b) 1000 a) for which 4
n is a whole number but
c) 3
32 d) 110 n is not a whole number? Explain.
b) for which 4
n is not a whole number
2. Order the following expressions from
greatest to least by expressing them as but n is a whole number? Explain.
entire radicals. 7. M = 36 × 5a × 113
3 13 4 7 9 2 11 6 3 a) What values for a, if any, would
make M a perfect square?
3. a) Simplify 18 and 45 . Explain your thinking.
b) Use your answers from part a) to b) What values for a, if any, would
45 make M a perfect cube?
help you simplify 18  2 and .
5 Explain your thinking.

4. Without using a calculator, decide 8. How does this diagram show that
which is greater: 13 5 or 920 . 18 = 3 2 ?
Explain your thinking.
1 unit
5. Give an example of a value of n for
each, if possible. If a value is not
possible, explain why.
3
a) n is a whole number but n is not
b) n in its simplified form is an entire
3 9. Explain how
radical and n is a whole number
3
a) to simplify a radical of the form n .
c) n is a mixed radical and n
b) to create an entire radical from
is a whole number
a mixed radical of the form m n .

Reprint 2023 55
2.2.3 Operations with Radicals

Try This

4 units A 5 3 units

4 5 units B

5 3 units

A. Which triangle has the longer hypotenuse? About how much longer is it?

• Adding and subtracting radicals requires like terms in the same way that
adding and subtracting fractions requires common denominators, and
adding and subtracting algebraic expressions requires like terms.
For example, 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 because 3 of something plus 2 more of
the same thing is 5 altogether. However, the two terms in 3 2 + 2 3 cannot
be added together because they do not have like terms.

• Sometimes radicals can be added or subtracted but only after simplifying first
to create like terms. As with fractions and
For example: 2 + 8 = 2 +2 2 =3 2 algebraic expressions, the
like term (in this case the
175 – 28 = 5 7 – 2 7 = 3 7 radical) remains unchanged.
Only the coefficients of the
radical are added or
subtracted.

• These strategies also work with more complex radical expressions.

For example:
5 – 5 5 – 2 5 + 13 5 = 7 5 10 – 20 + 3 5 – 14 + 5 40
(since 1 – 5 – 2 + 13 = 7) = 10 – 2 5 + 3 5 – 14 + 10 10
= 11 10 + 5 – 14

• The principles for adding and subtracting numerical radical expressions also
apply to those with variables.
For example: x9 + 9x 5 = x 4 × x 4 × x1 + 9 × x 2 × x 2 × x 1
= x4 x + 3x2 x
• You can factor expressions with radicals just like with numerical expressions.
For example: x4 x + 3x2 x = x2 x (x2 + 3)

Reprint 2023 56
• Division and multiplication of radicals can be done following these models:
a
a × b = a × b and a ÷ b =
b
90 9 3
For example: 12 × 3 = 36 = 6 90 ÷ 40 = = =
40 4 2

However, both calculations could have been approached differently, by simplifying

one or both of the terms:
12 × 3 =2 3 × 3 =2× 3 × 3 =2×3=6
3 × 10 3
90 ÷ 40 = 3 10 ÷ 2 10 = =
2 × 10 2

• Any of the four operations can be combined in a radical expression.

For example:

(2 3 + 5 )( 3 – 4 5 ) = (2 3 )( 3 ) + (2 3 )(–4 5 ) + ( 5 )( 3 ) + ( 5 )(–4 5 )
= 6 – 8 15 + 15 – 20 = –14 – 7 15

( 17 + 5 )( 17 – 5 ) = ( 17 )( 17 ) + ( 17 )(– 5 ) + ( 5 )( 17 ) + ( 5 )(– 5 )
= 17 + 0 + (–5) = 12

• Sometimes you have to apply the rules for the order of operations.
For example, in this calculation you multiply before adding:
2 + 3 × 27 = 2 + 81 = 2 +9

• When you add, subtract, multiply, and divide radicals in a radical expression,
you are simplifying the expression.

B. Calculate exactly how much longer is the longer hypotenuse in part A

by using simplification of radicals to calculate. Express each hypotenuse
as a mixed radical.

Examples
Example 1 Adding and Subtracting Radicals
Simplify each.
a) 12 + 75 b) 45 + 75 − 49
c) 68 − 17 − 8 + 98 d) − 27 x 6 + 4 x − 12 x 2 + x 5
Solution Thinking
a) 12 + 75 = 2× 2×3 + 5×5×3 a) After simplifying
each term, I had like
=2 3 +5 3
terms that I could add.
=7 3 [Continued]

Reprint 2023 57
Example 1 Adding and Subtracting Radicals [Continued]
Solution Thinking
b) 45 + 75 − 49 b) I was able
to simplify the
= 9×5 + 25 × 3 – 7
terms but
=3 5 +5 3 –7 I couldn't add
them because
c) 68 − 17 − 8 + 98 they were not like terms.
= 4 × 17 – 17 – 4×2 + 49 × 2 c) I simplified the
= 2 17 – 17 – 2 2 + 7 2 expression to two radicals
involving roots of 17 and 2.
= 17 + 5 2
d) After simplifying each
d) − 27 x 6 + 4 x − 12 x 2 + x 5
term, I was able to factor
= – 9 × 3 × x3 × x3 + 2 x – 4 × 3 × x2 + x 4 × x1 out x from two terms
= –3x3 3 + 2 x – 2x 3 + x2 x and 3 from the other
two terms.
= (2 + x2) x – (3x3 + 2x) 3

Example 2 Multiplying and Dividing Radicals

Simplify each.
a) 12 × 75 b) 72 ÷ 18 c) 24 ÷ 60
30 × 5
d) e) 6 x3 × 2 x5 f) 9 + 9 x 3 ÷ 2 x 5
6
Solution Thinking
a) 12 × 75 = 4×3 × 25 × 3 a) I could have
multiplied 12 × 75 first
=2 3 ×5 3
and then taken the
= 2 × 5 × 3 = 30 square root of 900
instead.

b) 72 ÷ 18 = 72 ÷ 18 = 4 =2 b) I could have simplified each

radical and then divided, but this
way was easier.

c) 24 ÷ 60 =
24
=
6
=
2 c) I tried simplifying each radical
60 15 5 first and then dividing but it didn’t
work ( 24 ÷ 60 = 2 6 ÷ 2 15 ).
30 × 5 6× 5 × 5 6 × 5× 5 d) Since the expression involved 30,
d) = =
6 6 6 6 , and 5 , I figured it would help
6 ×5 to write 30 = 6 × 5.
= =5
6

Reprint 2023 58
Solution Thinking
e) 6x 3 × 2x 5 = 6 x3 × 2 x5 e) I multiplied the expressions
to get them all under the same
= 6 × 2 × x3 × x5 root sign and then I moved
= 12x 8 anything I could out from under
the root sign.
= 4 × 3 × x4 × x4
= 2x4 3

9 x3 f) Because of the order of

f) 9 + 9 x 3 ÷ 2 x 5 = 9 +
2 x5 operations, I was able to create a
fraction out of the second and
9x x
=9+ third terms.
2x 2 x
9
=9+
2x
1
= 9 (1 + ) • I factored 9 from each term.
2x

Example 3 Expanding Expressions with Radicals

Simplify each.
a) ( 3 + 2 5 )( 5 + 3) b) (4 – 7 )(4 + 7)
c) (3 2 – 7 )(2 5 – 6) d) ( x – 2 y )( x + y)
Solution Thinking
a) ( 3 + 2 5 )( 5 + 3) a) I expanded
the expression
= 3 × 5 + 3 × 3 +2 5 × 5 +2 5 × 3
to four partial
= 15 + 3 + 10 + 2 15 products and
combined like
= 13 + 3 15
terms.

b) (4 – 7 )(4 + 7 ) = 16 + 4 7 – 4 7 – 7 × 7 b) I was able to simplify to

a whole number.
= 16 – 7
=9

c) I expanded the
c) (3 2 – 7 )(2 5 – 6) expression to four partial
= 6 10 – 3 12 – 2 35 + 42 products. I was able to
simplify one term but I
= 6 10 – 6 3 – 2 35 + 42
couldn’t combine any terms.
[Continued]

Reprint 2023 59
Example 3 Expanding Expressions with Radicals [Continued]
Solution Thinking
d) ( x – 2 y )( x + y) d) I expanded the
expression to four partial
= x2 + xy – 2 xy – 2y 2 products and then
simplified two of the
=x+ xy – 2 xy – y 2
terms.

Practising and Applying

1. Simplify. 6. Find each missing value.
a) 48 + 12 a) 30 × m =5 6
b) x 3 − 49 x 30 × p
b) = 5
p2
c) 7 k + 9k
d) 44 − 121 + 55 c) ( 24 − k )( 24 + k ) = 5

d) 32 − s = −4 2
2. Simplify.
a) 12 × 3 7. a) In each expression below, the
numbers under the root sign all add to
b) 4x5 × 5x3 the same number, 10. Determine which
expression is greatest.
c) 6× 7× 2
7 + 3 6 + 4 8 + 2
3. Simplify. b) What do you notice about the
a) 48 ÷ 12 b) 90 ÷ 20 numbers under the root signs in
the expression that was greatest in
28 × 10 part a) compared to the others?
c) 27 x 7 ÷ 3 x 3 d)
21 c) Use what you noticed in part b)
to predict which expression below
4. Simplify. is greatest. Justify your prediction.
a) (3 5 − 11)( 4 + 2 11) 15 + 4 11 + 8 17 + 2
d) Check your prediction.
b) ( 13 − 5 x )( 13 + 5 x )

5. Give an example of a value of n for 3 11

8. a) Simplify × .
which each result would be an integer. 11 11

a) 7 ×n b) Explain why your answer in part a)

3
b) 4 5 ÷ n must be equal to .
11
c) 14 + 56 − n
d) ( 6 + 8 )( n − 8 )

Reprint 2023 60
8. c) Suppose you wanted to make 9. If you were advising someone on
6 how to simplify an expression involving
the denominator of an integer.
13 all four operations and multiples of 5 ,
By what number could you multiply 20 , x , and x 3 , what would you
6
without changing its value? tell them to look for?
13

GAME: Five Radicals

Materials
• A deck of cards numbered 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10 , 12 , 15 , 18 , 20 ,
and 24 with an equal quantity of each number in a deck.
• For four players, four of each number, or a deck of 44 cards, is recommended.

Rules
• Deal five cards to each player.
• The object of the game is to create at least one integer value from 0 to 50 using
some or all of the cards. The same card cannot be used more than once in a
round.
• A game consists of five rounds.
• In each round, each player receives 10 points for each card used and additional
points are awarded equal to the product of the integers created. Return all cards
to the deck and shuffle before dealing the next round.
• The person with the highest score after five rounds wins.

Example
Jigme is dealt the following cards in the first round:

3 6 15 20 6
He creates two integer values using all five of his cards:
6 × 6 = 6 and 20 × 3 × 15 = 30.

Since he used 5 cards and created the integers 6 and 30, he scores 330 points
altogether for the round:
5 × 10 + 6 × 30 = 150 + 180 = 330 points

Reprint 2023 61
Unit 2 Revision

1. a) The marked price of an item is 4. c) Nu 10,000 for 10 years at 4.5%

Nu 200. A discount of 20% is to be p.a. compounded daily
applied. Determine the selling price. d) Nu 20,000 for 10 years at 3.9% p.a.
b) An item that cost the seller Nu 160 compounded semi-annually
is to be sold at Nu 200. Determine
the percent markup. 5. Dechen Choden buys stock at a
c) A shopkeeper offers a 25% discount discount of 28%. Each share has a face
on an item marked at Nu 300. An value of Nu 100.
identical item at another shop is marked a) How many shares can she buy with
at Nu 280 but is on sale at a discount of Nu 25,000?
15%. Which item can be purchased for
less money? b) If the company pays a dividend of
17% at the end of the first year, what
2. a) You invest Nu 1500 in a bank dividend amount will she earn?
savings account that earns 5% p.a. c) What will be her yield percentage?
compounded annually. Determine the
value of the investment after one year. 6. Gom Raj bought 200 shares that had
b) What will be the value of the a face value of Nu 100 for Nu 85 each.
investment after one year if 5% p.a. She sold the shares for Nu 220 each.
simple interest was earned instead? a) What was her percent profit?
c) Suppose you invest the money for b) If she also earned a dividend of 17%
two years instead. Would you be wise before she sold the shares, what
to accept a change in the rate from dividend amount did she earn?
5% p.a. compounded annually to
5% p.a. simple interest? Explain.
7. A car sells for Nu 180,000. The cost
3. What interest rate compounded price of the car was Nu 110,000.
monthly is equivalent to 11.5% p.a. a) Determine the percent markup, or
compounded annually? dealer's profit.
b) Suppose you are the salesperson
4. You invest each amount of money and can be paid any of the following
as indicated below. For each, calculate three ways:
• the equivalent simple interest rate for
Option 1: a commission amount of
the time period indicated
Nu 5,000
• the equivalent compound interest rate,
compounded annually Option 2: an 8% commission rate based
on the dealer's profit
Round to two decimal places.
Option 3: a 3.5% commission rate
a) Nu 10,000 for 5 years at 4% p.a.
based on the selling price
compounded monthly
Which would you choose and why?
b) Nu 10,000 for 10 years at 3.75% p.a.
compounded quarterly

Reprint 2023 62
8. Tika borrowed Nu 22,000 at 13. Write each radical in simplified form.
an interest rate compounded quarterly.
The balance was Nu 19,770 after a) 27
making her first payment of Nu 3000.
b) 300
What was the interest rate?
c) 3
250
9. You purchase a car for 0.25 million
by making a 25% down payment and d) 30
monthly payments of Nu 4000 for as
long as necessary. The interest rate
charged is 11.5% p.a. compounded 14. Simplify.
monthly. If you could pay off the loan at a) 28 + 18 − 63 + 72
the end of the fourth month, how much
would your fourth payment be? b) (5 3 + 6 )(2 2 − 3 )

10. You agree to pay Nu 5000 monthly 20 × 7

to pay off a car loan with an interest c)
35
rate of 12% p.a. compounded monthly.
You purchased the car for 0.28 million d) 80 ÷ 45
and your down payment was 25%.
What fraction of your first payment is e) 3
27 x 5 × 3 x
interest?

11. You are offered a loan with a choice 15. Explain why both 3
2007 6 and
of two rates: 2007 6 are integers, but 3
6 2007 is
• 14.75% p.a. compounded monthly an integer and 6 2007 is not.
• 15% p.a. compounded semi-annually
Which rate would you choose? Why? 16. Find the missing values.
a) 96 ÷ k = 2 6
12. Determine which expressions below
represent integer values. Justify your − 30 p × p
answer. b) = − 54
5
A 80 + 5 − 125
c) ( n + 17 )( n − 17 ) = 11
32 + 50 − 8
B
2 d) 36 x m × 48 = 24 x 7 3 x

C 49 × 64 × 108

Reprint 2023 63
Reprint 2023 64
 UNIT 3 LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. Draw the next three figures in this pattern.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4

B. Complete the table of values for the pattern. Figure Number of

number circles
C. Is the data discrete or continuous? How do
1 3
you know?
2 7
D. Without drawing a graph, predict the type of
3 11
relationship between the number of circles and
the figure number. Explain your prediction. 4 15
5
E. Plot the number of circles against the figure
number in a scatter plot. What relationship does 6
the graph suggest? 7
F. Write an equation in slope and y-intercept form
to represent this relation.
G. How does your equation from part F relate to the graph you drew in part E?

Skills You Will Need

1. Examine the three patterns. Figure Pattern A Pattern B Pattern C
• Pattern A grows by adding two 1 „„„ „ „ „
squares to the previous figure. „„„ „„ „„
2 „„„
„„ „„ „„
• Pattern B grows by forming „„„ „„„ „„„ „„„
double squares of squares, each 3 „„ „„„ „„„ „„„
time one square wider than in „„ „„„ „„„ „„„
the previous figure.
• Pattern C grows by tripling the number of squares in the previous figure.
a) For each pattern, draw a scatter plot that relates the number of squares
to the figure number.
b) Determine whether each pattern is linear, quadratic, or exponential.
Justify each choice.

Reprint 2023 65
2. What are the values of a, b, and c, if the relationship between x and y is linear?
x 10 12 14 16 18 20
y 80 a 72 b c 60

3. What are the slope and y-intercept of the graph of each equation?
a) y = 2x + 3
3
b) – x – 2 = y
4
c) 3y = 6 – 9x
d) 1.5x – 3.3 = 2y

4. Sketch a graph for each.

a) a line with a negative slope and a positive y-intercept
b) a line with a positive slope and a positive y-intercept

5. Sketch the graph for each equation.

2
a) y = – x + 1
3
b) 2x + 3y = 6

6. Sketch the graph for each. Write the equation for each line in standard form.
a) x-intercept of 3 and y-intercept of 4
b) x-intercept of –2 and y-intercept of 6
c) slope of 3 and y-intercept of 1.5

7. Solve each equation.

a) 5x – 4 = –11
b) 2a + 3 = 5a – 9

8. Solve each inequality.

a) 5a + 7 < 3a
b) –4x + 2 > –2x – 2

9. All values of s greater than 4 satisfy the inequality 10 – 2s < †.

What is the value of † ?

10. Write an algebraic expression to describe each situation.

a) total cost of a cell phone plan that charges a base fee of Nu 200
and a per minute rate of Nu 2
b) cost of a set of 300 stamps, if 5 stamps cost s ngultrums
c) cost of food for n weeks, if each week costs Nu 1000
d) amount of salt in a n L solution, if the salt is 4% of the solution

Reprint 2023 66
Chapter 1 Linear Functions and Relations
3.1.1 Linear Functions

Try This
A computer program has been designed to perform a function, or calculation.
When you input a number, it displays the result of the calculation, called
the output, on the monitor. The program displays 35 for an input of 10.
Input Function Output

10
35

Enter a number using The computer program The computer displays the
the keyboard. performs the calculation. result.
A. Write three equations that might describe the calculation rule used by
the program. Use x to represent the input value and y to represent the output
value. One example is y = 4x – 5.

• A relation describes how two variables are connected. For example:

- The relation represented by y < x indicates y is less than x.
- The relation represented by y = 2x + 3 indicates y is 3 more than double x.
For y < x, there are many output values of y for a particular input value of x.
For example, if x = 6, then y could be 5, 4, 3, 2.5, and so on. But for y = 2x + 3,
there is only one output value of y for a particular input value of x. For example,
if x = 6, then y must be 15.
• A function is a special kind of relation where there is only one value of the
output variable for a particular value of the input variable. That means y = 2x + 3
is a function but y < x is not.
• You can visualize a relation and a function using the pictures below.
- In a relation, you can have more than one arrow from an input value, as shown
by the dashed arrows.
- In a function there is never more than one arrow from an input value.
Inputs Outputs Inputs Outputs

A relation A function

Reprint 2023 67
• Note that, in a function, there can be more than one input value for the same
output value.
For example, consider the function y = x2 – 3. For any input value x, there is only
one output value y, but there are sometimes two input values x for the same
output value y. For an output of 1, the input could be 2 or –2.
• Mathematicians like things to be well-defined — with a function, you can predict
exactly what is going to happen, but with a relation the outcome is uncertain.
• It is useful to think of a function as a set of instructions that a machine such as
a computer performs. The machine accepts an input value (x) and produces
a corresponding output value (y) and there is only one possible output value for
each input. The input and output values are usually, but not always, numbers.
For example:
- If the instruction, or function, was subtract input number from 100, then
an input of 3 would result in an output of 97.
- If the function was figure out the month number for an input month name
(assuming January = 1), then an input of March would result in an output of 3.
• The output of a function is the dependent variable and the input is the
independent variable because the output value depends on the input value.
• A function rule shows how the value of the dependent variable, usually y,
can be calculated from the value of the independent variable, usually x. A function
rule is written as an equation using y, or in function notation, f(x), which is read
as “f of x”. We usually use y for graphing, and f(x) can always be used.
For example, the function y = 6x – 7 can also be written as f(x) = 6x – 7.
• For y to be a function of x,
- each value of y normally depends on a value of x, and
- there can only be one possible value of y that corresponds to each value of x.
• Functions are named according to the type of algebraic expression they use.
Example using
Form of expression Type of function
function notation
ax + b linear f(x) = 2x + 1
2
ax + bx + c quadratic f(x) = x2 + 1
abx + c exponential f(x) = –3x + 4

• A function can be represented in different ways:

- as a set of ordered pairs
- a table of values
- a function rule using words
- an algebraic equation to represent the function rule
- a graph
• You can tell from looking at a graph of a relation if it is a function. Imagine a
vertical line drawn anywhere on the graph. If the line touches the graph more than
once, the graph is not the graph of a function.

Reprint 2023 68
 Sample graph of a function Sample graph of a non-function

If you can draw a vertical line anywhere on If you can draw at least one vertical line on
a graph and only one value is on that line, a graph and find more than one value on
it is a function. that line, it is not a function.

B. i) Suppose the computer program in part A uses a linear function to

compute the output values. It displays 11 when you input 2 and it displays 35
when you input 10. Write the function rule for this program.
ii) What value would you input to result in an output value of 20?

Examples
Example 1 Graphing a Linear Function
Graph the function f(x) = 5x – 3.
Solution Thinking
x f(x) = 5x – 3 • I made a table of
–2 –13 values that showed the
–1 –8 values of the outputs
0 –3 for several input values
1 2
for x.
2 7
3 12

y
• I plotted the ordered pairs and
joined them with a solid line
(I assumed that the variables x and y
are continuous since there is nothing
x to suggest they're not).

f(x) = 5x – 3
Reprint 2023 69
Example 2 Determining Whether a Graph Represents a Function
Determine whether this graph represents
a function. Justify your decision.

Solution Thinking
The graph does not represent a function • You only have to find one
because there are points on the graph example where there's
that have the same x-coordinate, but more than one y - value for
different y-coordinates, for example,
an x-value to know it's not
(0, 5) and (0, –5).
a function.
• Because the graph is a circle, it
wouldn't pass the vertical line test.

Example 3 Using Function Notation to Describe a Real-World Situation

Water is poured into a container and Evaporation of Water
allowed to evaporate. This graph shows
the change in the volume of water over
several hours. Use function notation to
write the function rule.

Elapsed time (h)

Solution Thinking
y-intercept: 25 • I used the graph to
Slope: Using the points (0, 25) and determine the slope and
(2, 20), the slope is
20 − 25 −5
= . y - intercept.
2−0 2
• I wrote the equation in
−5 slope and y - intercept
The equation of the line is y = x + 25.
2 form.
−5
The function rule is f(x) = x + 25. • I used the equation to write the
2
function rule in function notation.

Reprint 2023 70
Practising and Applying
1. Which of the following graphs represent functions? Justify your decision.
a) b) c)

2. a) Suppose you made a table of 4. b) Explain why the table suggests

values. The input values are the names that this is a function.
of the students in your class and c) How can you be sure it is a function?
the output values are their ages.
Would the table represent a function? 5. a) Create a table of values and draw
Justify your decision. the graph of f(x) = x2 – 1.
Student's name Student's age b) How do you know the graph
represents a function?

b) Suppose you made a table that 6. Sonam drew several different right-
showed number of siblings as the input angle triangles, each with a base of
and the names of students in the class 10 cm, but with different angles at the
with that many siblings as the output. base. For each different angle, she
Would the table represent a function? measured the hypotenuse. Is this a
Justify your decision. function? Explain.
Name(s) of
Number of
student(s) with each Hypotenuse
siblings
number of siblings
a

Base is 10 cm
3. These are the first two figures in
a pattern. Angle a (°) Hypotenuse (cm)
Figure 1 Figure 2
10 10.2
20 10.6
30 11.6
40 13.1
a) The pattern rule is a linear function. 50 15.6
Draw the next three figures. 60 20.0
b) The input is the figure number, n, 70 29.2
and the output is the number of stars.
Write the function in function notation. 7. a) How can you tell if a table of
values represents a function?
4. a) Create a table of values to
represent the function f(x) = 4x – 3 b) How can you tell if a graph
for at least four values of x. represents a function?

Reprint 2023 71
3.1.2 Applications of Linear Functions

Try This
Dechen has a collection of white and black balls.
She chose 15 of them and put them into a bag.
A. i) Draw a graph to show the possible
combinations of black and white balls that
might be in the bag.
ii) Did you use a dashed or solid line? Why?

There are 15 balls in the bag.

• An equation of a linear relation in slope and y-intercept form can be rewritten

easily in function notation.
−3 −3
For example, y = x + 3 is f(x) = x + 3 in function notation.
2 2

• When a linear relation with two variables is written in standard form, you can
isolate one variable in terms of the other. The resulting equation expresses the
isolated variable as a function of the other variable.
For example, you could solve the relation 5a + 2b = 10 in these two ways:
You could isolate, or solve for a. You could isolate, or solve for b.
5a + 2b = 10 5a + 2b = 10
5a + 2b – 2b = 10 – 2b 5a + 2b – 5a = 10 – 5a
5a = 10 – 2b 2b = 10 – 5a
5a ÷ 5 = (10 – 2b) ÷ 5 2b ÷ 2 = (10 – 5a) ÷ 2
2 5
a = – b+2 b = – a+5
5 2
In this instance, a is the dependent In this instance, b is the dependent
variable and is a function of the variable and is a function of the
independent variable b. independent variable a.
2 5
f(b) = – b + 2 f(a) = – a + 5
5 2

• In a two-variable relation, it is important to know which variable is the

independent variable and which one is the dependent variable.
- Sometimes the context of the situation will tell you which is which.
For example, if you are measuring the height of a ball at different points in time
after it has been thrown, it makes sense for time to be the independent variable.
- Sometimes the context allows for either variable to the independent variable.
- If an equation is provided without a context, you can often choose which variable
to use as the independent variable.

Reprint 2023 72
• Sometimes, in a two-variable relation, one variable is a function of the other, but
the reverse is not true. That means that even if there is no context, there is no
choice about which is the independent variable.
For example, for y = x2, there is only one value of y for each value of x. So y = x2
is a function with x as the independent variable. However, for any non-zero value
of y, there are two values of x (the positive and negative square roots), so x
cannot be written as a function of y, and y cannot be the independent variable.

B. i) Write an equation that describes the relationship between the number of

white balls and the number of black balls in part A.
ii) Why is it possible to use either the number of white balls or black balls as the
independent variable?
iii) Write the function rule that tells how to calculate the number of white balls if
you know the number of black balls.

Examples
Example 1 Transforming Standard Form to Slope and Y-intercept Form
a) Transform the linear equation 3x – 4y = 12 to slope and y-intercept form.
b) Sketch the graph of the resulting linear function.
Solution Thinking
a) Solve for y a) To isolate y,
3x – 4y = 12 I subtracted 3x from
–4y = 12 – 3x both sides and then
–4y ÷ (–4) = (12 – 3x) ÷ (–4) divided both sides
3 by –4.
y = –3 + x
4 • I rearranged the equation to look
3
y = x–3 like y = mx + b.
4
b) b) I was able to determine the slope
and y - intercept from the equation
because it was in y = mx + b form:
3
- The slope (m) is .
4
- The y-intercept (b) is –3.
• I used the slope and y - intercept to
rise = 3 sketch the graph:
- I plotted the y-intercept.
run = 4
3
- I used the slope ( ) to get a second
4
point by going right 4 units (run) and
up 3 units (rise).
- I joined the points.

Reprint 2023 73
Example 2 Using a Linear Function to Solve a Financial Problem
Dechen invests some of her money so that it will earn 3% simple interest per year.
She invests another amount in a slightly riskier investment to earn 4% simple
interest per year. Determine one combination of investments that would earn
Dechen a total of Nu 1500 interest in one year.
Solution Thinking
Determine the variables • I needed two variables
a is the amount invested at 3%, or 0.03 because the amounts
b is the amount invested at 4%, or 0.04 invested at each
Total interest earnings: Nu 1500 interest rate could be
different.

Write an equation • I wrote an equation to model the

My equation represents the total interest situation:
earnings from both investments: - I multiplied a by 0.03 to represent
0.03a + 0.04b = 1500 the interest at 3%.
- I multiplied b by 0.04 to represent
the interest at 4%.
Write the equation as a function of a • I rearranged the equation to isolate
0.03a + 0.04b = 1500 a so I could express it as a function
1500 − 0.04b of b (I could have solved for b
a=
0.03 instead and written it as a function
1500 − 0.04b of a.).
f(b) =
0.03

Use the equation to find values of a and b • I picked a value of b that would
If b = 300, then f(300) = a make the calculation easy and used it
1500 − 0.04 × 300 to determine the value of a.
f(300) =
0.03
1500 − 12
=
0.03
1488
=
0.03
= 49,600

Check the values • I checked the values by

4% on Nu 300 is 0.04 × 300 = 12 substituting them into the original
3% on Nu 49,600 is 0.03 × 49,600 = 1488 equation.
Total interest would be 12 + 1488 = 1500
Dechen could invest Nu 300 at 3% and
Nu 49,600 at 4% to earn Nu 1500.

Reprint 2023 74
Example 3 Determining a Function to Represent a Line of Best Fit
This graph shows how the percentage of Bhutan’s population living in urban areas
has increased since 1950.
a) What is the equation of the line of best fit?
b) Describe the relationship between the year and the percentage of the population
that is urban as a function.
Percent of population Percent of Population in Bhutan that is Urban

Solution Thinking
a) Find the slope a) I determined
(1980, 6) and (2005, 10) are on the line, so the slope using
10 − 6 4 two points on
the slope is = .
2005 − 1980 25 the line that
were easy to
read.
Write an equation • I used the slope to write
If x represents the year and y represents the an equation in y = mx + b form,
percent of the population, the equation is with b still unknown.
4
y= x+b
25

• I substituted a pair of
Use the equation to find b
values that I knew were on
Substitute (2005, 10) into the equation. Solve for b:
the line, x = 2005 and
4
y = x+b y = 10, into the equation to
25
4 solve for b.
10 = (2005) + b
25
10 = 320.8 + b
–310.8 = b
4
The equation is y = x – 310.8. [Continued]
25

Reprint 2023 75
 Example 3 Determining a Function to Represent a Line of Best Fit [Cont'd]
Solution Thinking
b) Write the equation in function form b) I knew that
y=
4
x – 310.8 ĺ f(x) =
4
x – 310.8 (1980, 6) was on
25 25 the line, so I
Check the function for (1980, 6) checked to make
4 sure my function
f(x) = x – 310.8
25 got an output of 6 for an
4 input of 1980.
f(1980) = (1980) – 310.8
25
= 316.8 – 310.8
=6
4
f(x) = x – 310.8 describes the relationship
25
between the year and the percentage of the
population that is urban.

Practising and Applying

b) What is the least value in the L if the
1. 2t + 5m = 4 sum of the values in the L is 211?
a) Write m as a function of t. c) Write a function to describe the
b) Write t as a function of m. least value in the L in terms of the
sum, s, of the L.
2. You withdraw Nu 2000 in Nu 20 and
Nu 50 notes from the bank. 4. Yuden invested some money in a
bank account earning 4.2% interest.
a) Write an equation to model this The bank then improved its rates, so
situation. she invested in an account earning
b) Write a function that tells the number 4.5% interest.
of Nu 20 notes if you know the number a) Write an equation to describe the
of Nu 50 notes. total interest.
b) Write a function that will calculate
the amount invested at 4.5% if you
know the amount at 4.2%.
5. Lhakpa drives an average of 30 km/h
for r hours and an average of 20 km/h
for the remaining s hours. He travels a
total of 51 km.
a) Write an equation to model this situation.

b) Write a function that tells how many hours

he travels at 30 km/h if you know how many
3. On a 100 chart, you can make
L shapes by shading five numbers: hours he travels at 20 km/h.
four numbers vertically and two c) How long does he travel at 30km/h, if he
horizontally, as shown below. travels 1.2 h at 20km/h?

Reprint 2023 76
6. The United Nations reports the average life expectancy for its member nations.
This graph shows the data for females in Bhutan.
Bhutanese Female Life Expectancy

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2021

a) Identify two ordered pairs on the line of best fit.

b) Use the ordered pairs from part a) to write a function for the line of best fit.
c) Use the function in part b) to predict the lifespan of a Bhutanese female
in 2010.
d) Use the function in part b) to predict the lifespan of a Bhutanese female
in 1970. How close to the actual plotted value was the predicted value?

7. a) The relationship between 8. b) What will each sprinter’s distance

Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures is be after 9 s?
linear. If 100°C = 212°F and 0°C = 32°F, c) Who will win the race? How do
write the Fahrenheit temperature as a you know?
function of the Celsius temperature.
d) Why is it more appropriate to write
b) Write the Celsius temperature as a distance as a function of time than time
function of the Fahrenheit temperature. as a function of distance?

8. Deki and Thinley are practicing for 9. If y is a linear function of x, is x

a 100 m race. Deki gives Thinley a always a linear function of y? How
12 m head start. Deki runs at a speed do you know?
of 8 m/s and Thinley runs at 7 m/s.
a) Write each sprinter’s distance as
a function of time.

Reprint 2023 77
3.1.3 Graphs of Linear Inequalities

Try This
A small sport equipment company manufactures
table tennis paddles and badminton racquets.
They produce
• no more than 80 table tennis paddles per day
• no more than 50 badminton racquets per day
• no more than 110 table tennis paddles and
badminton racquets in total per day
The profit on each item is
• Nu 20 for each table tennis paddle
• Nu 30 for each badminton racquet

A. i) Determine five possible combinations of table tennis paddles and badminton

racquets that could be manufactured.
ii) Calculate the profit the company would make with each combination in part i).

• A linear inequality is created when the equals sign (=) in a linear equation
is replaced with an inequality (<, >, ”, or •) symbol. For example, the linear
equation y = 3x + 2 can become the linear inequality y < 3x + 2.
• Linear inequalities are never functions. When you examine the ordered pairs that
satisfy the inequality, there are always many ordered pairs where the x-coordinate
is the same, but there are different y-coordinates. Consider these examples:
For the inequality y < 3x + 2 For the inequality 3x + 2y • 6
x y 3x + 2 y < 3x + 2 x y 3x + 2y 3x + 2y ≥ 6
0 –1 2 Yes 0 4 8 Yes
0 –2 2 Yes 0 5 10 Yes
0 –3 2 Yes 0 6 12 Yes

The ordered pairs (0, –1), (0, –2), The ordered pairs (0, 4), (0, 5),
and (0, –3) all satisfy the inequality, and (0, 6) all satisfy the inequality,
so it cannot be a function. so it cannot be a function.

• You can graph a linear inequality by following these steps:

- Graph the related linear equation — this line will form the boundary line of the
region that contains the points that satisfy the inequality.
- Draw a solid boundary line if the inequality uses ” or •, or a dashed boundary
line if the inequality uses < or >.
- Shade the region on the side of the boundary line that contains the ordered pairs
that satisfy the inequality. You can determine this by testing any point that is not
on the boundary line. If that point satisfies the inequality, shade that side. If it does
not, shade the other side.
• When you graph an inequality, you are representing its solutions.

Reprint 2023 78
Here is an example, the graph of y < 3x + 2.
• Graph the line y = 3x + 2 using
a dashed line because y < 3x + 2.
• Substitute x = 0 and y = 0 to see if
(0, 0) is in the region: y < 3x + 2
0 < 3(0) + 2
0 < 2 True
• Shade the region on the side of the
boundary that contains (0, 0).

Here is another example, the graph of 3x + 2y • 6.

• Graph the line 3x + 2y = 6 using
a solid line because 3x + 2y ≥ 6.
• Substitute x = 0 and y = 0 to see if
(0, 0) is in the region: 3x + 2y • 6
3(0) + 2(0) • 6
0 • 6 Not true
• Shade the region on the side of the
boundary that does not contain (0, 0).

B. i) How do the inequalities p ” 80 and r ” 50 and p + r ” 110 describe the

situation in part A?
ii) How do you know there are more combinations that can be manufactured
than the five you listed in part A i)?

Examples
Example 1 Graphing an Inequality in Slope and Y-intercept Form
Sketch the graph of y • –2x + 3.
Solution Thinking
Graph the related equation y = –2x + 3 • I drew the graph
of y = –2x + 3 to
create the
boundary line.
• I drew a solid
line because • means "greater
than or equal to." The "equal to"
part means the values on the
[Continued] line are included.

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Example 1 Graphing an Inequality in Slope and y-intercept Form [Continued]
Solution [Cont'd] Thinking
Test a point to decide where to shade • I tested (0, 0) to
Substitute (0, 0) into y • –2x + 3: see which side to
0 • –2(0) + 3 shade. (I could
0 • 3 Not true have used another
point as long as it
Shade the inequality region wasn't on the boundary line.)
• (0, 0) does not make the
inequality true so the inequality
region is the side of the
boundary line that does not
contain (0, 0).

Example 2 Graphing an Inequality in Standard Form

Sketch the graph of 10x – 3y < 60.
Solution Thinking
Graph the related equation 10x – 3y = 60 • I graphed the equation
To determine the x-intercept, substitute 10x – 3y = 60 to create
y = 0 and solve for x: 10x = 60 so x = 6 the boundary line — I
To determine the y-intercept, substitute used a dashed line since
x = 0 and solve for y: –3y = 60 so y = –20 < means the values along
x-intercept is 6 and y-intercept is –20 the line are not included.

Reprint 2023 80
Test a point to decide where to shade
Substitute (0, 0) into 10x – 3y < 60:
10(0) – 3(0) < 60
0 < 60 True • (0, 0) makes the inequality true so
the inequality region is on the same
Shade the inequality region side of the boundary line as (0, 0).

Example 3 Express an Inequality Algebraically From Its Graph

Write the linear inequality that describes this graph.

Solution Thinking
Write the equation for the boundary line • I read the
The y-intercept of the boundary line is –1. y - intercept from
1 − ( −1) 2 the graph.
The slope of the boundary line is =– .
−3 − 0 3 • I also used to
2 graph to find two
The equation of the boundary line is y = – x – 1.
3 points, (0, -1) and (-3, 1), to
determine the slope.
[Continued]

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Example 3 Express an Inequality Algebraically From Its Graph [Continued]
Solution [Cont'd] Thinking
Determine the inequality sign • I knew it was <
The inequality is either < or >. or > because the
(0, 0) is in the shaded region, so substitute (0, 0) line was dashed.
2 • I tested a point,
into the linear relation, y = – x – 1.
3 (0, 0), to see if
Left side: y = 0 Right side:
2
(0) – 1 = –1 the inequality was < or >.
3
Since 0 > –1, the inequality sign is >.
Write the inequality
2
The inequality is y > – x – 1.
3

Practising and Applying

1. Is (0, 0) in the shaded region of 4. Sketch the graph of each inequality.
each graph? a) 3x + 4y • 12
a) y + 4 < 5x – 3 b) 5x – 2y < 10
b) 2y – 3x ” 7 c) 3x + 4y • 24
c) 3x + 5y > 9 d) 5x – 2y < 20
3
2. The graph of y = – x + 6 is shown.
5 5. Write the inequality for each graph.
Is the region that describes a)
3
y < – x + 6 above or below
5
the boundary line? How do you know?

b)

3. Without graphing, describe how the

graphs of each pair of inequalities are
alike and different.
a) y > 2x + 3 and y < 2x + 3
b) 2y ” x – 5 and 2y < x – 5

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Reprint 2023 83
3.1.4 EXPLORE: Transforming Graphs of Linear Functions

• When you evaluate a function for a value of the independent variable,

you substitute that value of x into the function.
For example, to evaluate f(x) = 3(x) + 2 for x = 2 ĺ f(2) = 3(2) + 2 = 8
• You can also substitute expressions into functions.
Here are some examples using the function f(x) = 3x + 2:
f(x) = 3x + 2 ĺ f(b – 1) = 3(b – 1) + 2 f(x) = 3x + 2 ĺ f(x + 3) = 3(x + 3) + 2
= 3b – 3 + 2 = 3x + 9 + 2
= 3b – 1 = 3x + 11
• Replacing x with an algebraic expression changes the function rule and creates
a new function.
Here are some examples using f(x) = 3x + 2. The letter g is used to represent
the new function.
g(x) = f(x) + 2 g(x) = f(x) – 2
= (3x + 2) + 2 = (3x + 2) – 2
= 3x + 4 = 3x
g(x) = –f(x) g(x) = –2f(x)
= –(3x + 2) = –2(3x + 2)
= –3x – 2 = –6x – 4
The new function is related to the original function.

A. Draw the graph of f(x) = 3x + 2 and the graph of each of the following
new functions on the same grid.
i) f(x – 1) ii) f(x + 1) iii) f(x + 3) iv) f(–x)

B. Draw the graph of f(x) = 3x + 2 and the graph of each of the following
new functions on the same grid.
i) g(x) = f(x) + 2 ii) g(x) = f(x) – 2

C. Draw the graph of f(x) = 3x + 2 and the graph of each of the following
new functions on the same grid.
i) g(x) = –f(x) ii) g(x) = 2f(x) iii) g(x) = 0.5f(x)

D. Each graph in parts A, B, and C is the image of the graph of the original
function f(x) = 3x + 2 after a transformation. Describe the transformation
for each new function.

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GAME: True or False

You will need scissors and light cardboard or paper to make cards for this game.
• Make two sets of variable cards: • Make 16 linear equation cards, each
marked with an L on the back:
21 y-variable cards, each marked
with y on the back and the integers Write these equations on the front of
–10 to 10 on the front eight cards:
• y = 2x + 1 • y = –2x + 1
11 x-variable cards, each marked
with x on the back and the integers • y = 2x – 1 • y = –2x – 1
–5 to 5 on the front • four more equations of your choice
Write these inequalities on the front of the
remaining eight cards:
• y < 2x + 1 • y > –2x + 1
• y < 2x – 1 • y > –2x – 1
• four more inequalities of your choice
Play in groups of three or more.
• Players take turns acting as dealer. The dealer does not play.
• The dealer shuffles the deck of y-variable cards and deals one card to each
player. Then the dealer does the same for the x-variable cards.
• The dealer shuffles the L cards and turns over the top card for all players to see.
• Each player must decide if the values he or she has on his or her y- and
x-variable cards make the equation or inequality true. He or she must say “true”
or “false” by the time the dealer counts to 10 (or less, if all players agree).
• Each player who is correct receives a point.
• Return the cards to their decks and continue the game with a different player
acting as dealer until each player has had a turn as dealer.
• The player or players with the most points at the end of the game wins.
y-variable cards Linear equation cards x-variable cards

y = 2x + 1 → –7 = 2(–4) + 1 True!

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Chapter 2 Solving Systems of Linear Equations
3.2.1 Solving Algebraically — The Comparison Strategy

Try This
Passang plans to earn money by selling biscuits.
He estimates that it will cost him Nu 4800 to buy
equipment and Nu 5 to make each biscuit.
He plans to sell each biscuit for Nu 20.
In business, the break-even point is the point at
which your costs for running the business equal
the amount of money you make in sales. In his first month of business, Passang's
goal is to at least break even.
A. How many biscuits must Passang sell to break even? How do you know?

A linear system is a set of linear equations that

represents multiple relationships. The solution y=x+2
of a system of linear equations involving the
variables x and y is the x- and y-values that
satisfy all the equations in the set.
Intersection
• The solution of a system of linear equations (1.5, 3.5)
can be determined graphically. The solution is
the intersection of the graphs of the equations
in the system.
y = –x + 5
For example, the linear system y = –x + 5 and
y = x + 2 is shown to the right. The intersection
point (1.5, 3.5) is its solution. This makes sense
since (1.5, 3.5) is the only ordered pair that is
The solution of a system of linear
on both graphs and it is the only pair of equations is the intersection point
numbers that makes both equations true. of the graphs of the equations.
• It is often impossible to be exact about the intersection point of two graphs,
so the coordinates might be just an estimate. If you need to be more exact,
you can solve the system of equations algebraically.
• There are several methods for solving a system of equations algebraically.
One method is the comparison strategy, which can be used when both equations
in the system have the same variable term isolated.
For example:
y = –x + 5 and y = x + 2 In both equations, the variable y is isolated on one side,
which means the other sides of the equations are equal.
That means you can create a one-variable equation by
–x + 5 = x + 2 comparing the other sides of the equation. You can then
x = 1.5 solve this equation to determine the value of x.

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 y=x+2
You can substitute x = 1.5 into one of the equations
y = 1.5 + 2 to find the value of y.
y = 3.5
Solution: x = 1.5, y = 3.5

y = –x + 5 ĺ 3.5 = –1.5 + 5 To check the solution, you can substitute x = 1.5 and
y = 3.5 into both equations to see if those values make
y = x + 2 ĺ 3.5 = 1.5 + 2
both equations true.

• A system of equations can be used to represent and solve a problem situation.

Here are two examples:
- An Internet service provider offers two payment plans and you want to compare
them. You could write an equation to represent each plan and then solve the
system of equations. The solution is the point at which both plans cost the same.
- You are working at two jobs, each paying a different hourly rate, and you have
a goal of earning a certain amount of money in a certain number of hours.
You could write an equation to represent the earnings for each job and then solve
the system of equations. The solution would be the number of hours you would
need to work at each job to achieve your goal.

B. i) Write a system of equations to determine Passang’s break-even point

in part A.
ii) Solve the system to determine the break-even point and check your answer
from part A.

Example 1 Solving a System to Solve a Problem

Meto wants to work at Mountain Trekkers and Tours
as a sales agent. He has been offered a choice of
two income plans:
Plan A: 3% commission on total sales
Plan B: an annual base salary of Nu 12,000 and
1% commission on total sales
For what amount of sales will both plans pay
the same income?

Solution Thinking
Create equations • I wrote an equation for
I represents income each income plan.
s represents total sales
Plan A: I = 0.03s
Plan B: I = 12,000 + 0.01s
[Continued]

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Example 1 Solving a System to Solve a Problem [Continued]
Solution [Cont'd] Thinking
Compare expressions and solve for s • Since I was already
If I = 0.03s and I = 12,000 + 0.01s, then isolated in both
equations, I compared
0.03s = 12,000 + 0.01s the expressions involving
0.02s = 12,000 s and then solved for s.
s = 600,000

Substitute for s to solve for I • I substituted the value for s into

If Plan A is I = 0.03s and s = 600,000, the equation for Plan A because it
then I = 0.03(600,000) = 18,000 involved the least computation. I could
have used the other equation instead.

Check solution • I checked the values with Plan B's

Substitute s = 600,000 into equation to see if it made the equation
I = 12,000 + 0.01s to see if I is 18,000: true. I already knew it worked for
12,000 + 0.01s Plan A's equation.
= 12,000 + 0.01(600,000)
= 18,000
When sales are Nu 600,000, the two
plans pay the same income (Nu 18,000).

Example 2 Finding the Intersection Point of a System of Equations

Determine the coordinates of the intersection point of the graphs of
6x – 8y = 3 and 2x + 4y = 6. Graph the system to check your answer.
Solution Thinking
Isolate the variable term in the first equation • To use the
comparison
6x – 8y = 3
strategy, I needed
6x = 3 + 8y the same variable
6x – 3 = 8y term isolated for
both equations.
Isolate the same variable term in the second • I isolated 8y for the first
equation equation.
2x + 4y = 6 [Multiply by 2] • I multiplied the second
4x + 8y = 12 equation by 2 to get the same
variable term as the first
8y = 12 – 4x equation, 8y, and then I
isolated 8y.

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Compare expressions and solve for x • I wrote an equation that
If 6x – 3 = 8y and 8y = 12 – 4x, then compared both expressions
involving x and solved for x.
6x – 3 = 12 – 4x
10x = 15
15
x =
10
3
x=
2

Substitute for x to solve for y • I substituted the value for x

3 3 into the second equation and
If 2x + 4y = 6 and x = , then 2( ) + 4y = 6
2 2 solved for y.
3 + 4y = 6
3
y=
4
3 3
The intersection point is ( , ).
2 4
Check solution by graphing

3 3
( , )
2 4

Practising and Applying

1. A phone service provider offers two c) If you expect to use the phone for
different monthly plans. 600 min per month, which plan would
Monthly Price per you choose? What about 1200 min?
Plan fee minute
2. Determine the point of intersection
A Nu 1200 Nu 1.60 for each system of linear equations.
B Nu 1400 Nu 1.40 a) y = 2x – 7 and y = 5x – 4
a) What does the equation b) y = 3x – 1 and y = 5x + 3
1200 + 1.6m = 1400 + 1.4m represent? c) y = –x + 2 and y = 4x – 4
How do you know?
b) For what number of minutes do the 3. The sum of two numbers is 48 and
plans cost the same? How do you the difference is 34. What are the two
know? numbers?

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4. Half of one number is one third of 9. A rectangle has these vertices:
another. The sum of the two numbers A(2, 2), B(2, 6), C(4, 6), and D(4, 2)
is 95. What are the two numbers?
y
5. A team bought 20 basketballs for B C
a total of Nu 8800. Practice balls cost
Nu 400 and official balls cost Nu 600.
Use a system of equations to determine
how many of each type of ball they A D
bought.
x
6. A vehicle has a mass of 1295 kg and
uses petrol. Another vehicle has a mass a) Determine the equation of each
of 1290 kg and uses diesel fuel. diagonal, BD and AC.
• 1 L of petrol has a mass of 737 g. b) Determine the coordinates of the
• 1 L of diesel has a mass of 820 g. point of intersection of the diagonals.
How many litres of fuel will result in the
two vehicles having the same mass? 10. A plane travelling in one direction
Round to the nearest tenth of a litre. has a tailwind and takes 3 h to travel
960 km. When it makes the return trip,
it has a headwind and takes 4 h to
travel the same distance. Assuming
the tailwind speed was the same as
the headwind speed, what was the
speed of the wind? What was the speed
of the plane? [Hint: Think of the faster
speed as the plane speed plus the
tailwind speed.]
7. Chandra sold some stamps to a
group of tourists. They bought some
stamps for Nu 4 and some for Nu 9.
Altogether they spent Nu 440 and
bought 60 stamps. How many of each
type of stamp did they buy?

11. Solve each linear system.

a) 5a + 3.5b = 17 and 2a + 0.5b = 5
3 1
b) x – y = –4 and x + y = 0
4 4
8. Determine the point of intersection
for each system of linear equations. 1 2 1
c) x – y = 2 and x – y = 1
3 3 4
a) y = 2x + 3 and 3x – y = 2
b) x – 2y = –2 and x + y = 4 12. Why is it important to isolate the
c) 3x – 4y = –15 and 2x + 3y = 7 same variable term of each equation in
order to use the comparison strategy?

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3.2.2 Solving Algebraically — The Substitution Strategy

Try This
Maya’s store sells masks in two different sizes, one for Nu 1200 and a smaller one
for Nu 1000. Last year she sold 100 masks and had total sales of Nu 108,200.

A. i) If she had sold 50 of each mask, what would be her total sales?
ii) How could you use your answer to part i) to estimate the number of each type
of mask Maya actually sold for sales of Nu 108,200?
iii) Estimate the number of masks sold at each price. Show your work.

• In the previous lesson you learned about the comparison strategy for solving
a system of equations. This lesson introduces another strategy, called the
substitution strategy. To use this strategy, you rearrange one of the equations in
the system to isolate one of the variables. Then, you substitute the expression for
that variable into the other equation.
For example, consider the system of equations y = x – 1 and 5x + 2y = 12:
y = x – 1 and 5x + 2y = 12 In the first equation, y is already isolated so it does
not have to be rearranged.
5x + 2y = 12 Substitute the expression for y into the second
equation and then solve for x.
5x + 2(x – 1) = 12
5x + 2x – 2 = 12
7x = 14
x = 2
y = x–1 Next, substitute the value for x into either of
the equations and solve for y.
y = (2) – 1
y = 1

Solution: x = 2 and y = 1 To check the solution, substitute x = 2 and y = 1

into the other equation to see if those values make
5x + 2y = 12 ĺ 5(2) + 2(1) = 12
the equation true.
10 + 2 = 12

B. Create and solve a system of linear equations to determine how many

masks Maya sold at each price.

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Examples
Example 1 Solving a Problem by Solving a System of Equations
A 45 minute fitness program is designed to burn 400 calories and involves riding
a bicycle and jogging. Riding a bicycle burns 8 cal/min. Jogging burns 10 cal/min.
How much time should be spent on each activity to meet the program goals?

Solution Thinking
Create equations • I wrote a system of linear
If b is number of minutes biking equations to model the situation
and j is number of minutes jogging, — one equation to model
• total time spent exercising is the amount of time spent
b + j = 45 exercising and the other
• total calories burned is to model the number of calories burned.
8b + 10j = 400
Isolate the variable b • I rearranged the first equation to isolate b.
b + j = 45 (I could have used the other equation instead
b = 45 – j but the first equation was simpler.)

Substitute the expression for b into • I substituted the expression for b into
the other equation the other equation and solved for j.
8b + 10j = 400
8(45 – j) + 10j = 400
360 – 8j + 10j = 400
360 + 2j = 400
2j = 40
j = 20
Substitute the value for j into • I substituted the value for j into the first
the first equation equation to determine the value for b.
b + j = 45
b + (20) = 45
b = 25
b = 25 and j = 20
Check the solution • I checked my solution to make sure the
8b + 10j = 400 ĺ 8(25) + 10(20) total number of calories burned was
= 200 + 200 400 calories, since I already knew that
= 400 25 min + 20 min = 45 min.

The program should have 20 min

of jogging and 25 min of biking.

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Example 2 Solving a System of Linear Equations
Determine the solution of this system of equations: 3x + 2y = 12 and x – 2y = –2
Solution Thinking
Isolate the variable term 2y • I noticed both equations had
3x + 2y = 12 the same variable term, 2y, so
2y = 12 – 3x I isolated 2y in the first
equation.
Substitute the expression for 2y into • I substituted the expression
the other equation
for 2y into the second equation and solved
x – 2y = –2
the resulting equation for x.
x – (12 – 3x) = –2
x – 12 + 3x = –2
4x = 10
x = 2.5

Substitute the value for x into the • I substituted the value for x into
second equation the second equation to find the value for y.
x – 2y = –2
2.5 – 2y = –2
–2y = –4.5
y = 2.25

The solution is x = 2.5 and y = 2.25.

Example 3 Solving a Linear System with Fractional Coefficients

Determine the point of intersection of the lines with the following equations:
1 3
x + y – 2 = 0 and 6x + 4y = 8
2 5
Solution Thinking
Create an equivalent equation with a 6x-term • I multiplied the
1 3 36 first equation by
12( x + y – 2) = 12(0) ĺ 6x + y – 24 = 0
2 5 5 12 so that it would
have a 6x-term,
Isolate the variable term 6x in the other equation
just like in the
6x + 4y = 8
second equation.
6x = 8 – 4y
• Then I isolated the 6x-term
Substitute the expression for 6x into the first in the second equation.
equation
• I substituted the expression
36
8 – 4y + y – 24 = 0 8 – 4y for 6x into the first
5
16 equation and solved for y.
y – 16 = 0
5
16y = 80
y=5 [Continued]

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Example 3 Solving a Linear System with Fractional Coefficients [Continued]
Solution [Cont'd] Thinking
Substitute the value for y into the second • I substituted the
equation value for y into the
6x + 4y = 8 second equation
6x + 4(5) = 8 and solved for x.
6x = –12 (I could have used
x = –2 the first equation instead but
it would have been more
The point of intersection is (–2, 5). complicated).

Practising and Applying

1. Use the substitution strategy to solve 5. Determine the unknown values in
each system of linear equations. each diagram. Show your work. [Hint:
a) y = 4x –1 and 2x + 3y = 11 interior angles of a triangle add to 180°.]
b) y = 3x + 5 and x – 3y = 1 a)
c) y = 1 – x and 4x + 2y = 3 y°
1
d) y = x + and 3x + 4y – 5 = 0
12

2. a) Lhamo is 5 years older than

Devika. Write an equation that models 2y ° x ° x°
this relationship.
b)
b) The sum of their ages is 29 years.
Write an equation to model this y°
relationship. Use the same variables as
you used in part a).
c) Solve the system of equations
to determine each person's age. (2y + 40)° x° 90°

3. Find the point of intersection of

6. Solve each system.
the graphs for each system.
1 2 3 1
a) x – y = 1 and 3x – y = –1 a) x + y = 6 and x – y = 1
2 3 4 3
b) 2x + 5y = 0 and x + y = 3
1 3 2
c) 4x – 2y = 3 and –3x + y = –2 b) − x + y = –8 and y + x = 0
6 4 3
d) 2x + 2y = 3 and 6x – 6y = –1 c) 4x – y = 6.9 and 2x + 3y = 14.3
d) x + y = 0.6 and 2y + 3x + 0.5 = 0
4. Therchu is thinking of two numbers.
• The sum of the numbers is 212. 7. The comparison strategy and
• The difference between them is 88. the substitution strategy both involve
Solve a system of equations to isolating terms. In what ways do
determine the value of each number. the strategies differ?

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3.2.3 Solving Algebraically — The Elimination Strategy

Try This
Dorji and Deki both have stamp collections that contain Bhutanese stamps and
stamps from other countries.
• Dorji has 200 stamps altogether. Deki has 450 stamps altogether.
• Deki has twice as many Bhutanese stamps as Dorji and three times as many
stamps from other countries as Dorji.

A. i) Write two equations to describe the stamp collections in terms of Bhutanese

stamps and stamps from other countries.
ii) How many Bhutanese stamps does each person have?

• Another strategy for solving systems of linear equations algebraically is the

elimination strategy. This strategy is used when the equations in the linear system
are in a form that allows you to eliminate one variable by adding or subtracting the
equations.
For example, consider the system of equations 3x + 4y = 13 and 3x + 2y = 11.
Both equations have a 3x-term that could be eliminated if one equation were
subtracted from the other.
You can find the value of y by eliminating Then you can substitute the value for y into
the 3x-terms from the system by subtracting one of the equations to determine the value
the equations and then solving for y: for x:
3x + 4y = 13 3x + 2y = 11
– 3x + 2y = 11 3x + 2(1) = 11
2y =2 3x =9
y =1 x =3
The solution of 3x + 4y = 13 and 3x + 2y = 11 is x = 3 and y = 1.

The solution can be checked by substituting these values into the other equation,
3x + 4y = 13, to see if they make the equation true:
3x + 4y = 13 ĺ 3(3) + 4(1) = 13 ĺ 9 + 4 = 13

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• Sometimes equations can be added instead of subtracted to eliminate a variable
when variable terms have opposite values.
For example, consider the system of equations 3x + 4y = 14 and 3x – 2y = 11.
You can eliminate the y-terms by creating an equivalent equation for the second
equation that has the same y-term but with an opposite value as the first
equation, and then adding the equations.
Create an equivalent equation, add Substitute the value for x into one of
the equations, and then solve for x: the equations to determine the value for y:
2(3x – 2y) = 2(11) ĺ 6x – 4y = 22 3x + 4y = 14
3x + 4y = 14 3(4) + 4y = 14
+ 6x – 4y = 22 y = 0.5
9x = 36
x =4
The solution of 3x + 4y = 14 and 3x – 2y = 11 is x = 4 and y = 0.5.

B. Describe how to use the elimination strategy to solve part A ii).

Examples
Example 1 Solving a System of Linear Equations
1 2
Determine the solution of this system of linear equations. x+ y=2
2 3
3 1
x – y = 11
4 3
Solution Thinking
Create an equivalent equation • I doubled the second
3 1 3 2 equation so it would have a
x – y = 11 ĺ x – y = 22
4 3 2 3 2
– y - term, like the other
Add equations and solve for x 3
1 2 equation.
x+ y=2
2 3

+
3 2
x – y = 22 • When I added the equations, the y - terms
2 3 2 2
cancelled out because y + (– y) = 0.
2x = 24 3 3
x = 12
Substitute for x to solve for y
3 1 3 1
x – y = 11 ĺ (12) – y = 11
4 3 4 3
1
– y=2
3
y = –6
The solution of the system of
equations is x = 12 and y = –6.

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Example 2 Solving a Mixture Problem Using a System of Equations
A lab technician needs 3 L of 8% saline (salt) solution. The stock room has only
5% and 9% solution available. What volume of each must she mix?
Solution Thinking
a is the volume of 5% solution needed • I represented the volumes
b the volume of 9% solution needed of the two original solutions
The equation that models the total with variables.
volume of the final mixture is:
• I created two equations:
a + b = 3000
- one to describe what I
The equation that models the amount
of salt in the final mixture is: knew about the volumes and
0.05a + 0.09b = 0.08(3000) - one to describe what I knew about the
0.05a + 0.09b = 240 amount of salt.
• I multiplied the terms on both sides of
100(0.05a + 0.09b) = 100(240) the salt equation by 100 to get rid of the
5a + 9b = 24,000 decimals.

a + b = 3000 ĺ 5a + 5b = 15,000 • I multiplied the volume equation by 5 so

that its coefficient of a was the same as
the coefficient of a in the new salt
equation. I did this so I could subtract
the equations and eliminate the a-terms.

5a + 9b = 24,000 • I subtracted the new volume equation

– 5a + 5b = 15,000 from the new salt equation to eliminate
4b = 9000 the a - terms and solve for b.
b = 2250

a + (2250) = 3000 • I substituted the value for b into

a = 750 the original volume equation.

The technician should mix 750 mL of

the 5% solution and 2250 mL of
the 9% solution.

Practising and Applying

1. Use the elimination strategy to solve 2. Yangchen invested a total of
each system of linear equations. Nu 2500 in two investments. One
a) 2x + 4y = 6 and 2x + 3y = 4 investment earned 4% interest and
the other earned 5% interest. The
b) 5x – 3y = 2 and 7x + 3y = 10 total interest earned was Nu 115.
c) 4x + 3y = –3 and 2x + y = 1 a) Write an equation to model the
d) x – 2y = 6 and 2x + y = –8 total amount invested. [Cont'd]

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2. [Cont'd] b) Write an equation 6. Champa makes two grades of recycled
to model the total interest earned. paper using scrap paper and cloth.
c) Solve the system of equations One batch of each grade requires
to determine the amount invested at a different combination of paper and cloth
each interest rate. as shown below.
Scrap Scrap
3. A factory uses steel and aluminium Grade
Cloth Paper
to manufacture small trucks and
Deluxe 4.4 kg 19.8 kg
passenger cars. The chart below shows
how much of each material is needed Fine 1.1 kg 16.5 kg
for each vehicle.
Champa has 11 kg of scrap cloth and
Vehicle Truck Car 72.6 kg of scrap paper and she wants to
Steel 500 kg 375 kg use up all her supplies. How many
batches of each grade can she make?
Aluminium 250 kg 150 kg
Last year the factory used 125,000 kg 7. Use the elimination strategy to
of steel and 55,000 kg of aluminium. determine the point of intersection for
a) Write a system of linear equations each pair of lines.
to model this situation. 1 1 3 3
b) Solve the system to determine a) x + y = 9 and x – y = –3
2 3 5 4
the number of cars and trucks produced
1 3 3 1
last year. b) y + x = –8 and y – x = 14
2 4 4 2
3 2 1 1
c) x – y = 3 and x – y = 3
4 3 2 2

8. A dye company mixes red and blue

dyes to make two types of purple dye.
• One batch of light purple dye uses
4. Karma wrote a 20-question multiple- 1 1
choice test. He answered each package of blue and package of red.
4 6
question. It was scored as follows: 1
• gain 4 points for each correct answer • One batch of deep purple dye uses
6
• lose 1 point for each incorrect answer 1
package of blue and package of red.
Karma received 60 points on the test. 12
Determine the number of questions he How many batches of each shade of
answered correctly. purple dye can the company make with
900 packages of blue dye and
5. Use the elimination strategy to solve 500 packages of red dye?
each system of equations.
a) 0.5a + 0.2b = 80 9. Give an example of a pair of equations
0.7a – 0.3b = 25 where you might use each strategy to
solve them. Explain your thinking.
b) 1.5a + 1.5b = 1.5
4.5a + 3.0b = 1.5 a) elimination
b) substitution
c) 0.06a – 0.02b = 12
0.03b – 0.04a = 42 c) comparison

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CONNECTIONS: Matrix Solution of a Linear System

Matrices can also be used to solve systems of equations.

1. Show that the matrix equation below represents the given system of equations.
System of equations Matrix equation
Notice that the first matrix on the left
8x + 5y = 11 ª8 5º ª x º ª11º
« »× « »= « » side of the matrix equation is made up
3x + 2y = 4 ¬3 2¼ ¬y ¼ ¬4¼ of the coefficients of the variables and
the matrix on the right side of the
equation is made up of the constants.

ª2 −5º
2. a) Multiply each side of the matrix equation by the matrix « » as the first
¬−3 8¼
ª 2 −5º ª8 5º ªx º ª 2 −5º ª11º
factor, as shown here: « » × « » × «y » = « » × « »
¬−3 8 ¼ ¬3 2¼ ¬ ¼ ¬−3 8 ¼ ¬4¼
Keep multiplying until there is one matrix on each side of the equation.
b) What does the resulting equation tell you about the solution of the system
of equations?

3. a) Create a matrix equation to represent this system of equations:

5x + 9y = 7 and x + 2y = 2
ª 2 −9º
b) Multiply each side of the matrix equation by « » as the first factor.
¬−1 5 ¼
Keep multiplying until there is one matrix on each side of the equation.
c) What is the solution of the original system of equations?

4. a) Create a matrix equation to represent this system of equations:

4x + 7y = 3 and 5x + 9y = 4
b) Predict what matrix you could multiply by to solve the system of equations.
c) Check your prediction.

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3.2.4 EXPLORE: Counting Solutions for Different Systems

In all the situations you have seen so far in this chapter, you have worked with
systems of two linear equations, each with two variables. There has always been
one solution for each system.
For example, there is only one solution for 2x + 3y = 2 and 5x – 6y = 32, x = 4 and
y = –2, because these are the only values that make both equations true.
You might wonder if this is always the case. You also might wonder how many
solutions there could be if there were different numbers of equations or different
numbers of variables.

A. Show that there is more than one solution to each equation.

i) 2x + 3y = 2 ii) 5x – 6y = 32 iii) 3x – 6y + z = 8

B. Show that there is more than one solution to each system of equations.
i) 2x + 3y = 2 and 4x + 6y = 4 ii) 5x – 6y = 32 and 18y = 15x – 96

C. Show that there is only one solution to each system of equations.

i) 2x + 6y = 26 and 3y + 8x = – 1 ii) 6x + 4y = 14 and 8y – x = 2

D. Show that there is only one solution to each system of equations.

i) 2x + 6y = 26 ii) 6x + 4y = 14 iii) 6x + 4y = 14
3y + 8x = – 1 8y – x = 2 8y – x = 2
10x + 9y = 25 11x + 16y = 30 17x – 32y = 18

E. Explain why there is no solution to each system of equations.

i) 2x + 6y = 26 and 2x + 6y = 24 ii) 6x + 4y = 14 and 3x + 2y = 5

F. Explain why there is no solution to this system of three equations.

2x + 6y = 26 3y + 8x = – 1 x+y=4

G. Summarize what you have discovered in this exploration.

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UNIT 3 Revision

1. Which graph shows a function? 5. a) Rewrite 10c – 3d = 30 to describe

How do you know? c as a function of d.
b) Sketch the graph of this function.
A y

6. Rewrite 3x – 2y = 8 in slope and

y-intercept form and graph the line.

7. Write a linear function that describes

x
the mean of five consecutive integers, if
x is the second smallest of the numbers.

8. Data values were collected for six

students.
Thumb Longest
Student
length finger length
1 8.9 11.4
B 2 7.6 9.8
3 8.2 10.5
4 8.3 10.7
5 7.3 9.4
6 7.9 9.9

a) Draw a scatter plot a line of best fit.

b) What is the equation of the line?

2. a) Pema says y = 3 is not a function. 9. Graph each relation.

Is Pema right? Justify your answer. a) y ” –3x – 5 b) 3x + 2 • y
b) Kinley says x = 3 is not a function. c) 2 – 4x < y
Is Kinley right? Justify your answer.
10. Write an inequality for each graph.
3. a) Create a table of values for a)
f(x) = 10 – 3x.
b) How do you know it is a function?
4. a) Write x as a function of y.
b) Write y as a function of x.

x x
c) Why can either variable be the
independent variable?
d) What is the value of f(20), if y is [Cont'd]
a function of x?
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10. [Cont'd]] 14. Anjali wrote a 30-item multiple
b) choice exam and answered every
question.
• She got 8 points for each correct item.
• She lost 2 points for each incorrect
item.
• Her total score was 150 points.
How many items did she answer
correctly?

11. Predict how each pair of graphs will

be alike and different. Explain your
prediction.
a) 3y < 2x + 4 and 3y ” 2x + 4
b) 4y + 2x < 8 and 4y + 2x < 10

12. How will the graph of each function

compare with the graph of f(x) = 5x – 3?
a) f(x + 4)
15. The perimeter of one rectangle is
b) f(x – 4) 120 cm. Another rectangle with twice
c) 4f(x) the length and one third the width has
d) –4f(x) a perimeter of 170 cm. What are the
dimensions of the two rectangles?
13. Determine the point of intersection 16. Use the substitution or comparison
of each pair of lines. strategy to solve each system.
a) y = 5x – 3 and y = 4x + 2 a) 2x + 3y = 17 and 3y = 15 – x
b) 2y + 5x =10 and y = 3x – 0.5 b) 3x + 5y = 14 and 6x – y = –16
c) 3y = 5x – 2 and y + 4x = 22 c) x + 6y = 35 and 5x – 10 = 3y
d) y – 5x = 7 and y + 4x = 25
17. Use the elimination strategy to solve
each system of equations.
a) 4y – 3x = 11 and 2y + 3x = 31
b) 5y + 2x = 24 and 3y + 4x = 20
c) x + 0.2y = 3.1 and 0.7x – 0.8y = 1.7

18. When might you choose to use

a graph to solve a linear system of
equations instead of solving it
algebraically?

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 UNIT 4 MEASUREMENT
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. These three shapes can be called equitable shapes because
they all have the same area.
3

2 2 4
4
3 3

3
i) Draw the shapes on grid paper.
ii) Determine the area of each shape in square units to show that they
all have the same area.
iii) Predict which shape has the greatest perimeter and which shape has
the shortest perimeter. Explain your predictions.
iv) Check your predictions by finding the perimeter of each shape.

B. i) Create three other shapes on grid paper that have the same area as
the shapes in part A. Label them with their dimensions.
ii) Show that the area of each shape in part i) is the same as the area of
the shapes in part A.
iii) Which of your new shapes has the greatest perimeter? What is its
perimeter? How could you have predicted it would be greatest?

Skills You Will Need

1. Determine the volume and total surface area of each shape.
Record your answers to one decimal place.
a) b) c)
8 cm
12 m 13 m 10 cm
4 cm

12 cm

1.45 cm

4.1 m 5m

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 2 cm
1. d) e) f)
3 cm

2 cm

3 cm
3 cm

3 cm
3 cm

2. Fill in the blanks to make equivalency statements.

a) 32 mm = ____ cm b) 1.7 kg = __ g
c) 270 mL = ___ L d) 2 m2 = ___ cm2
e) 7 mL = ___ cm3 f) 4.3 L = ___ cm3
g) 8.2 cm3 = ___ mm3

3. Construct each triangle.

a) ΔABC with AB = 12 cm, BC = 9 cm, and AC = 6 cm
b) ΔDEF with DE = 7.8 cm, EF = 23 mm, and ∠ E = 110º
c) ΔJKL with JK = 84 mm, ∠ J = 53º, and ∠ L = 97º

4. Calculate the circumference and area of each circle. Express your answer
as an exact value using ʌ and as a decimal rounded to 1 decimal place.
a) b) 3.2 cm
5 cm

5. What is the value of the missing angle in each triangle?

a) b)
x° 73°

110° 30°
x° 41°

6. Calculate the length of the hypotenuse of each. Round to two decimal places.
a) b)
1.01 cm
1.81 cm
5.03 cm

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2023 104
Chapter 1 Precision
4.1.1 Precision and Accuracy

Try This
Dorji and Dodo were asked to each measure the dimensions of a textbook. Dorji
used a ruler with centimetre markings and Dodo used a ruler with millimetre
markings. They then compared their results. Work with a partner and follow
the steps below to see what they discovered.

A. Find two rulers, one marked only in

centimetres and one with millimetre markings.
(If you do not have a centimetre ruler, make
one with a strip of paper as shown to the right.)
i) Measure the dimensions (length and width)
of your textbook using the centimetre ruler.
Record the measurements to the nearest
centimetre. A centimetre ruler
ii) Measure the dimensions of your book using
the millimetre ruler. Record the measurements
to the nearest millimetre. Then rewrite them in
the form [ ].[ ] cm.
iii) How do the results in i) and ii) compare? A millimetre ruler

Measuring always involves estimation because, for every unit of measure, there
is always a smaller, more precise unit. For example, if three people measure the
same desk; one might describe the measurement as 0.4 m, another as 41 cm,
and another as 412 mm or 41.2 cm, depending on the tool and unit used. All three
are reasonable estimates of the desk’s length, even though they differ.
Precision The precision of a measurement relates to the scale of the instrument
used. The smaller the unit, the more precise the measurement can be.
4
For example, this belt, when measured with a 1 m stick, is about m long;
5
when measured with a centimetre ruler, it is about 83 cm; and
when measured with a millimetre ruler, it is about 830 mm, or 83.0 cm.
4
about m
5

0 1m
about 83 cm

0 cm 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

about 830 mm

0 cm 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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• Precision also applies to other types of measurement.
For example, a thermometer can have a scale marked in tenths of a degree
(3.2ºC) or a less precise scale marked in whole degrees (3ºC).
• When measuring, it is important to think about both the precision required and
the availability of tools that will allow for that precision. Some measurements do
not need to be very precise. For example, when deciding on what to wear to
school, you do not need to know that it is 18.3ºC outside; it is enough to know that
it is almost 20ºC. Other times, precision is very important, like when comparing
measurements that are close to one another. For example, if two objects are each
about 12 cm long, you might discover when you re-measure them with more
precision, that one is 11.9 cm (or 119 mm) and the other is 12.0 cm (or 120 mm).
Signficant figures One way to assess the precision of a measurement is to count
the number of significant figures (sometimes called significant digits) in the
number. In the belt example on page 105, you can tell 83.0 cm is more precise
than 83 cm because it has more significant figures. The abbreviation SF can be
used to refer to significant figures.
• To determine the number of significant figures, count all non-zero digits (1 to 9)
and all zero digits, except those that are there only to indicate place value.
For example, 80, 800, and 8000 each have only one significant figure, the 8. The
zeros are not significant because they are there to indicate the place value of the
digit 8, that is, whether the 8 is 8 tens, 8 hundreds, or 8 thousands. This is true for
numbers in standard form like 80 and numbers in scientific notation like 8 × 101.
• The reason a measurement such as 80 cm is has only one significant figure is
because it is not possible to tell if the person reporting the measurement was
using 80 cm as a rounded value. The actual measurement may have been
somewhere between 75 cm and 85 cm. Because this is not clear, scientists
choose to not make any assumptions about the precision of the measurement
and 80 cm is said to have only one significant figure.
• The reason a measurement such as 82 cm has two significant figures is because
it is obvious the person did not use a rounded value. The actual measurement
might be somewhere between 81.5 cm and 82.5 cm, which is a more precise
range than 75 cm to 85 cm.
• The reason a measurement such as 802 m has three significant figures and
not two is because it is obvious that the person did not use a rounded value.
A measurement like 802 m indicates that it is closer to 800 m than to 810 m.
The 0 in 802 plays a role in indicating this, so it has significance and is counted.
Here are some rules for counting significant figures with whole numbers
- Count all non-zero digits, for example,
5371 has four significant figures.
- Count the zeros between non-zero digits, for example,
5001 has four significant figures.
- Do not count the zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit, for example,
5300 has two significant figures.

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• When decimals are used, zeros after the decimal place are seen as significant.
For example, 2.0 cm has two significant figures since the zero indicates the
measurement is closer to 2.0 cm than to 1.9 cm or to 2.1 cm, both of which have
two significant figures. A measurement of 2 cm has one significant digit because it
indicates that it is closer to 2 cm than to 1 cm or to 3 cm, which is a less precise
range of measurements than 1.9 cm to 2.1 cm.

Here are some rules for counting significant figures with decimal numbers
- Count all non-zero digits. For example,
both 2.4 and 2.4 × 102 have two significant figures.
- Count all zeros between significant figures. For example,
20.04 has four significant figures. So does 2.004 × 101.
- Count all the zeros to the right of the decimal other than the leading zeros
(those that come before the first non-zero digit to the right of the decimal point),
if the whole number part of the decimal is 0. For example,
0.0400 has three significant figures. So does 4.00 × 10–2.
- Count all the zeros to the right of the decimal if the whole number part of the
decimal is 1 or greater. For example,
2.0400 has five significant figures, as does 2.0400 × 10n, no matter what n is.

• Even when the same measurement is reported using different units, the level of
precision can still be compared.
For example, one person reports a measurement as 8.2 cm and another reports
it as 82 mm. Both are equally precise because they each have two significant
figures, even though the units are different.

• Mathematicians often do not worry about the precision of a measurement. They

simply recognize that the value they have calculated is not exact and that there
will be a margin of error. However, the more precise a measurement is, the
smaller that margin of error will be.

• Sometimes people apply calculation rules to ensure that their calculated

measurement is as close as possible to the actual measurement. There are
different rules for this, but the two that are most often used are described below:
- Round your final calculated measurement to the number of significant figures in
the least precise measurement you used in your calculations.
OR
- Round your final calculated measurement to the least number of decimal places
in the measurements you used in your calculations.
For example, the area of a 2.4 m by 3 m rectangle calculates to 7.2 m2:
- round 7.2 m2 to 1 SF (since 3 m has 1 SF) to get 7 m2
OR
- round 7.2 m to a whole number (since 3 m is a whole number) to get 7 m2
2

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The two rules do not always result in the same value. In this textbook, the second
rule will be used.

Accuracy A measurement is accurate when the measurement is taken correctly.

For example, if you say a book is 8 cm wide and a classmate says it is 79 mm
or 7.9 cm wide, your measurements can both accurate, as long as you both
measured from one side of the book along a straight distance to the other side
and you both read your rulers correctly. The difference is that your classmate
measured with more precision than you did, probably because he or she had
a more precise tool.

8 cm 79 mm or 7.9 cm

Both measurements are accurate but one is more precise than the other.

• Inaccurate measurements can be caused by carelessness in using the tool or

in reading or interpreting the tool.
• Inaccuracy also occurs in situations where it is difficult to measure accurately.
For example, it is difficult to measure the length of your forearm since it is hard
to decide where to start and end the measurement. If two people each measured
their forearms, it is unlikely that they would both do it in exactly the same way.
• Precision and accuracy often get confused, perhaps because of how the words
are used in everyday language. It is important to keep in mind that a measurement
is either accurate or not, while there are different levels of precision.

B. Based on your results from part A, what do you think Dorji and Dodo
discovered about the precision of their measurements?

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Examples
Example 1 Counting Significant figures
How many significant figures are there in each number?
89 7.5 × 103 2.03 × 102 120.0 0.005 0.90 4.03
Solution Thinking
Counting significant figures is
mostly about understanding
the role or significance of the
zero digits in a number.

89 has two significant figures. • 89 has two non-zero digits so we count both
of them.

7.5 × 103, which is 7500, has • The zeros in 7500 don't count because they
two significant figures. are there only to show the place value of the
digits 7 and 5. The power in a number in
scientific notation has no effect on how many
significant figures it has.

2.03 × 102, which is 203, has • The zero in 2.03 counts because it is between
three significant figures. non-zero digits. The power 102 in 2.03 × 102
doesn't count.

120.0 has four significant • The decimal at the end of 120.0 is there to
figures. show that the measurement was taken to the
nearest tenth, so it should be counted.
• The 0 before the decimal counts since it is
between significant figures.
• The 2 is significant because it’s non-zero.
• The last 0 is significant because it’s after
the decimal point.

0.005 has one significant figure. • The digit 5 in 0.005 means 5 thousandths.
The only significant digit is 5, as the zeros
simply tell the place value of 5 (thousandths).

0.90 has two significant figures. • The zero to the right of the 9 in 0.90 is
included to show the level of precision, not
the place value of the digit 9, so it counts.

4.03 has three significant • The zero in 4.03 counts because it is between
figures. non-zero digits.

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Example 2 Reading measurements
Dechen weighs herself on a scale and
sees this result.
a) What possible measurements might
result from the situation?
b) What are some possible causes of
inaccuracy?

Solution Thinking
a) She might say that she weighs a) Depending on how precise
about 44 kg, 45 kg, or 40 kg. she wants to be, she might
b) The scale may not have been round to the nearest 1 kg
set properly (some scales have to (44 kg or 45 kg) or to the
be set to zero first). nearest 10 kg (40 kg).
She might not be putting her full
weight on the scale. b) Inaccuracies are often the result of not
using or reading the measuring tool correctly.
She may not be in the correct
position when reading the scale to
distinguish whether the line is
closer to 44 kg or to 45 kg.

Example 3 Considering accuracy and precision

A group of boys wondered who was the fastest in their group. They timed each
other running from the school to the flagpole and back. They could not all run at
the same time so they had to rely on reported times to decide who won the race.
Dorji 41 s Penjor 36 s Devi 41 s Pema 37.0 s Dago 35.8 s
They ranked the times from fastest to slowest: 35.8 s, 36 s, 37.0 s, 41 s, 41 s
a) Based on what you know about precision, can you be certain that Dago was
the fastest? that Devi and Dorji were equally slow?
b) What are some possible causes of inaccuracy in this situation?
Solution Thinking
a) You cannot be certain that a) There are different numbers
Dago was fastest because it is of significant figures in the
possible that Penjor was faster, measurements — some are to
since his time of 36 s might have
the nearest tenth of a second
been rounded up from 35.5 s,
35.6 s, or 35.7 s, which is faster (3 SFs) and some only to the
than Dago at 35.8 s. nearest second (2 SFs).
• Penjor’s time was to the nearest second, so
his time could have been anywhere between
35.5 s and 36.5 s.

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You cannot be certain that Devi and Dorji were Both 40.5 s and 41.4 s round to
equally slow since 41 s could be anywhere from 41 s, when rounded to the
40.5 s to 41.4 s. That means Dorji could have nearest whole second.
had a time as fast as 40.5 s and Devi could have
had a time as slow as 41.4 s, or vice versa.
b) One thing that would cause inaccuracy is if b) Inaccuracy can be caused by
the stopwatch was not started and stopped human and mechanical errors.
correctly.

Practising and Applying

1. Count the significant figures in each. 5. What measurement might result from
measuring the length of this calculator?
a) 5.380 × 10 mL 3
b) 8081 km
Comment on the precision and accuracy
c) 98,070 cm 3
d) 1.24 × 101 cm in the measurement.
e) 0.6 L f) 0.04 km
g) –20º h) 0.0930 kg
i) 0.4030 m 2
j) 2 × 10–3 km

2. Round each number as indicated.

a) 0.837 to one significant figure
b) 4712 to two significant figures
c) 3.19 to two significant figures
6. Novin says the distance from
3. a) Write two different lengths in Thimphu to Paro is 65 km. Dodo says
millimetres that could be written as the distance from Thimphu to Wangdi
12 cm when recorded to the nearest Phodrang is 70 km.
centimetre. a) Can you be certain that Paro is closer
b) Write two different capacities in than Wangdi Phodrang to Thimphu?
millilitres that could be written as 7.3 L Explain.
when recorded to the nearest tenth of b) Comment on the precision and
a litre. accuracy of these measurements.
4. a) Write a number that has three 7. a) Describe a situation in which two
zeros and three significant figures. capacity measurements are difficult to
b) Is it possible to write a five-digit compare because they have different
number for part a)? Explain. levels of precision.
c) Write a number that has seven digits b) Explain why it is difficult to compare
but only one is a significant figure. them.
d) What is the greatest and least
number you could write for part c)?

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CONNECTIONS: Precision Instruments

People have been measuring things for thousands of years. Part of the
development of human culture includes the development of increasingly precise
instruments for measurement.
• Sundials have been
used for many years
to tell time. Later,
mechanical devices,
such as analogue
watches, were
invented to measure
time with greater Sundial Analogue watch
precision.
• Instruments to describe location
have become more precise. Sextants,
devices used in the past to estimate
one’s latitude based on the angle
required to sight the moon, were
considered precise instruments at
the time, but new global positioning
system (GPS) receivers are much more
precise. Sextant GPS receiver

• A pan balance, used in many stores for measuring the mass of items, is a more
precise measuring instrument than the common balance used at the market.

Pan balance

Common balance

1. Look around your classroom, home, and community for measuring instruments.
For each, describe what it measures and comment on its level of precision.

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4.1.2 EXPLORE: Measurement Error

Even when you measure an object as precisely as you can, there is some margin
of error since it is always possible to measure more precisely. When you calculate
with any measurement, the margin of error increases.
For example:
Measuring to the nearest centimetre
The rectangle below is 32 cm long × 14 cm wide, measured to the nearest
centimetre. Because the measurements are to the nearest centimetre, the actual
measurements could be anywhere from 31.5 cm × 13.5 cm to 32.5 cm × 14.5 cm
(as shown by the dashed rectangles).

32.5 cm × 14.5 cm
31.5 cm × 13.5 cm
32 cm × 14 cm

This possible range of measurements increases when you calculate the

area of the rectangle, as shown below:
Calculated area of rectangle, using 32 cm × 14 cm, is 448 cm2
Least possible area of rectangle, using 31.5 cm × 13.5 cm, is 425.25 cm2
Greatest possible area of rectangle, using 32.5 cm × 14.5 cm, is 471.25 cm2
This means the actual area could be anywhere from 425.25 cm2 to 471.25 cm2.
Expressing the margin of error as a percentage of the calculated value helps
show how significant the margin is. You can calculate the possible error as a
percent using the greatest or least possible area measurement:
471.25 cm2 – 448 cm2 § 23 cm2, which is about 5% of 448 cm2 (23 ÷ 448 § 0.05)
448 cm2 – 425.25 cm2 § 23 cm2, which is also about 5% of 448 cm2
This means the actual area could be greater or less than 448 cm2 by
about 23 cm2 or 5%.

Measuring to the nearest ten centimetres

If the rectangle had been measured to the nearest ten centimetres, the
margin of error would have been even greater:
Calculated area of rectangle, using 30 cm × 10 cm, is 300 cm2
Least possible area of rectangle, using 25 cm × 5 cm, is 125 cm2
Greatest possible area of rectangle, using 35 cm × 15 cm, is 525 cm2
This time the actual area could be greater or less than 300 cm2 by
about 225 cm2 or 75%.
• Factors other than precision play a role in affecting the margin of error,
for example, the size of the measurements and the type of calculations.

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• If you are not told to what precision a measurement is taken, you can use what
you know about significant figures and precision to make assumptions.
For example:
- If a measurement is reported to be 30 cm, you can assume, because it has
one significant figure, that it was rounded to the nearest ten centimetres.
- If a measurement is reported to be 31 cm, you can assume, because it has
two significant figures, that it was rounded to the nearest centimetre.

A. Investigate the margin of error in each measurement situation below by

finding the calculated value, the least possible value, and the greatest
possible value. Use these values to calculate the possible percent error.
Measurement to
Shape Measured dimensions
calculate
i rectangle 40 cm by 20 cm perimeter
ii rectangle 40 cm by 20 cm area
iii rectangle 140 cm by 120 cm perimeter
iv rectangle 140 cm by 120 cm area
v rectangle 42 cm by 21 cm perimeter
vi rectangle 42 cm by 21 cm area
vii rectangular prism 40 cm by 20 cm by 10 cm total surface area
viii rectangular prism 40 cm by 20 cm by 10 cm volume
ix rectangular prism 140 cm by 120 cm by 110 cm total surface area
x rectangular prism 140 cm by 120 cm by 110 cm volume
xi rectangular prism 21 cm by 31 cm by 11 cm total surface area
xii rectangular prism 21 cm by 31 cm by 11 cm volume

B. Compare your results from each of these pairs from part A to decide whether
the size of the measurements affects the margin of error. Describe your findings.
i and iii ii and iv vii and ix viii and x
C. Compare your results from each of these pairs from part A to decide whether
the level of precision affects the margin of error. Describe your findings.
i and v ii and vi vii and xi viii and xii
D. What would you consider to be a reasonable percentage of measurement
error? Explain.

Reprint 2023 114

Chapter 2 Efficient Design
4.2.1 EXPLORE: Regular Polygons with a Constant Perimeter

These instructions show how to draw an equilateral triangle

with a perimeter of 84.0 cm and then find its area:
• Calculate the side length: 84.0 ÷ 3 = 28.0 cm C
• Draw one 28.0 cm side (base) of the triangle, AB.
• Use a compass to mark vertex C, which is

24.2 cm
28.0 cm from vertex A and 28.0 cm from vertex B.
• Draw side lengths AC and BC (each 28.0 cm).
• Construct a line through C that is perpendicular to
A B
AB and use it to measure the height of the triangle. 28.0 cm
• Calculate the area of the triangle:
1 1
A= bh = (28.0)(24.2)
2 2
= 338.8 cm2
§ 339 cm2 (rounded to 3 SFs)

These instructions show how to find the area of a regular pentagon

with a perimeter of 84.0 cm:
• Calculate the side length: 84.0 ÷ 5 = 16.8 cm
• A regular pentagon is made up of five
congruent isosceles triangles, so consider
one triangle:
- The angle of the triangle that is at the centre
of the pentagon is 360º ÷ 5 = 72º and each
other angle is (180º – 72º) ÷ 2 = 54º. 72º
- Draw one 16.8 cm side of the triangle, DE,
and 54º angles on each endpoint. F

- Use the 54º angles to draw side lengths DF

11.6 cm

and EF.
- Construct a line through F perpendicular to
DE. Use it to measure the height of the triangle. 54º 54º E
D 16.8 cm
- Calculate the area of the triangle:
1 1
A= bh = (16.8)(11.6) = 97.44 cm2
2 2
• The pentagon is made up of five of these
triangles so the area of the pentagon is
5 × 97.44 = 487.2 cm2
§ 487 cm2 (rounded to 3 SFs)

Reprint 2023 115

A. Use the instructions on page 115 to find the areas of other regular
polygons, each with a perimeter of 84.0 cm. Record your results in a chart.
Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon Decagon
Polygon ...
3 sides 4 sides 5 sides 6 sides 10 sides
Area 339 cm2 487 cm2

B. Graph the information from the chart with the number of sides as
the independent variable and the area as the dependent variable.
C. What do you notice about the area, as the number of sides increases?
D. i) Use your observation in part C to predict the area of a circle with
a perimeter, or circumference, of 84.0 cm. Explain your prediction.
ii) Calculate the area of a circle with a perimeter of 84.0 cm. Was your
prediction in part D i) reasonable?

C = ʌd
2
A = ʌr

E. How is a circle like a regular polygon?

F. Do you think there is another shape with a perimeter of 84.0 cm that
has an area greater than the area of the circle? Explain.
G. What shape has the greatest area for a given perimeter?

Reprint 2023 116

4.2.2 2-D Efficiency

Try This
Seldon had to carry seven markers home. She laid them out in a row and put
an elastic around them. The elastic contracted and the pens snapped together.

A. The diameter of one marker is 6 mm. Estimate the length of the elastic
when the pens were laid out in a row.
B. After the pens were snapped together, the elastic formed a roughly-shaped
circle with a diameter of about 20 mm. Estimate the length of the elastic now.

• When you form a boundary or perimeter around an area, it is often beneficial

to enclose as much area as possible.
For example, if you have a certain amount of fencing material for a garden, you
might want to set up the fence in such a way as to maximize the area of the
garden. This is an efficient use of the fencing material because it costs less money
and takes less time to build it, and you end up with the largest garden possible.
• As a shape with a constant perimeter becomes increasingly circular, the
enclosed area increases.

If the perimeter remains constant, the area increases as the number of sides increases.
• For two-dimensional shapes, or 2-D shapes, a circle is the most efficient
shape for enclosing the maximum area for a given perimeter. This also means that
if you enclose a certain area, the shortest possible perimeter would be circular.
• You can use this knowledge about efficiency to help you compare the efficiency
of various shapes.
• For certain classifications of polygons, the shape that is most like a circle is the
most efficient shape. For example, a square is the most efficient rectangle.

Reprint 2023 117

- For rectangles with a perimeter of 20 cm, the square is the most efficient
because it has the greatest area.

2 cm A = 16 cm2 4 cm A = 24 cm2
A = 25 cm2 5 cm

8 cm
6 cm
5 cm

- For rectangles with an area of 25 cm2, the square is the most efficient
because it has the shortest perimeter.
P = 20 cm
P = 20.5 cm
P = 29 cm
2 cm 4 cm 5 cm
12.5 cm
6.25 cm
5 cm

C. How does what you observed with the elastic in parts A and B relate to
the notion of a circle being the most efficient shape?

Examples
Example 1 Comparing the Areas of Two Same-Perimeter Polygons
Both of these regular polygons have the same perimeter. Predict which polygon
encloses more area, explain your prediction, and then check your prediction.

Solution 1 Thinking
Prediction To check,
I predict the octagon will have the greater area I superimposed
because all the angles are obtuse, making it one on the other:
more circle-like than the square, which has all
90º angles. • The white area is
what they have in
Check common, so I only had
to compare the striped and
The octagon has
the greater area. grey areas.
• The striped area of the octagon
has a greater area than the grey
area of the square, so the
octagon has the greater area.

Reprint 2023 118

Solution 2 Thinking
Prediction To check, I calculated each
I think the octagon has the greater area:
area because it just looks larger • For the square, I measured
and is more circular.
one side length and squared it:
2.22 = 4.84, or 4.8 cm2
• For the octagon, I thought of it as
eight congruent triangles, found the area of
one triangle, and then multiplied by 8:
- To find the area of one triangle, I found
its base by dividing the perimeter by 8
Check
(8.8 ÷ 8 = 1.1 cm), and then measured its
The area of the square is 4.8 cm2. height, 1.3 cm. I then used the formula for
The area of the octagon is 5.7 cm2. the area of a triangle:
The octagon has the greater area. 1 1
A= bh = × 1.1 × 1.3 = 0.715 cm2
2 2
- To find the octagon’s area, I multiplied
the triangle's area by 8:
8 × 0.715 = 5.72, or 5.7 cm2

Example 2 Comparing the Areas of Two Same-Perimeter Triangles

These triangles have the same area but different perimeters.
a) Predict which triangle has the shorter perimeter. Explain your prediction.
b) Check your prediction. Show your work.

1.8 cm
Triangle 1 Triangle 2 0.9 cm

3.4 cm 6.8 cm

Solution Thinking
a) I think Triangle 1 has a shorter perimeter a) For a given
because it is more circle-like. perimeter, the more
b) P1 = 1.8 + 3.4 + 1.8 + 3.4
2 2 circular a shape, the
§ 1.8 + 3.4 + 3.8 greater the area. So it
makes sense that, for
= 9.0 cm
a given area, the more circular the
2 2
P2 = 6.8 + 0.9 + 6.8 + 0.9 shape, the shorter the perimeter.
§ 6.8 + 0.9 + 6.9
b) I used the Pythagorean theorem
= 14.6 cm
to find each hypotenuse so that
Triangle 1 has a shorter perimeter. I could calculate the perimeters.

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Practising and Applying
1. Predict which regular polygon has 5. Therchu is buying material to fence
the greater area. Check your prediction. a new garden. He buys two strands of
barbed wire and a post for every 3 m
of fence. Each post costs Nu 300 and
barbed wire costs Nu 20 per metre.
What is the shape of the largest area
Therchu can enclose if he spends
Nu 3000 on fence material? Show
your work.
4 cm 2 cm

2. Sketch two different hexagons, each

with a perimeter of 36 cm. Which has
the greater area? How do you know?

3. a) Give the dimensions of two other

non-square rectangles, each with
the same area as the one shown below
but with a shorter perimeter.
6. a) Drakpa is building a rectangular
6.0 m table with an area of 21,000 cm2.
18 m He wants to put wood trim around
the four edges. What is the shortest
b) Explain your strategy for finding length of trim he could use?
rectangles to meet the condition in b) How much less trim would he need
part a). if the table were round and the trim
was flexible?
4. a) Give the dimensions of two other
quadrilaterals, each with the same
perimeter as the one shown below but 7. A right triangle has a perimeter
with a smaller area. Only one of of 100 cm.
the quadrilaterals can be a rectangle a) What must be the length of each
and it cannot be a square. the three sides for the triangle to
have the maximum area possible?
8 cm
b) How do you know?

4 cm 8. Can two regular polygons with

different numbers of sides have the
same area and perimeter? Explain.

b) Explain your strategy for finding 9. Describe one situation when you
rectangles to meet the condition in would want to do each.
part a). a) maximize the area for a given
perimeter
b) minimize the perimeter for a given
area

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4.2.3 3-D Efficiency

Try This
A farmer plans to use some insulation panels to construct the walls of a fruit
storage room. He wants the room to store as much fruit as possible.
He considers two shapes for the room:
Option 1 a cube with edges 4.0 m long
Option 2 a rectangular prism that is 1.8 m by 2.4 m by 10.4 m

A. i) Find the total surface area of the inside walls of each room option.
ii) Find the greatest volume of fruit that can be stored in each room.
B. Which option should he choose? Explain.

• When enclosing space, it is often beneficial to have as much capacity or volume

as possible with the least total surface area.
For example, if you are manufacturing cans for canning vegetables and you want
to keep your costs down, you would want to make a can using as little metal as
possible to hold a given volume of vegetables.
• With 2-D shapes, if the perimeter remains constant but becomes increasingly
circular, the area increases. It is similar with three-dimensional shapes, or
3-D shapes — if the total surface area remains constant, the capacity or volume
increases as the shape becomes increasingly spherical.

If the total surface area remains constant, the volume/capacity increases as the shape
becomes more spherical.
• You can use this knowledge to help you compare the efficiency of shapes:
- For shapes with the same total surface area, the most spherical shape will have
the greatest capacity or volume and is therefore most efficient.
- For shapes with the same capacity or volume, the most spherical shape will have
the least total surface area and is therefore most efficient.
• When designing containers, efficiency of shape is only one consideration.
Though spherical containers use the least material, they are difficult to make and
transport, they are not practical because they roll in every direction, and they are
not efficient to pack. For this reason, cylinders and cubes make better containers.
- A cube is the most efficient rectangular prism because it is most like a sphere.
- A cylinder with a height equal to its diameter is the most efficient cylinder
because it is most like a sphere.

Reprint 2023 121

 C. Explain how you could have answered part B without calculating.

Examples
Example 1 Exploring the Efficiency of Cylinders
Determine the dimensions of the most efficient
cylindrical tin can that will hold 480 mL.

Solution Thinking
Convert capacity to volume • I expected the result would be
480 mL ĺ 480 cm3 the cylinder that looked most
like a sphere — a cylinder with
Try a diameter of 20 cm a height equal to its diameter.
r = 20 ÷ 2 = 10 cm
V = ʌr 2 h • I used trial and error and organized
480 = ʌ(10)2h my results using a chart.
480 = 314h
1.53 cm = h
• My calculations each time were basically
SA = 2ʌr 2 + 2ʌrh the same, so I only showed my work for the
= 2ʌ(10)2 + 2ʌ(10)(1.53) first trial using a diameter of 20 cm (I used
= 724 cm2 3.14 for ›).

d (cm) h (cm) SA (cm2)

• The total surface area (SA) decreased until
20.0 1.53 724
I reached a diameter of 7, so I knew the
10.0 6.11 349
diameter was greater than 7 cm.
8.0 9.55 341
7.0 12.47 351 • I tried different values for the diameter.
7.5 10.86 344 It looked like 8.5 cm was about right because
8.5 8.46 339 I tried a diameter a little larger and a little
8.4 8.66 339 smaller and the total surface area was the
8.6 8.26 339 same (after rounding).

The can should have a diameter • The can’s diameter and height are about
of 8.5 cm and a height of 8.5 cm. the same, so my conjecture was correct.

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Example 2 Exploring the Efficiency of Square-Based Prisms
A rectangular prism box has a total surface area of 1200 cm2.
What is the maximum capacity the box can hold?
Solution Thinking
• I knew the box had to be a cube
1200 cm2 ÷ 6 = 200 cm2 because it is the most efficient
rectangular prism.
e= 200 cm • To find its capacity,
- I divided the surface area by 6 to find
V = e3 = ( 200 )3
the area of each face, since a cube has
= 2828.427128 6 congruent faces.
§ 2800 cm3
- I calculated the square root of the area to find the
2800 cm3 ĺ 2800 mL edge length (e), since each face is a square.
- I cubed the edge length to find the volume (V ) ,
The box will have a since V = e3.
capacity of 2800 mL. - I converted cm3 to mL, since 1 cm3 = 1 mL.

Example 3 Calculating Total Surface Area to Volume Ratios

The surface area to volume ratio can be used to determine the most efficient shape
for a given volume or surface area.
a) Find the ratio for each cylinder below. Which is least efficient? Explain.
b) Why might this information be useful?
A B C

V = 196 cm3 V = 196 cm3 V = 196 cm3

SA = 220 cm2 SA = 190 cm2 SA = 196 cm2
Solution Thinking
a) • A smaller ratio
Cylinder SA V SA:V means that less
A 220 196 1.12 SA is required for
B 190 196 0.97 the same V.
C 196 196 1.00 • A greater ratio
means that more SA is
Cylinder A is least efficient because it has
required for the same V.
the greatest total surface area to volume ratio.
• This ratio only works for
b) A company that manufactures cylindrical
comparing efficiency of shapes
containers may want to know which dimensions
result in a container that holds the most but uses when the SA is the same or
the least material. the volume is the same.

Reprint 2023 123

Practising and Applying
1. Four cylindrical barrels each have 7. a) Determine the total surface area of
a capacity of 100 L but have different a cylinder with a diameter of 24 cm and
diameters and heights. Determine the a height of 24 cm.
height of the barrel for each diameter. 24 cm
a) 40.0 cm
b) 45.0 cm
c) 50.0 cm 24 cm

d) 55.0 cm

2. Use your results from question 1

to predict which barrel has the least b) Determine the radius of a sphere
total surface area and then explain your with the same total surface area.
prediction. Check your prediction by c) How much greater (as a percent) is
calculating the total surface areas. the volume of the sphere?

3. Which barrel from question 1 has 8. a) Determine the edge length of a

the least total surface area to volume cube with the same total surface area
ratio? How do you know? as the cylinder and the sphere in
question 7.
4. Determine the dimensions of the
most efficient square-based pyramid b) Predict how the volume of the cube
with a capacity of 320 mL. relates to the volume of the cylinder and
the sphere.
c) Calculate the volume to check your
prediction.

9. Sonam is using fabric to cover a

rectangular prism box. The box has a
volume of 0.7 m3 and the fabric costs
Nu 50 for 1 m2. What is the least it
320 mL could cost to cover the box with fabric?

5. Four square-based prisms each 10. a) Determine the volume and

have a total surface area of 96 cm2. total surface area of a cylinder with
What is the height of a prism with a diameter of 16 cm and a height
each square base? of 16 cm.
a) 3.0 cm × 3.0 cm b) Determine the total surface area of
a sphere with the same volume.
b) 4.0 cm × 4.0 cm
c) 5.0 cm × 5.0 cm c) Which shape has the lesser total
surface area to volume ratio?
d) 6.0 cm × 6.0 cm
d) Why might you have predicted this?

11. Explain how the total surface area to

volume ratio can be used to compare the
efficiency of shapes.

Reprint 2023 124

CONNECTIONS: Animal Shapes and Sizes

Animals have many different shapes and sizes for many reasons. For example,
the shape and size of an animal significantly affects the kinds of conditions in which
it can survive. If an animal has a large volume and a small total surface area, it can
maintain its body temperature relatively well because there is less total surface area
for body heat to escape through.
You have explored how more spherical shapes are more efficient. This helps
explain why in colder regions we find more rounded or spherical animals (such as
the yak) and in hotter regions we find animals that are thinner (such as the impala,
an African animal, which is shown here).

Rounded shapes keep animals like yaks warm; thin shapes keep animals like impalas cool
Of course, there are other features of
animals that help with temperature. Hair
helps insulate. Wrinkles or extra skin
can add surface area to round animals
living in hot temperatures, for example,
elephants.
Size is another feature that influences
the ratio between total surface area and
volume. In two animals that have the
same shape, the total surface area to
volume ratio is greater in the smaller
animal, thus making the smaller animal Baby elephants have a greater SA to V ratio
more vulnerable to losing its body heat.
4 3
Recall the surface area and volume formulas for a sphere, SA = 4ʌr 2 and V = ʌr .
3
1. Experiment with the effect of size on the ratio of total surface area to volume
by comparing different spheres. Find the total surface area and volume for the
spheres described in the chart and then calculate the ratio.
Radius (cm) 20.0 cm 10.0 cm 5.0 cm 2.0 cm 1.0 cm 0.5 cm
2
Total surface area (cm )
Volume (cm3)
Total surface area ÷
volume (SA:V ratio)

2. Complete a similar chart for cubes using edge length instead of radius.

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UNIT 4 Revision

1. How many significant figures are in 7. Without measuring, predict which of

each number? these shapes with the same area would
a) 4.7 × 102 b) 0.05000 c) 4.03 have the shortest perimeter. Explain.

2. Write a number for each.

a) less than 100 with 3 SFs
b) greater than 1 million with 2 SFs 8. a) Determine the area of an
c) less than 0.5 with 4 SFs equilateral triangle with perimeter 24 cm.
b) Determine the area of a square with
3. Dawa says his mass is 70 kg. Nima
perimeter 24 cm.
claims to weigh 67 kg. Can Nima
conclude that he is lighter than Dawa? c) Explain why the area of one shape
Explain. Explain using the concepts of in parts a) and b) is greater than
precision and accuracy in your the other.
explanation. d) Describe another shape with a
perimeter of 24 cm, but with an area
4. Meto measured the side of a triangle greater than either the square or
to be 73 cm using a metre stick that the triangle.
measures to the nearest centimetre.
a) If she had used a metre stick that 9. It costs Nu 20 for each metre of
measured to the nearest 10 cm, what border edge for a rectangular area.
might she have found the length to be? What is the greatest area Chencho can
enclose by spending Nu 4500?
b) If she had used a metre stick that
measured to the nearest millimetre, 10. Four cylinders each have a total
what might she have found the length surface area of 180 cm2 but different
to be? dimensions. Determine the height of
the cylinder with each diameter.
5. You are told that a rectangle has
measurements of 20 cm by 34 cm. a) 5.0 cm b) 6.0 cm
a) Why is the area not likely to be c) 7.0 cm d) 8.0 cm
exactly 680 cm2?
11. Use your results from question 10
b) What is the least area the rectangle to predict which cylinder has the
could have if the measurements are greatest volume. Explain your
accurate? prediction. Calculate the volumes
c) What is the greatest area the to check your prediction.
rectangle could have if the
measurements are accurate? 12. a) Determine the volume of a
sphere with a diameter of 1.30 m.
6. Without measuring, predict which of b) Determine the dimensions of a cube
these shapes with the same perimeter with the same volume as the sphere.
would have the greatest area. Explain.
c) Predict which of the above shapes
has the greater total surface area.
Explain your prediction.
d) Calculate the total surface areas
to check your prediction.

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UNIT 5 NON-LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Getting Started

Use What You Know

Imagine joining cubes to create square walls of various sizes and then
painting the outside surface of each wall, including the bottom.
1-cube 2-cube 3-cube
high wall high wall high wall

6 painted 16 painted 30 painted

cube faces cube faces cube faces

A. Complete a table of values to show the area of the painted surface for
each wall up to a 5-cube high wall.
Height of wall Area of painted surface
(number of (number of painted
cubes) cube faces)

B. i) Calculate the first and second differences for the values in the table.
ii) How can you tell from the table that there is a quadratic relationship
between the area of the painted surface and the height of the wall?
C. i) Write an equation that describes the relationship in part B ii).
ii) How can you tell from the equation that it is a quadratic relationship?

Skills You Will Need A

1. Which of the graphs to the right, A, B, or C, y
represents a quadratic relation?
How do you know?

Reprint 2023 127

2. Use f(x) = 3x + 2 to determine each.
a) f(–3) b) –3f(x)
c) f(x) + 2 d) f(x + 2)

3. Solve each equation.

a) 2x – 8 = 0
b) 2x + 3 = 7
c) 3 – 4x = 5 + 3x

4. Determine the image of the point (2, –3) after each transformation.
a) (x, y) → (x, –y)
b) (x, y) → (x + 2, y + 1)
c) (x, y) → (2x, y)
1
d) (x, y) → ( x, y)
2

5. a) Write the polynomial multiplication represented Recall

by the algebra tile diagram below.

x2 –x2

x –x 1 –1
b) Write the polynomial product in simplified form.

6. Multiply.
a) (x + 3)(x + 4)
b) (2x + 3)(3x + 2)
c) (4 – x)(5 – x)
d) (5 – 2x)(3x + 1)

7. Determine each quotient.

a) (6y + 2y2) ÷ 2y
b) (x2 + 7x + 10) ÷ (x + 2)

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Chapter 1 Graphing Functions
5.1.1 Forms of Quadratic Functions

Try This
Choki has 100 m of bamboo fencing to enclose a rectangular area for her goats.
50 – w

A. If w represents the width of the pen,

why does 50 – w represent the length?
B. Write an equation to represent the w
area of Choki's goat pen in terms of
its width.

• A quadratic function is any function that can be expressed using a degree 2

single-variable polynomial. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.
• Quadratic functions may be written in different forms:
In standard form, the degree 2 polynomial can
Standard form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c have one, two, or three terms. For example:
2x2 + 4x + 1 x2 + x – 2 0.5x2 + 3x 3x2
Factored form is only possible if the degree 2
polynomial can be written as the product of two
linear factors. Sometimes they are multiplied
Factored form f(x) = a(x – p)(x – q) by a constant. For example:
( x + 2)( x − 1)
(x – 1)(x + 2) x(x – 3)
5
In vertex form, the degree 2 polynomial is
written as the square of a linear term with
Vertex form f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k an x-coefficient of 1. It can be multiplied by
a constant and/or added to another constant.
For example:
(x – 2)2 + 3 (x – 1)2 – 1 3(x – 2)2 (x – 3)2
If a = 0, the function is not quadratic; if b or c = 0 the function can still be quadratic.
• Equivalent functions produce the same output value for every input value.
You can prove that two functions, f(x) and g(x), are equivalent by
- showing their graphs are identical
- showing that the algebraic expression for f(x) is equivalent to the algebraic
expression for g(x)
You can prove that two functions, f(x) and g(x), are not equivalent by finding
at least one value of x for which f(x)  g(x).

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• To move from vertex or factored form to standard form, you can expand.
For example:
3(x – 2)2 – 7 can be expanded to 3(x2 – 4x + 4) – 7 and then 3x2 – 12x + 5.
4(x + 2)(x – 6) can be expanded to 4x2 – 16x – 48.
Later in the unit you will see how to move from standard form to factored form.
• A quadratic function can be graphed by creating a table of values, plotting the
ordered pairs, and then sketching the curve formed by plotted points. Knowing
that the function is quadratic and that the curve will be a parabola allows you to
sketch relatively few values and still have a sense of what the graph looks like.
Here are a table of values and graph for y = 3x2 – 2x + 6:

x f(x)
–1 11
0 6
1 7
2 14

The vertex of this

parabola is the
function's minimum
value. For a parabola
Vertex
that opens downward,
the vertex is the
maximum value.

The vertex is the point where the parabola changes direction.

• It is possible for two quadratic functions that are not equivalent to have the same
output value for one or two input values. However, once they have the same
output value for at least three inputs, they must be equivalent. For example:
For x = 0 and x = 1, f(x) = 3x2 + x + 2 and g(x) = 4x2 + 2 have the same values:
f(x) = 3x2 + x + 2 ĺ f(0) = 3(0)2 + 0 + 2 = 2
f(1) = 3(1)2 + 1 + 2 = 6
g(x) = 4x2 + 2 ĺ g(0) = 4(0)2 + 2 = 2
g(1) = 4(1)2 + 2 = 6
But for x = 2, the values are different; f(2) = 16 and g(2) = 18.
Therefore, f(x) and g(x) are not equivalent.

C. How do you know from the equation in part B that the function that relates
the area of the goat pen and its width is quadratic?
D. i) Use the equation from part B to complete a table of values that shows
the area for goat pens of width 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, and 25 m.
ii) Describe what you think the graph of the function will look like.

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Examples
Example 1 Determining Equivalent Functions
a) How do you know the equations below are functions?
b) Which functions are equivalent?
f(x) = 2x2 + 4x – 6 g(x) = 2(x – 1)(x + 3) h(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3
a) Solution Thinking
2
• The expression in f(x) = 2x + 4x – 6 is in • I knew if I
ax2 + bx + c form, or standard form for a function. expanded the
• The expression in g(x) = 2(x – 1)(x + 3) is equal expressions in
to 2x2 + 4x – 6 but it is in factored form. the second and
• The expression in h(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3 is equal third functions,
to 2x2 + 4x – 6 but it is in vertex form. they'd be in standard form too.
b) Solution 1 Thinking
Evaluate each for x = 1 • I found the
f(x) = 2x2 + 4x – 6 ĺ f(1) = 2(1)2 + 4(1) – 6 value of each for
= 2+4–6 x = 1 to do a
= 0 quick check —
g(x) = 2(x – 1)(x + 3) ĺ g(1) = 2(1 – 1)(1 + 3) if the values
= 2(0)(4) were different, the functions
= 0 couldn't be equivalent.

h(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3 ĺ h(1) = 2(1 + 1)2 – 3 • Since h (1)  f (1) or g (1),
= 2(2)2 – 3 I knew that h (x)  f (x) or
= 8–3 g (x). Since f (1) = g (1), I knew
= 5 I needed to check further.
Evaluate f(x) and g(x) for x = 0 and x = 2
x f(x) g(x) • I needed to check only three
1 0 0 values to be sure f (x) and g (x)
0 –6 –6 were equivalent, so I tried two
2 10 10 more, x = 0 and x = 2.

f(x) and g(x) are equivalent.

b) Solution 2 Thinking
f(x) = 2x2 + 4x – 6 I knew if I
2
g(x) = 2(x – 1)(x + 3) = 2(x – x + 3x – 3) changed the
= 2(x2 + 2x – 3) expressions for
= 2x2 + 4x – 6 g (x) and h (x) to
standard form,
h(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3 = 2(x + 1)(x + 1) – 3
I could compare them with
= 2(x2 + 2x + 1) – 3
the expression in f (x) to see
= 2x2 + 4x + 2 – 3
if they were the same —
= 2x2 + 4x – 1
g (x) and f (x) were the same.
g(x) and f(x) are equivalent.

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Example 1 Determining Equivalent Functions [Continued]
b) Solution 3 Thinking
2
The graph of f(x) = 2x + 4x – 6 • I knew that if the graphs
y of the functions are the
2
y = 2x + 4x – 6 same, they are equivalent,
so I graphed the three
functions.
x • When you graph a function, you usually
use y instead of f (x) for the equation
and vertical axis.

• The graphs of f (x) and g (x) were the

same because they shared three points
— they had the same y -intercept and
The graph of g(x) = 2(x – 1)(x + 3)
the same two x -intercepts, so I knew
y f (x) and g (x) were equivalent.
y = 2(x – 1)(x + 3)

The graph of h(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3

y • The graph of h (x) had the same shape
as the graphs of f (x) and g (x) but it
was shifted up 5 units — the vertex
moved from –8 to –3. That meant that
x h (x)  f (x) or g (x).

y = 2(x + 1)2 – 3

f(x) and g(x) are equivalent functions.

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Example 2 Using a Quadratic Function and Its Graph to Solve a Problem
Karma has 25 m of fencing to enclose
a garden. Since the garden is next to his
house, he needs to fence only three of its sides.
About how wide should his garden be, if he
wants the fence to enclose the greatest area
possible? Estimate the area.

Solution Thinking
Create a function • I drew a diagram
If he has 25 m of fencing for three sides: to represent and
2 widths and 1 length, then 2w + l = 25. better understand
If 2w + l = 25, then l = 25 – 2w. the problem
situation.
No fence
• I realized if I created a
function that related the area
w
to the width and then graphed
it, the parabola's vertex would
represent the maximum area.
25 – 2w • I used the algebraic
Since A = w × l, then A = w(25 – 2w), or expressions for the length and
a(w) = w(25 – 2w), in function notation. width to write the area as a
function of the width.
Graph the function
• I created a table of values for
y Vertex, or several values of w and then
maximum value
plotted the ordered pairs to
create the parabola.
• The vertex was halfway
between 5 m and 7.5 m on
the w -axis, or about 6.3 m.
It was a bit greater than 78 m2
on the y -axis, or about 80 m2.

y = w(25 – 2w)

A width of about 6.3 m results in the greatest

area possible, which is about 80 m2.

Reprint 2023 133

Practising and Applying
1. Which functions are quadratic? 7. a) Sketch a graph to represent the
A f(x) = 2x – x 2 relationship between the width and area
of Choki’s goat pen from the Try This.
B f(x) = 3(x – 5)2
b) How could you use the graph to
C f(x) = –3x + 2 determine the dimensions of the pen
D f(x) = –2(x + 1) + 3 that would enclose the greatest area?
c) What are the dimensions that
E f(x) = 3(x – 2)(x + 2)
enclose the greatest area? Explain.
F f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1
8. Deki sells flour. If she sells 1 kg for
2. a) Create a table of values for both Nu 20, she expects to sell about 50 kg
functions. per day. For every increase in price of
f(x) = (x + 3)2 g(x) = x2 + 6x + 9 Nu 1, she expects her daily sales to
decrease by about 1 kg.
b) Explain how the table shows that
a) Write an algebraic expression to
the functions are equivalent.
i) represent the price of each kilogram,
3. a) Evaluate g(x) and h(x) to show if Deki increases the price by Nu x.
that they are not equivalent. ii) represent the number of kilograms
Deki expects to sell for each price
f(x) = 3(x + 3)(x – 1) increase of Nu x.
g(x) = 3x2 + 6x – 12 b) Use your answers from part a) to
h(x) = 3(x + 1)2 – 12 write a function representing Deki's total
b) Express f(x) and h(x) in standard sales for each price increase of Nu x.
form to show that they are equivalent. c) Sketch the graph of the function
from part b).
4. a) Sketch the graph of the function d) Use your graph to estimate the price
f(x) = 3x2 + 6x – 2. that will result in the greatest daily sales
b) Estimate the coordinates of the and the total daily sales at this price.
vertex. Is it the minimum or maximum
value of the function?
c) Estimate the x-intercepts and the
y-intercept.

5. Determine if f(x), g(x), and h(x) are

equivalent by graphing.
f(x) = –(x + 1)(x – 3)
g(x) = –x2 + 2x + 3
h(x) = –(x –1)2 + 4

9. Two linear functions are equivalent if

they have the same output value for two
input values. Use an example to show
why two quadratic functions need to
have the same output value for three
input values to be equivalent.

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5.1.2 Graphs of Quadratic Functions in Factored Form

Try This
The diagram below shows Choki's goat pen from lesson 5.1.1. For question 7
on page 134, you sketched a graph of the function a(w) = –w2 + 50w to determine
the maximum area Choki could enclose with 100 m of fencing. The graph also
provides information about the pen's area and dimensions for other conditions.
50 – w
A. Which ordered pair on the graph
represents each?
i) a pen with a width of 0 m
ii) a pen with an area of 0 m2 w

iii) a pen with the maximum possible area

• When a quadratic function is in Axis of symmetry is perpendicular to the

factored form, the factors can be used x-axis and travels through the vertex
to determine the x-intercepts.
- The zeros of the function f(x) are
the x-intercepts, that is, the two
possible values of x when f(x) = 0.
- For a function in factored form, that is
f(x) = a(x – p)(x – q), 0 = a(x – p)(x – q).
Since a  0 (or it would not be a
quadratic function), either x – p = 0 or
(p, 0)
x – q = 0. That means x is either p or q
Coordinates
and the coordinates of the x-intercepts of x-intercept
are (p, 0) and (q, 0).
• You can use the x-intercepts or zeros
to determine the coordinates of the
parabola's vertex. (q, 0)
Coordinates (0, apq)
- The vertex of a parabola is on the of x-intercept Coordinates
parabola’s axis of symmetry, which is of y-intercept
located mid-way between the two
x-intercepts. That means the
x-coordinate of the vertex is mid-way p+q
p+q x-coordinate of vertex
between the zeros, p and q, at . 2
2
- Once you know the value of the x-coordinate of the vertex, you can substitute
that value into the function to determine its y-coordinate.
• You can determine the coordinates of the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 into
the function: f(x) = a(x – p)(x – q), f(0) = a(0 – p)(0 – q) = a(–p)(–q) = apq.

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B. The function a(w) = –w2 + 50w is a(w) = w(50 – w) in factored form.
Use the factored form of the function to determine the coordinates of each.
i) the x-intercepts ii) the vertex iii) the y-intercept

Examples
Example 1 Sketching the Graph of a Quadratic Function in Factored Form
1
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = (x – 4)(x + 2).
2
Solution Thinking
Determine the zeros, or x-intercepts • I knew if I determined
1 the two x -intercepts or
f(x) = (x – 4)(x + 2)
2 zeros, I could use them
1
0 = (x – 4)(x + 2) to figure out the
2 coordinates of the
x – 4 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, so x = 4 or –2 vertex. That would give me three
The coordinates of the x-intercepts are points to plot and connect to make
(4, 0) and (–2, 0).
a parabola.
Determine the coordinates of the vertex
• The x -coordinate of the vertex is
−2 + 4
x-coordinate: =1 midway between the x -coordinates of
2
1 −9
the x -intercepts, so I just calculated
y-coordinate: f(1) = (1 – 4)(1 + 2) = the mean of the two zeros.
2 2
−9
The coordinates of the vertex are (1, ).
2

Determine the coordinates of the y-intercept • I realized I could also figure out a
fourth point to help with the graph —
x-coordinate: 0
the y-intercept.
1
y-coordinate: f(0) = (0 – 4)(0 + 2) = –4
2
The coordinates of the y-intercept are (0, –4).
Plot the four points and sketch the parabola

1
y= (x – 4)(x + 2)
2

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Example 2 Using the Coordinates of the Vertex to Solve a Problem
In lesson 5.1.1 on page 133, Karma wanted to No fence
enclose a garden on three sides using 25 m of
fencing. To estimate the maximum possible w
area and width at that area, the graph of the
function a(w) = w(25 – 2w) was sketched.
What are the exact maximum area and width?
25 – 2w
Solution Thinking
Determine the zeros • The graph of the
a(w) = w(25 – 2w) ĺ 0 = w(25 – 2w) function was a
1 parabola that opened
w = 0 or 25 – 2w = 0, so w = 0 or 12
2 downward, so I knew
Determine the coordinates of the vertex its vertex was a
1 maximum value.
12 + 0
1 2 • I knew the coordinates of the
If w = 0 or 12 , the w-coordinate =
2 2 vertex represented the maximum
1
=6 area and the width at that area.
4
1 • I was able to figure out the
If the w-coordinate is 6 , the y-coordinate is exact coordinates, by finding the
4
1 1 1 1 1 zeros and using them to calculate
a(6 ) = 6 × (25 – 2 × 6 ) = 6 × 12
4 4 4 4 2 the coordinates.
1
= 78
8
1 1
The coordinates are (6 m, 78 m2).
4 8

Compare answer with the estimate • I checked my answer by

Estimate: (6.3, 80) comparing it to my previous
a
The maximum estimate of 6.3 m and 80 m2
1 from the graph. My answer of
area is 78 m2
8 1 1
6 m and 78 m2 seemed
and the width at 4 8
1 reasonable.
that area is 6 m.
4

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Practising and Applying
1. a) State the zeros and y-intercept for 3. b) Write a function to represent the
the graph of each quadratic function. expected weekly sales as a function of
i) f(x) = (x + 2)(x – 3) the number of price increases of Nu 40.
ii) f(x) = (x – 5)(x + 5) c) Use the function to determine
the price that will maximize total sales.
iii) f(x) = (2x + 3)(4x + 2)
d) Sketch the graph of the function
iv) f(x) = 3(x – 2)(x + 2)
to see if your answer is reasonable.
v) f(x) = –2(x + 1)(x + 2)
b) Write the coordinates of the vertex 4. Sonam wants to fence a playground
for each function in part a). next to the school and to build a
c) Sketch each parabola in part a) dividing fence to make separate play
using the information from parts a) areas for younger and older students.
and b). The budget allows for 210 m of fencing.
School
2. In order to graph the function f(x), No fence on this side
Mindu factored f(x) as shown below:
f(x) = 2x2 + 10x – 12 = 2(x – 1)(x + 6)
a) How do you know that
2x2 + 10x – 12 = 2(x – 1)(x + 6)?
b) Why would Mindu do this before
graphing the function?
c) Sketch the graph of the function.
a) Write a function that represents
the total area of the playground as
3. A store sells about 30 ghos each
a function of its width.
week for Nu 800 each. The owner
expects to lose one sale each week b) Determine the width that will result in
for every increase in price of Nu 40. the maximum total area that can be
enclosed using 210 m of fencing.
Sketch the graph of the function to see
if your answer is reasonable.

5. A store sells an average of 100 kg of

carrots weekly at Nu 50/kg. For every
increase of Nu 5/kg, the manager
expects his sales to decrease by 2 kg.
Write a function that could be used to
determine the price per kilogram that
would result in the greatest total weekly
sales.

6. Why is the x-coordinate of the vertex

of a parabola the mean of the zeros of
a) Write an expression to represent the the function?
i) new price of a gho after n Nu 40 price
increases.
ii) expected number of ghos that will be
sold weekly after n price increases.

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5.1.3 EXPLORE: Transforming Quadratic Function Graphs

The graph of every quadratic function is a parabola. Particular changes to the

algebraic expression that defines the function result in corresponding changes to
the size, shape, position on the grid, and direction of opening of the parabola.

A. i) Draw x- and y-axes on grid paper: y

ii) Prepare a table of values for the
function f(x) = x2. Use x-values of
–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, and 3.
(Allow room for three more columns to
be added in part B.)
x
iii) Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 (which
should look like the graph shown here).
The graph of f(x) = x2

B. i) Add columns to your table from part A to display values for g(x), h(x), and i(x)
for the same values of x you used for f(x). Sketch each graph on your grid.
1 2
x f(x) = x2 g(x) = 2x2 h(x) = –2x2, i(x) = x
2
–3
–2
–1
0

ii) How do the values in the table explain how the graphs of g(x), h(x), and i(x)
compare to the graph of f(x)?
iii) Why might someone call the functions g(x) and i(x) dilatations of f(x)?
Why might someone call h(x) a dilatation and a reflection of f(x)?

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C. i) Complete a table of values for the functions shown below. (Use the values
in your table from part A for f(x) to complete the second column of the table.)
Then sketch the graphs of all five functions on the same grid.
x f(x) = x2 f(x – 1) f(x – 2) f(x + 1) f(x + 2)
–3
–2
–1
0

ii) What transformation would have to be applied to the graph of f(x) to result in
each of the other graphs?
iii) How could you have used the values in the table to predict the size and
direction of the transformation?
iv) Suppose you replaced x with x – 1, x – 2, x + 1, and x + 2 for the functions
g(x), h(x), and i(x) and graphed the new functions. For example:
g(x) = 2x2 ĺ g(x – 1) = 2(x – 1)2 g(x) = 2x2 ĺ g(x – 2) = 2(x – 2)2
Without graphing, describe in general how the new graphs would compare to
the graphs of the original functions.
D. i) Complete a table of values for the functions shown below and then sketch
the graphs of all five functions on the same grid.
x f(x) = x2 f(x) – 1 f(x) – 2 f(x) + 1 f(x) + 2
–3
–2
–1
0

ii) Repeat ii) and iii) from part C for the functions you graphed in part D i).
iii) Suppose you changed each function g(x), h(x), and i(x) in the same way as
f(x) was changed in part D i) and graphed the new functions. For example:
g(x) = x2 ĺ g(x) = x2 – 1 g(x) = x2 ĺ g(x) = x2 – 2
Without graphing, describe in general how the new graphs would compare to
the graphs of the original functions.
E. Sketch the graphs of the functions below using what you learned in parts B,
C, and D. Which functions would you call negative dilatations?
1 2 1 1 1
f(x) = x2 g(x) = x h(x) = – x2 i(x) = – (x – 4)2 j(x) = – (x – 4)2 + 5
2 2 2 2

F. What transformations are involved in transforming the graph of f(x) = x2 to the

1
graph of g(x) = – (x – 4)2 + 5? How do you know?
2

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5.1.4 Relating Graphs of Quadratic Functions

Try This
The height of a football kicked into the air is represented by the quadratic
function h(t) = –5(t – 2)2 + 20, where t represents the time in seconds the
ball is in the air and h represents the height of the ball in metres.
A. Use the graph of h(t) = –5(t – 2)2 + 20 below to estimate each.
i) The amount of time the ball was in the air
ii) The maximum height reached by the ball
iii) The time at which the ball reached its maximum height
Height of Kicked Football Over Time

h = –5(t – 2)2 + 20
Height (m)

Time (s)

• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The parabola's size, shape,

position on the grid, and direction of opening are the result of applying one or
more transformations to the graph of the function f(x) = x2.
• A transformation can be represented using mapping notation, which describes
what happens to the coordinates of each point on the graph as a result of the
transformation. It gives you a "map" of where each point moves.
Horizontal translations
Transformation in y
Function
mapping notation h>0
f(x) = (x – h)2 (x, y) ĺ (x + h, y)
y = x2
• When h < 0, for example,
y = (x – (–5))2 or y = (x + 5)2, h<0
the parabola is translated left h units.
• When h > 0, for example,
y = (x – (+5))2 or y = (x – 5)2, x
the parabola is translated right h units.
f(x) = (x – h)2

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Vertical translations
y
Transformation in
Function
mapping notation
v>0
f(x) = x2 + v (x, y) ĺ (x, y + v)
• When v > 0, for example, y = x2 + 5,
y = x2
the parabola is translated up v units.
• When v < 0, for example, y = x2 – 5,
v<0
the parabola is translated down v units
x

f(x) = x2 + v
Vertical stretches and compressions (dilatations)
Transformation in
Function
mapping notation
f(x) = ax2 (x, y) ĺ (x, ay) y
y = x2
When a > 0
1
• When 0 < a < 1, for example, y = x2, 0<a<1
2
the parabola is compressed vertically.
a>1
• When a > 1, for example, y = 2x2,
the parabola is stretched vertically.
These are called vertical compressions
x
and vertical stretches because only
the y-coordinate of each point on the
parabola is affected.
a<0
When a < 0
• When a = –1, for example, y = –x2,
the parabola is reflected in the x-axis.
f(x) = ax2
1 2
• When –1 < a < 0, for example, y = – x ,
2
the parabola is reflected in the x-axis
and compressed vertically.
• When a < –1, for example, y = –2x2,
the parabola is reflected in the x-axis
and stretched vertically.
These are called negative dilatations
because the negative value of a changes
the y-coordinate of every point on the
parabola to its opposite value, resulting in
a reflection in the x-axis.

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• When you apply a composite transformation to the graph of y = x2, you have
some choice about the order in which you apply the separate transformations.
y = x2
One possible sequence of transformations that
will change the graph of f(x) = x2 to the graph of A
f(x) = a(x – h)2 + v is described below:
A. A vertical stretch or compression (dilatation), B
with a reflection in the x-axis if a < 0:
(x, y) → (x, ay) y = ax2
B. A horizontal translation:
(x, y) → (x + h, ay) y = a(x – h)2
C. A vertical translation:
(x, y) → (x + h, ay + v) y = a(x – h)2 + v

Other possible orders are A, C, B and B, A, C. C

Note that C, A, B or B, C, A will not work since both result in a different parabola.
This is because C, the vertical translation, is supposed to define the final location
of each point on the parabola. The y-intercept should end up at (0, c), but if A, the
dilatation, follows C, the y-intercept will end up at (0, ac) instead.
The horizontal translation can be done before or after the vertical dilatation
(B, A, C or A, B, C) and before or after the vertical translation (A, B, C or A, C, B).
This is because the horizontal translation (B) affects only the x-coordinates and
the two vertical transformations (A and C) affect only the y-coordinates.

B. Examine the equation of the function h(t) = –5(t – 2)2 + 20.

i) Which transformation(s) would change the graph of h = t2 to the graph of
h = –5(t – 2)2 + 20? How do you know?
ii) How can you predict the coordinates of the vertex of the graph of
h = –5(t – 2)2 + 20 by examining the equation?

h = t2
h = –5(t – 2)2 + 20
Height (m)

Time (seconds)

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Examples
Example 1 Transforming the Graph of y = x2 to Sketch Another Graph
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = –3(x + 4)2 + 3.
Solution Thinking
Use the equation to determine the transformations I began
2
y = –3(x + 4) + 3 Horizontal translation left 4 units: with the
A
or –3(x – (–4)) + 3 (x, y) ĺ (x – 4, y)
2
graph of
Reflection in the x-axis and a y = x 2 and
B y = –3(x + 4)2 + 3 vertical stretch by 3: applied the
(x, y) ĺ (x, –3y) transformations as
C y = –3(x + 4) + 3
2 Vertical translation up 3 units: shown by the equation
(x, y) ĺ (x, y + 3) one at a time.

Composite transformation: (x, y) ĺ (x – 4, –3y + 3) • I could follow the

order B, C, A or B, A, C,
Apply each transformation to y = x2 as long as C followed B.
A. Horizontal translation left 4 units: (x, y) ĺ (x – 4, y)
A. I sketched y = x 2 by
y
plotting several points
and then sketching
a parabola through
the points. I then
translated each of
y = x2 those points using the
mapping to plot points
y = (x + 4)2 for y = (x + 4)2. I then
x sketched the parabola.

B. Reflection in the x-axis and a vertical stretch by 3: B. I dilatated the

(x, y) ĺ (x, –3y) plotted points on the
y graph of y = (x + 4)2,
using the mapping, to
plot points for the
graph of y = –3(x + 4)2.
I then sketched the
parabola.
y = (x + 4)2

y = –3(x + 4)2

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C. Vertical translation up 3 units: (x, y) ĺ (x, y + 3) C. I translated the
y plotted points on the
graph of y = –3(x + 4)2,
using the mapping, to
plot points for the graph
of y = –3(x + 4)2 + 3.
y = –3(x + 4)2 + 3 I then sketched the
parabola.

y = –3(x + 4)2
• I checked three of the
plotted points on the
Check points on final parabola final parabola, using the
mapping for the
(x, y) ĺ (x – 4, –3y + 3)
composite
(0, 0) ĺ (–4, 3) (1, 1) ĺ (–3, 0) (2, 4) ĺ (–2, –9) transformation.

Example 2 Determining the Equation of a Function from Its Graph

Determine the equation of this parabola.

Solution 1 Thinking
Determine the translations • I compared the
The vertex of y = x2 is (0, 0) and the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola is (4, 10), so the vertices of y = x2 and the
coordinates of the vertex moved 4 units parabola to determine
right and 10 units up:
the vertical and
(x, y) → (x + 4, y + 10) horizontal translations.
The equation so far is y = a(x – 4)2 + 10. • I used that information to begin
[Continued] writing an equation.

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Example 2 Determining the Equation of a Function from Its Graph [Cont'd]
Solution 1 [Continued] Thinking
Determine the dilatation factor, a • I compared the
If you move 1 unit right (or left) from the vertex points that were
of y = x2, the corresponding point is 1 unit up. one unit to the
right of the
vertex on both
y = x 2 and on the parabola
to determine the dilatation
If you move 1 unit right (or left) from the parabola's factor.
1
vertex, the corresponding point is unit down.
2

• Because the parabola was

upside down compared to
That means the parabola is compressed by
1 the graph of y = x 2, I knew
2 a reflection in the x-axis was
and reflected in the x-axis. involved.
1
The equation is y = – (x – 4)2 + 10.
2
Solution 2 Thinking
Determine the translations • I compared the
Since (0, 0) → (4, 10), then (x, y) → (x + 4, y + 10). coordinates of
The equation so far is y = a(x – 4)2 + 10. the vertex of
y = x 2 to the
Determine the dilatation factor, a coordinates of
The point (0, 2) is on the parabola. the vertex of the parabola to
Substitute x = 0 and y = 2 into y = a(x – 4)2 + 10 determine the translations and
and then solve for a: write an initial equation.
2 = a(0 – 4)2 + 10 • I substituted the values from
2 = 16a + 10 a point that I knew was on the
–8 = 16a parabola into the equation to
–
1
=a figure out the value of a.
2
1
The equation is y = – (x – 4)2 + 10.
2
Check • I knew the equation worked
1 for (0, 2) and (4, 10), so I tried
2 = – (8 – 4)2 + 10
2 a third point, (8, 2), in the
1 equation to check.
2 = – (16) + 10
2
2 = –8 + 10

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Practising and Applying
1. a) What are the coordinates of the 3. Determine the equation of the
vertex for the graph of each function? parabola.
i) f(x) = x2 + 4
ii) f(x) = (x – 8)2
iii) f(x) = (x – 3)2 – 2
iv) f(x) = –2(x + 1)2 – 1
1
v) f(x) = (x – 1)2 + 1
5
1
vi) f(x) = – (x – 2)2 + 2
5

b) For each function in part a), indicate

• the direction the parabola opens
• the dilatation factor compared to the
graph of y = x2, if applicable

c) Sketch the graph of each function

in part a).
4. a) Why can a reflection in the x-axis
2. Determine the equation of the also be called a negative dilatation?
parabola that would result from b) Why is a dilatation by a factor of 2
applying each transformation or called a vertical stretch?
composite transformation to the
graph of y = x2.
5. f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k is called the vertex
a) (x, y) → (x + 4, y) form of a quadratic function. Why is that
1 an appropriate name? Use an example
b) (x, y) → (x, – y ) to support your explanation.
2
c) (x, y) → (x – 4, y – 3)
1
d) (x, y) → (x + 4, y)
4
e) (x, y) → (x + 4, –5y)
f) (x, y) → (x + 4, –3y + 6)

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CONNECTIONS: Parabolas and Paper Folding

You can make multiple folds in a piece of paper to create a parabola.

A. Draw a coordinate grid.
B. Choose a point on the y-axis. Label it “Focus”. Draw a horizontal line on the
other side of the x-axis from the Focus.
C. Mark a point on the line you drew in step B and then fold the paper so that
the point folds onto the Focus point.

D. Mark another point on the line and fold it onto the Focus point. Repeat this
several times. You should notice that the fold lines begin to form a parabola.

1. How does the position of the y

vertex of the parabola relate to
the position of the Focus point
you chose in step A and the line
you drew in step B?
2. Investigate other positions for
the Focus and the line. Try
x
• locating them farther apart
• locating the Focus and line so
they are different distances from
the x-axis
• moving the Focus away from
the y-axis
What happens to the parabola
each time?

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5.1.5 EXPLORE: The Absolute Value Function

The absolute value of a number x, |x|, is the value of x without regard to its sign.
You can think of |x| as the distance that x or –x lies from 0 on a number line,
regardless of the direction. |x| |x|

–x 0 x

This table shows some sample values.

x 0 1.5 –1.5 5 –5
|x| |0| = 0 |1.5| = 1.5 |–1.5| = 1.5 |5| = 5 |–5| = 5

An absolute value function y

involves absolute values,
for example, f(x) = |x|.
The graph of f(x) = |x| has the
shape of two lines meeting to
form a symmetrical “V” with the
y-axis as the line of reflection. x

The graph of y = |x|

A. Why is the graph of f(x) = |x| symmetrical about the y-axis?

B. Create a table of values for each function and then graph the function.
a) f(x) = f(x – 1) b) f(x) = f(x + 1) c) f(x) = f(x) – 1
d) f(x) = f(x) + 1 e) f(x) = –f(x) f) f(x) = 2f(x)

C. Use mapping notation to describe a single transformation that would change

the graph of f(x) = |x| to each graph in part B. For example:
(x, y) ĺ (x + 5, y) would change f(x) = |x| to g(x) = f(x – 5).

D. Use what you know about transforming graphs of a quadratic function

to predict the series of transformations that must be applied to change the
1
graph of f(x) = |x| to the graph of f(x) = – |x – 4| + 5.
2

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Chapter 2 Solving Non-Linear Equations
5.2.1 Factoring Quadratic Expressions

Try This
Kinley multiplied two binomials and got a trinomial product, as shown below.
Each shape represents an integer value.

(Ÿx + Ɣ)(Ŷx + Ƈ) = 2x2 + x – 6

A. i) What is the value of each expression below? How do you know?
Ÿ× Ŷ Ɣ×Ƈ Ÿ× Ƈ+Ɣ×Ŷ
ii) Use the values in part i) to determine the value of each shape.
Ÿ Ƈ Ɣ Ŷ
• You can use algebra tiles to determine the product of two degree 1 binomials.
- The factors are represented by the dimensions of the rectangle.
- The product is represented by the area of the rectangle.
For example:
The product of (3x – 2)(x + 1) can be modelled as shown:
3x – 2
This model shows that
(3x – 2)(x + 1)
x+1 = 3x2 – 2x + 3x – 2
= 3x2 + x – 2

3x –2
Notice that the area model has
four parts to it, each representing x 3x2 –2x
one of the four partial products in
3x2 – 2x + 3x – 2 before it was
simplified to 3x2 + x – 2. 1 3x –2

• You can also use algebra tiles to factor, or factorise by creating a rectangle
with a given area (the degree 2 polynomial) to find its dimensions (the factors).
For example, to factor x2 + 3x + 2, arrange tiles worth x2 + 3x + 2 to form a
rectangle. The dimensions of the rectangle are the factors of the polynomial.
x+2

x+1

x2 + 3x + 2 The factors of x2 + 3x + 2 are (x + 2) and (x + 1).

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If negatives are involved, you sometimes have to add tiles to make a rectangle.
To do this without changing the value of the polynomial, you add positive and
negative tiles of equal value.
For example:
The polynomial x2 + x – 2 can be factored as shown below:
If you add a vertical +x-tile and a horizontal –x-tile, you can make
a rectangle without changing the value of the polynomial.
x+2

x–1

x2 + x – 2
x2 + x – 2
–1x + 1x = 0 = (x + 2)(x – 1)

• Another way to factor a degree 2 polynomial is to use an algebraic model.

To develop the model,
- Represent the unknown factors as ax + b and cx + d (a, b, c, and d are integers).
- Multiply (ax + b)(cx + d) to create an algebraic expression for the product.
(ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + adx + bcx + bd = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
The sketch of the area model below shows how the
factors (dimensions) and product (area) are related.
cx + d

ax acx2 adx

+
b bcx bd

The total area is acx2 + adx + bcx + bd = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd.

Here is how you can use the model to factor x2 + 2x – 3:

Step 1 Compare x2 + 2x – 3 to acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd to find the value
of ac and bd:
If 1x2 + 2x – 3 = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd,
then ac = 1 and bd = –3.

[Continued]

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Step 2 Find possible values for a and c, and for b and d:
If ac = 1, possible pairs of values are If bd = –3, possible pairs of values are
a c b d
–1 –1 1 –3
1 1 –1 3
–3 1
3 –1

Step 3 Compare x2 + 2x – 3 to acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd to find the value of ad + bc:

If x2 + 2x – 3 = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd, then ad + bc = 2.
Step 4 Substitute possible values for a, c, b, and d into ad + bc = 2 to find
a combination that works:
a = 1, c = 1, b = –1, d = 3 works [It works because ad + bc = (1)(3) + (–1)(1) = 2,
ac = (1)(1) = 1, and bd = (–1)(3) = –3.]

Step 5 Replace a, b, c, and d in (ax + b)(cx + d) to create factors:

If a = 1, b = –1, c = 1, and d = 3, then (ax + b)(cx + d) = (x – 1)(x + 3).
x2 + 2x – 3 factors as (x – 1)(x + 3).

• There is never more than one pair of factors (two binomials, or a monomial and
a binomial) for a quadratic expression. It is also possible for there to be no factors.

B. i) Explain why you can factor 2x2 + x – 6 to check your answer to part A ii).
ii) Factor 2x2 + x – 6 to check your answer.

Examples
Example 1 Factoring a Trinomial
Factor 6x2 – 13x – 5.
Solution 1 Thinking
(ax + b)(cx + d) • I compared the algebraic
= acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd model of the product to the
= 6x – 13x – 5
2 trinomial to figure out the
values of ac and bd. (I knew
ac = 6 bd = –5
that bd was –5 because
a c b d 6x 2 – 13x – 5 = 6x 2 – 13x + (–5).)
1 6 1 –5
6 1 –1 5 • I listed all the possible pairs of values
3 2 –5 1
for ac and for bd.
2 3 5 –1 • To figure out the actual values of a, c, b,
–1 –6 1 –5 and d, I knew that the pairs had to stay
–6 –1 –1 5 together. For example:
–3 –2 –5 1 - if a were 1, c would have to be 6.
–2 –3 5 –1
- if b were 1, d would have to be –5.

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 acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd • I used the model again to figure out the value
= 6x – 13x – 5
2 of ad + bc. (I knew ad + bc was –13 because
ad + bc = –13 6x 2 – 13x – 5 = 6x 2 + (–13x) – 5.)
• Two combinations worked:
a = 3, b = 1, c = 2, d = –5 works
a = 3, b = 1, c = 2, d = –5
because
• ac = (3)(2) = 6 a = –3, b = –1, c = –2, d = 5
• bd = (1)(–5) = –5 Since only one pair of factors is possible,
• ad + bc = 3(–5) + 2(1) = –13 I predicted they'd result in equivalent factors:
a = 3, b = 1, c = 2, d = –5 ĺ (3x + 1)(2x – 5)
If a = 3, b = 1, c = 2, d = –5,
a = –3, b = –1, c = –2, d = 5 ĺ (–3x – 1)(–2x + 5)
(ax + b)(cx + d) = (3x + 1)(2x – 5)
(3x + 1)(2x – 5) = (–3x – 1)(–2x + 5) because,
2
6x – 13x – 5 = (3x + 1)(2x – 5) each results in the same product, 6x 2 – 13x – 5.
It's like 2 × 3 = -2 × -3.
This means you don't need to consider negative
pairs of values when you list the possible values
for a and c in ac.
Solution 2 Thinking
Find ac × bd, and ad + bd
(ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
= 6x2 – 13x – 5
ac × bd = 6 × (–5) = –30 and ad + bc = –13
Find two numbers that multiply to ac × bd • I found the prime factors of 30
and add to ad + bc (I ignored the negative sign for –30 at
5| 30 first) and then combined them in
3| 6 Prime factors are 5, 3, and 2. different ways until I had two
2 2 + 3(–5) = –13 numbers that added to –13. (I made
2 × (–15) = –30 2 + (–15) = –13 one factor negative each time because
they're factors of –30.)
Use the numbers to rewrite the middle term
6x2 – 13x – 5 ĺ 6x2 + 2x – 15x – 5 • I broke the middle term into two
terms so I'd have four terms.
Factor out the common factor in each pair
6x2 + 2x – 15x – 5 = (6x2 + 2x) – (15x + 5) • 6x 2 + 2x had a common factor of 2x
= 2x(3x + 1) – 5(3x + 1) and 15x + 5 had a common factor of 5.

Factor out the common factor

2x(3x + 1) – 5(3x + 1) = (2x – 5)(3x + 1) • 2x (3x + 1) – 5(3x + 1) had a common
factor of 3x + 1.
6x2 – 13x – 5 = (3x + 1)(2x – 5)

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Example 2 Factoring Using a Common Factor
Factor 6x2 + 15x.
Solution Thinking
Factor using a common factor • I noticed both terms had a
common factor, so I factored 3x
2
(6x + 15x) 3x = 3x(2x) + 3x(5)
Write the factors out of each term.
2
6x + 15x = 3x(2x + 5)
Check using algebra tiles • I used an algebra tile model to
2x + 5 check. I gathered 6 x 2-tiles and 15 x-tiles to
represent 6x 2+ 15x and formed them into
a rectangle with dimensions 3x by 2x + 5.

3x

6x2 + 15x = 3x(2x + 5)

Example 3 Factoring a Difference of Squares

Determine the factors of each difference of squares.
a) x2 – 4 b) 9x2 – 25
a) Solution Thinking
• x 2 – 4 is called a difference of
2
x –4 squares because x 2 and 4 are
both perfect squares.

• I used algebra tiles to create

an area model:
- I gathered tiles to represent x 2 – 4.
- Since the x 2-term and the constant were
squares, I began by making two squares in
those parts of the area model.

x–2 - I added tiles with no value (-2x + 2x = 0)

to complete the rectangle.
- The dimensions of the rectangle were
x+2
the factors.

x2 – 4 = (x – 2)(x + 2)

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b) Solution Thinking
9x2 – 25 • I sketched an area model
to represent 9x 2 – 25:

–?x - I knew the x 2-term and the

9x2
constant so I filled them in.
- Since there was no x-term,
?x –25 the remaining two parts of
the model had to add to 0, so
I marked them as opposites,
cx + d
?x and –?x.
- I used an algebraic
ax 2
acx = 9x 2 –?x = adx expression to represent
each dimension.
+
b ?x = bcx bd = –25

ac = 9 bd = –25 • I used the model to figure

a c b d out the values of ac and bd
1 9 1 –25 and then listed possible pairs.
9 1 –1 25 (I didn’t list the negative
3 3 –25 1 combinations for ac since you
25 –1 just end up with equivalent
factors (see example 1).)
5 –5
–5 5

Since –?x = adx and ?x = bcx, then –ad = bc. • I could tell from the model
that –ad = bc.
a = 3, c = 3, b = 5, d = –5 works because • I tried combinations of a, b,
• ac = 3(3) = 9 c, and d until I found values
• bd = 5(–5) = –25 that met all three conditions.
• –ad = bc ĺ –(–5)(3) = (5)(3) • a = 3, c = 3, b = –5, and d = 5
also worked but I ended up
If a = 3, b = 5, c = 3, d = –5, then with the same answer:
(ax + b)(cx + d) = (3x + 5)(3x – 5)
(3x – 5)(3x + 5)

9x2 – 25 = (3x + 5)(3x – 5) = (3x + 5)(3x – 5)

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Example 4 Factoring a Perfect Square
Factor x2 – 20x + 100.
Solution Thinking
2
(x + a)(x + b) = x + (a + b)x + ab • I used a different algebraic
model to factor this polynomial
x2 – 20x + 100 = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
So a + b = –20 and ab = 100. because the coefficient of the
x 2-term was 1. (The other
a = –10 and b = –10 because model would still have worked
• a + b = –10 + (–10) = –20 but this was simpler.)
• ab = (–10)(–10) = 100 • –10 was the only value for a and b that
Since a = –10 and b = –10, then satisfied both conditions.
(x + a)(x + b) = (x – 10)(x – 10) • The two factors were identical, so I wrote
= (x – 10)2 them as a square. I guess that's why
x2 – 20x + 100 = (x – 10)2 x 2 – 20x + 100 is called a perfect square.

Practising and Applying

1. a) Write the polynomial represented 5. Factor each difference of squares.
by these algebra tiles. a) x2 – 121 b) x2 – 400
c) 25x2 – 1 d) 36x2 – 25

6. Factor.
a) 12x2 + 18x b) 15x2 – 25x
b) Sketch what the tiles would look like
if they were rearranged in a rectangle. c) ax2 + ax
c) Use your sketch to determine the 7. What is the value of each shape?
factors of the polynomial.
a) (x + 3)2 = x2 + †x + ‹
2. a) Use algebra tiles to represent b) (x + †)2 = x2 + ‹x + 36
the polynomial x2 + x – 2. c) x2 – 12x + † = (x – ‹)2
b) Add equal numbers of x-tiles and d) x2 + †x + 49 = (x + ‹)2
–x-tiles to form a rectangle.
c) What are the factors of x2 + x – 2? 8. Factor.
a) x2 + 8x + 15 b) x2 – 7x + 6
3. Use algebra tiles to factor each. c) x2 + x – 12 d) x2 – 6x – 16
a) 4x2 + 6x b) x2 – 2x – 3 e) x2 – 8x + 16 f) x2 – 64
c) x2 + 4x + 3 d) x2 – 9
9. Factor.
e) 9x2 – 1 f) 3x2 + 5x + 2
a) 4x2 – 12x + 9 b) 2x2 – x – 6
4. What is the value of each shape? c) 3x2 – 11x – 4 d) 10x2 + 3x – 1
a) (x + 3)(x + †) = x2 + ‹x + 12 e) 3x2 – 11x + 6 f) 49x2 – 100
b) (x + †)(x – ‹) = x2 – 81
10. How is factoring quadratic
c) (†x + 2)(‹x – ) = 5x2 + 9x – 2
expressions similar to factoring
d) (2x + †)(‹x – 2) = 6x2 + x – 6 numbers? How is it different?

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5.2.2 EXPLORE: Roots of Quadratic Equations

• You can create a quadratic equation from any

quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c by assigning
a value, d, to f(x). That is, ax2 + bx + c = d.
• If d = 0, that is, if ax2 + bx + c = 0, the values of x
are the solutions of the equation, sometimes called
the zeros or roots of the equation.
• The zeros or roots are also the x-intercepts of the
graph of the function.

Roots,
zeros, or
x-intercepts

A. Graph each quadratic function.

i) f(x) = (x – 2)(x + 2) ii) f(x) = (x – 4)(x – 3)
iii) f(x) = (x + 5)(x – 1) iv) f(x) = (x – 5)(x – 5)
B. Describe how the roots of the equations below can be determined
by examining the graphs in part A.
i) (x – 2)(x + 2) = 0 ii) (x – 4)(x – 3) = 0
iii) (x + 5)(x – 1) = 0 iv) (x – 5)(x – 5) = 0
C. i) Which equation in part B has only one root?
ii) How can you tell by examining the graph? the equation?

D. For each equation in part B, find all equivalent equations below.

i) x2 – 4 = 0 ii) x2 – 10x +25 = 0 iii) x2 – 7x + 12 = 0
iv) x2 + 5x – x – 5 = 0 v) x2 – 5x – 5x + 25 = 0 vi) x2 + 2x – 2x – 4 = 0
vii) x2 – 7x + 16 = 4 viii) x2 = 4 ix) x2 – 10x = –25
x) x2 + 4x – 5 = 0
E. i) Show that these three equations are equivalent.
(x – 6)(x + 1) = 0 x2 – 5x – 6 = 0 x2 – 5x = 6
ii) Determine the roots.
iii) Which form in part i) did you use to determine the roots? Why?

F. How does the graph of f(x) = x2 + 9 tell you that x2 + 9 = 0 has no roots?

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5.2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

Try This
Yangchen and Passang are playing a mystery number game. Yangchen says,
“I’m thinking of a number. When you add it to its own square, the answer is 56."
A. Show that 7 is a possible value for the mystery number. Find another value.

• A quadratic equation can sometimes be written in factored form:

ax2 + bx + c = 0 ĺ (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0
• The zero product rule states that, if a product of factors is zero, then at least
one of the factors must be zero. So it makes sense that (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0
when ax + b = 0 or cx + d = 0.
• The solutions of the equation (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0 will be the solutions of the
equations ax + b = 0 and cx + d = 0.
For example, to solve x2 – 7x + 10 = 0:
x2 – 7x + 10 = 0 ĺ (x – 5)(x – 2) = 0
You can check solutions
x – 5 = 0 or x – 2 = 0, so x = 5 or 2 by substituting them into
The two solutions of x2 – 7x + 10 = 0 are x = 5 and x = 2. the original equation.

• Before you can solve a quadratic equation this way, you need to change it
to ax2 + bx + c = 0 form.
For example, to solve 2x2 + x = 15:
2x2 + x = 15 ĺ 2x2 + x – 15 = 15 – 15
2x2 + x – 15 = 0
(2x – 5)(x + 3) = 0 2x – 5 = 0 or x + 3 = 0,
1
so x = 2 or –3
2
1
The two solutions of 2x2 + x = 15 are x = 2 and x = –3.
2
• You can model a real-world problem situation using a quadratic equation —
one or both solutions of the equation will help you solve the problem. Even
though mathematically both solutions are possible, in real-world applications,
often only one of the solutions makes sense.
• The solutions of a quadratic equation are sometimes called the roots or zeros.
• If you were to graph the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, you would discover
that the solutions of the equation are the x-intercepts of the parabola.

B. i) Write an equation to represent Yangchen's description in part A. How do

you know it is a quadratic equation?
ii) Solve the equation. Are the solutions the same as your answers in part A?
iii) Why are only two solutions possible?

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Examples
Example 1 Using Factoring to Solve a Quadratic Equation
Solve 6x2 + 5x – 6 = 0.
Solution Thinking
2
6x + 5x – 6 = 0 • I factored the quadratic
(3x – 2)(2x + 3) = 0 expression in the equation.

2 • Since the product of the

3x – 2 = 0, so x = factors was zero, I knew at least
3
one factor had a value of zero.
−3
2x + 3 = 0, so x = That's why I found the values of x that
2
made each factor equal to zero.
The solutions of 6x2 + 5x – 6 = 0
2 −3
are x = and .
3 2

Example 2 Solving a Problem Using a Quadratic Equation

Buthri had a rectangular piece of paper 20 cm wide and 23 cm long. When
she decreased the length and width by the same amount, the area decreased
by 120 cm2. Determine the dimensions of the new rectangle.
Solution Thinking
x represents the amount each dimension • I drew a diagram to
was decreased help me visualize the
23 cm
problem and organize all
the given information.
23 – x cm

20 – x cm 20 cm

The dimensions of the new rectangle are

23 – x cm by 20 – x cm.
The area of the new rectangle is • I knew the area of the new
20 cm × 23 cm – 120 cm2 rectangle was 120 cm2 less than
= 460 cm2 – 120 cm2 the area of the original rectangle,
= 340 cm2 which was 20 cm × 23 cm.

340 = (23 – x)(20 – x) • I wrote an equation to represent

2 the area of the new rectangle in
340 = 460 – 43x + x
terms of x.
340 – 340 = 460 – 340 – 43x + x2
• I expanded the factors and then
0 = 120 – 43x + x2
rearranged the equation to get 0 on
0 = x2 – 43x + 120 one side.

[Continued]

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Example 2 Solving a Problem Using a Quadratic Equation [Continued]
Solution [Continued] Thinking
2
0 = x – 43x + 120 ĺ 0 = (x – 40)(x – 3) • I factored the
The possible solutions are x = 40 or 3. quadratic expression
by finding two
• If x = 3, the new dimensions are
numbers that
17 cm (20 – 3 = 17) and 20 cm (23 – 3 = 20).
multiplied to 120 and
• If x = 40, the dimensions are negative, so
added to –43. The numbers that
40 cannot be a solution.
worked were –40 and –3.
The new dimensions are 17 cm by 20 cm.

Example 3 Determining the x-intercepts and Vertex of a Parabola

Determine the x-intercepts and the coordinates of the vertex for the graph
of the function f(x) = 10x2 – 13x – 3.
Solution Thinking
Write a quadratic equation equal to 0 • I knew the
2 2
f(x) = 10x – 13x – 3 ĺ 10x – 13x – 3 = 0 solutions of the
equation were the
Factor and then solve equation x-intercepts of the
2
10x – 13x – 3 = 0 ĺ (5x + 1)(2x – 3) = 0 graph of f(x). (This
1 3 makes sense since the
5x + 1 = 0, so x = − or 2x – 3 = 0, so x = . x - intercepts are the values of
5 2
the x -coordinates when the
1 3
The solutions, or x-intercepts are − and . y -coordinates are 0.)
5 2
• I found the x -coordinate of the
Use x-intercepts to find x-coordinate of vertex vertex by calculating the mean of
1 3 13 the x -intercepts (because the
(− + )÷2= vertex is halfway between them).
5 2 20
Then I used the x-coordinate to
calculate the y-coordinate.
Use x-coordinate of vertex to find y-coordinate
13 169 13
f( ) = 10 × – 13 × –3
20 400 20
289
= −
40 x-intercept x-intercept
9
= –7
40
13 9
The vertex coordinates are ( , –7 ).
20 40

Vertex

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Practising and Applying
1. Solve each equation. 8. A rectangular play area is twice as
a) (x – 4)(x – 2) = 0 long as it is wide. If you increase the
length by 4 m and decrease the width
b) (x + 3)(x – 9) = 0 by 3 m, the new area will be 532 m2.
c) (2x + 5)(3x – 1) = 0 Determine the dimensions of the
d) (5x + 4)(2x – 9) = 0 original rectangle.
e) 15x(x – 10) = 0 9. A support wire is attached to a radio
f) (x + 2)(x – 2) = 0 antenna at a height of 15 m. The wire is
1 m longer than twice the distance from
2. Factor and then solve each equation. the antenna's base to the place where
a) x2 + 8x + 15 = 0 the wire is anchored to the ground.
Determine the distance from the base
b) x2 – x – 110 = 0 of the antenna to the place where the
c) 10x2 + 30x = 0 wire is anchored to the ground.
d) x2 – 36 = 0
e) x2 – 20x + 100 = 0
f) 5x2 + 20x + 20 = 0

3. Factor and then solve each equation.

a) 2x2 – 5x – 25 = 0
b) 8x2 + 2x – 1 = 0 15 m
c) 2x + 5x – 3 = 0
2

d) 6x2 – 6x – 12 = 0

4. Factor and then solve each equation.

a) x2 – 6x = 7 b) x2 + 10 = 7x 10. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is
c) x + 5x + 12 = 12x
2 1 m longer than the longer leg. The
other leg is 7 m shorter than the longer
d) x2 + 3x = 3x + 25 leg. Determine the lengths of the three
sides of the triangle.
5. When the squares of two consecutive
integers are added, the sum is 221. 11. When the squares of two
a) Write an algebraic equation consecutive odd integers are added,
to represent the situation. the sum is 290. What are the integers?
b) Solve the equation.
12. A model rocket was launched with
c) What is the meaning of the solutions an initial speed of 200 m/s. The function
of the equation? h(t) = –5t2 + 200t calculates the height
of the rocket t seconds after the launch.
6. The length of a rectangle is 6 cm
After how many seconds was the rocket
longer than its width. The area of
at a height of 1500 m?
the rectangle is 91 cm2. Determine
the dimensions of the rectangle.
13. Look back at the questions on this
page. In what sorts of situations might
7. One leg of a right triangle is 2 cm
you encounter problems where solving
longer than the other leg. The
a quadratic equation would help you
hypotenuse is 10 cm long. Determine
solve the problem?
the length of the shorter leg.
Reprint 2023 161
5.2.4 EXPLORE: Absolute Value Equations

You can represent the solutions of an absolute value function by graphing it, just
like you can with a quadratic function. You can use your graph to find specific
solutions, or values of x when f(x) is a certain value. And, just like with quadratic
functions, you can write an absolute value equation and solve it to find specific
solutions.
For example, f(x) = |x – 5| + 2 can be written as |x – 5| + 2 = 7 and then solved
to find possible values of x when f(x) = 7.
Recall that an absolute value can be thought of as a distance from 0 on a number
line, regardless of direction. The absolute values |5| and |–5| are both equal to 5,
since they are both 5 units away from 0. When you solve |x – 5| + 2 = 7, you are
finding values of x that are 7 – 2 units away from 5.

A. i) Graph the absolute value function f(x) = |x – 5| + 2.

ii) Use the graph to determine the values of x when f(x) = 7.
iii) Why are these values also the solutions of the equation |x – 5| + 2 = 7?
B. i) If |x – 5| + 2 = 7, what is the value of |x – 5|? Why?
ii) What are the values of x – 5? Why is there more than one value?
iii) What are the values of x? How do you know?
C. In part B, you used a "working backwards" approach to solving an absolute
value equation. Use the same approach to solve each equation below. Verify
each pair of solutions by graphing its function.
i) |x + 7| = 13 ii) 2|x – 1| = 8
1
iii) |x + 3| – 4 = 1 iv) |2x – 4| + 3 = 6
2

GAME: Get the Points

This is a game for two players. You will need dice and grid paper.
• Each player creates a coordinate grid with axes that go from –6 to 6 and then
rolls a pair of dice 10 times to generate 10 ordered pairs (odd numbers are
negative, even numbers are positive). Each player then plots these points on his
or her own grid.
• Players take turns. On each turn, the player creates a quadratic or absolute
value function and then graphs it. The goal is to create a graph that passes
through as many of the plotted points as possible.
• The game continues for a pre-set amount of time, such as 10 minutes. The
winner is the player who has drawn graphs through the most plotted points.

Reprint 2023 162

UNIT 5 Revision

1. a) Which functions are equivalent? 5. a) What are the zeros, or x-intercepts

A f(x) = 3x + 2 of each?
B f(x) = 4x2 + 8x + 16 i) f(x) = (x – 4)(x + 3)
C f(x) = 4(2 + x)2 ii) f(x) = 3(x – 6)(x – 2)
D f(x) = 4x2 + 16x + 16 iii) f(x) = (2x – 5)(3x + 3)
b) Sketch the graph of the equivalent iv) f(x) = (x – 0.5)(x + 2.5)
functions. How do the graphs show v) f(x) = (3x – 1.8)(x + 5)
the functions are quadratic? How do b) What are the coordinates of the
they show the functions are equivalent? vertex for each function?
c) How else could you show c) Sketch the graph of each function.
the functions are equivalent?
6. f(x) = (x – 4)(x – h)
2. a) Sketch the graph of each function. For what values of h does the vertex
i) f(x) = 0.4x2 + 1.2x – 3 of this parabola have a positive
ii) f(x) = 4x2 – 10x + 7 x-coordinate? Explain.
b) Estimate the minimum value and
7. a) What geometric transformations,
x-intercepts of each function.
in what order, should be applied to
f(x) = x2 to result in each function?
3. How could you predict that the graph
i) f(x) = x2 – 30
of f(x) = 4x2 – x + 8 has no x-intercepts
without graphing it? ii) f(x) = (x + 30)2
iii) f(x) = –2x2 – 30
4. Kinley currently sells about 45 small iv) f(x) = 3(2 – x)2
baskets a month for Nu 50 each. He v) f(x) = (x + 30)2 – 7
predicts that for every increase in price
vi) f(x) = 8 – 0.1x2
of Nu 10 per basket, he will sell two
fewer baskets. b) What are the coordinates of the
vertex of each function?
a) Write a function to represent his total
sales in terms of the number of price c) Describe the transformations using
increases of Nu 10. mapping notation. For a composite
transformation, use one mapping.
b) Sketch a graph of the function.
c) What is the best price for Kinley 8. If you were to apply each composite
to charge? How do you know? transformation to the function f(x) = x2,
what would be the final function?
a) translate 4 right and translate 3 up
1
b) compress vertically by and
2
translate 6 up
c) translate 3 left, reflect in the x-axis,
and stretch vertically by 3
d) (x, y) ĺ (x – 8, y + 2)
e) (x, y) ĺ (x – 8, 3y + 2)

Reprint 2023 163

9. What is the equation of each graph? 11. Draw or use algebra tiles to factor.
a) a) 6x2 – 8x b) 3x2 + 12x + 12
y c) x2 + 6x + 8 d) x2 – 2x – 3
e) 2x2 + x – 1 f) 6x2 + x – 1

12. Factor each.

a) 16x2 – 4
b) 16x – 12x2
c) 25x2 + 30x + 9
d) x2 + 3x – 88

13. Fill in the blanks.

x a) x2 + __ x + 25 = (x + __)2
b) (3x – __)2 = __x2 – 24x + __
b)
14. Solve each.
y a) 2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0
b) 6x2 – 7x = 3
c) 2x + 14 = –x + 4 + x2

15. Write an equation in the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 that would match
each pair of roots or zeros.
a) 3 and 8 b) –2 and –7
3 4 3 6
c) and d) and
4 5 5 5

16. A ladder is leaning against a wall.

x The top of the ladder is 9.4 m up the
wall. The ladder is 6.6 m longer than
the distance from the bottom of the wall
c) to the bottom of the ladder. How far is it
y from the bottom of the wall to the
bottom of the ladder?

17. The difference between the squares

of two consecutive integers is 35.
What are the numbers?

x 18. Solve each.

a) 6 + |x| = 8
b) |3x – 2| = 6
10. Sketch each graph, if f(x) = |x|. c) |3x + 1| + 4 = 10
a) f(x + 3) b) f(2x + 4)
c) f(2x) + 4 d) –3f(2x – 3)

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 UNIT 6 DATA, STATISTICS, AND PROBABILITY
Getting Started

Use What You Know

Dema’s classmates ran a 100 m race and recorded these times (in seconds):
13.9 14.3 14.4 13.7 15.2 15.4 13.9
13.9 14.5 14.7 14.4 13.8 13.1 13.8
12.4 13.8 12.7 13.4 13.9 14.0 14.4
14.3 14.5 11.8 12.9 12.3 12.8 13.7
13.1 15.0 14.8 14.2 14.4 14.8 15.2

A. Determine each value:

• the maximum value and minimum value
• the range
• the median
• the lower and upper quartiles
B. Create a box and whisker plot of the data using the values from part A.
C. Use your box and whisker plot to answer these questions.
i) What percentage of the data values lies below 13.9 s?
ii) What percentage of the data values lies between 13.4 s and 14.4 s?
iii) What percentage of the data values lies below 13.4 s?
D. Pema ran the race in a time of 12.4 s. Compare her time to the times of
the other students using your box and whisker plot.

Skills You Will Need

1. The World Health Organization collected data about residents of Thailand who
were over 60 years old. Each number represents the percentage of each gender
that assists in daily household chores.
Washing/ Helping
Food Cleaning Sewing/ Washing
Gender ironing to
preparation house mending dishes
clothes garden
Male
22.2 28.5 7.3 20.0 17.0 34.3
(%)
Female
49.8 51.4 30.0 48.3 43.1 22.7
(%)

a) Construct a double bar graph.

b) What conclusions can you make about the data?

Reprint 2023 165

2. Here are the times of a group of runners in a 400 m race (in seconds):
66.0, 58.9, 61.1, 69.0, 53.5, 64.3, 53.5, 51.1, 55.2, 54.8, 66.0
Find the mean, median, and mode(s) for the data set.

3. Here are the daily maximum temperatures (oC) for a summer day in various
cities in Europe. Create a stem and leaf plot for the data.
21.1 18.7 30.0 23.5 24.9 25.1
27.2 25.4 19.6 26.7 24.8 30.3
27.1 19.4 22.9 29.1 26.6 19.7
23.5 28.4 26.8 21.2 23.1 25.0

4. This chart shows population Life Per capita Number of

characteristics for some countries. Country expectancy income people per
a) Create a scatter plot of Life (years) (U.S. $) motor vehicle
expectancy vs. Per capita income. Bangladesh 57 230 1200
Use Per capita income as the Brazil 66 3,370 9
independent variable. Canada 78 19,570 1.6
China 70 530 225
b) Create a scatter plot of Life Ethiopia 50 130 800
expectancy vs. Number of people per Iceland 79 24,590 1.8
motor vehicle. Use Number of people India 59 310 225
per motor vehicle as the independent Japan 80 34,630 2.1
variable. Mexico 73 4,010 9
c) For each graph, where appropriate, Norway 78 26,480 2.2
draw a line of best fit and comment on
the type and strength of the correlation.
d) Do the correlations you described in part c) make sense? Explain.

5. For each graph indicate whether the data is discrete or continuous and whether
the graph deals with one or two variables. If appropriate, identify the independent
and dependent variables.
Number of Students from Different Countries Length of a Car Skid When
at Maya's School Brakes are Applied at
South Africa Various Speeds
Spain

England
90
80
Length of skid (m)

France
70
India
60
Korea 50
Japan 40
China 30
Canada
20
10
Australia

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of students Initial speed (km/h)

Reprint 2023 166

Chapter 1 Data Involving One Variable
6.1.1 Histograms and Stem and Leaf Plots

Try This
Two groups of tomato plants were sampled to create the data set below.
One group was grown in Southern Bhutan while the second group was grown
in Central Bhutan. Twenty plants were selected at random from each group
and the number of tomatoes each plant produced was listed.
Grown in Southern Bhutan Grown in Central Bhutan
9 10 15 12 13 11 7 12 8 14 6 8 9 11 12 8 9 7 10 12
11 16 17 12 10 8 12 9 6 13 5 9 11 7 11 6 7 9 8 11

A. What conclusion might you draw from the data?

B. i) Complete the frequency table for each set of data.
Number of Frequency Frequency
tomatoes/plant (Southern Bhutan) (Central Bhutan)
1–5
6 – 10
11 – 15
16 – 20

ii) Does your frequency table support your conclusion in part A?

C. From which organization of the data is it easier to draw conclusions —
from the original list of numbers or from the frequency table? Explain.

• When you have large quantities of data, it is convenient to organize the data
into intervals, sometimes called bins, to make it easier to draw conclusions.
• Stem and leaf plots and histograms can be used to graph the organized data.
In both cases, you create bins of equal width. The number of pieces of data in
each bin, called the frequency, is represented by the number of leaves.
• The bins for stem and leaf plots are based on place value. The bin sizes are
always powers of ten, but you can usually choose how many digits to use for
the "stems" and "leaves."
For example, in the stem and leaf plot to the right, Heights of Class X Girls
data about heights of Class X girls (in cm) has Stems Leaves
been grouped into bins of size 10, with two digits in 12 7
the stem and one digit in the leaves. The bins are 13 5 8 9
120 to 129, 130 to 139, 140 to 149, and so on. 14 1 2 6 8
With the 20 data values organized in seven bins, 15 0 5 6 6 7 8
the data set is manageable for drawing conclusions 16 3 3 6 7 8
about how it is distributed. 17
18 1

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 Heights of Class 10 Girls
12 7 The frequency for
this stem is 4.
This stem represents the 13 5 8 9
interval 140 – 149. 14 1 2 6 8
15 0 5 6 6 7 8 The modes are 156
and 163.
16 3 3 6 7 8
155 and 156 are the
17 middle values so the
18 1 median is 155.5.
The minimum value is 127. The maximum value is 181. The range is 181 – 127 = 54.

• Every number in the data set is visible in a stem and leaf plot, so it is easy to
determine the minimum and maximum values, range, median, and mode(s).
The median is the middle value in the data set when it is arranged in order.
Since the values in a stem and leaf plot are in order and there are 20 values
in this set of data, the median is the mean of the 10th and 11th values.
• Sometimes the range of a set of data is either so great or so small that you might
want to set up the stems and leaves using different place value arrangements.
For example:
1 25 27 53 0 .49
2 15 24 1 .24 .78
3 45 2 .30 .92
4 67 99 3 .78

For the data set 125, 127, 345, 467, 499, For the data set 1.24, 1.78, 2.30, 3.78, 2.92,
224, 215, 153, you might use a stem that 0.49, you might use a stem that represents
represents the hundreds digit and leaves the ones digit and leaves that represent
that represent the tens and ones. the hundredths.
• Histograms use a series of connected bars to represent the frequency of
continuous data, often measurements, organized into equal bins. You usually
create a frequency table first and then construct the histogram.
For example, in Sonam's histogram below, the bars are connected to show the
data is continuous.
Ages of Residents in Ages of Residents in Sonam’s Community
Sonam’s Community 600
Age Frequency
0 – 11 50 500

11 – 22 300 400
Frequency

22 – 33 250
300
33 – 44 400
44 – 55 550 200
55 – 66 430 100
66 – 77 270
0
77 – 88 340
0 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99
88 – 99 100 Age

Reprint 2023 168

• The bars in a histogram are of equal width and the height of each bar
corresponds to the frequency of the bin it represents. Histograms look like
bar graphs, but bar graphs have spaces between the bars because they represent
discrete data and histograms do not because they represent continuous data.
• If you look at the horizontal axis, you will see values like 11, 22, 33, ... appearing
both as the end point of one bar and as the beginning of the next bar. The actual
data values for 11, 22, 33, ... are always plotted in the next bar up. For example,
an age of 11 would go in the second bar, and an age of 22 in the third bar.
• The individual pieces of data are not visible in a frequency table or histogram.
For this reason, the minimum and maximum values and the median cannot
be determined directly from the table or histogram.
• Typically, the size of the bin for a histogram is chosen so that there is a minimum
of five bins and a maximum of 12 bins, although any number of bins is possible.
Too many or too few bins results in a histogram that may not effectively show how
the data values are distributed.
• The bin width or size, can be determined by dividing the range of the data by the
desired number of bins and then rounding to a suitable bin width.
Range
Bin width §
Desired number of bins
For example, for the 2690 data values in Sonam’s histogram on page 168, the
minimum value was 1 and the maximum was 98, so the range was 98 – 1 = 97.
Sonam wanted nine bins, so she divided the range by 9: 97 ÷ 9 = 10.8. Because
rounded bin widths of 10, 20, 30, ... are usually used to make the data easier to
work with, she chose bins of width 10.
• Note that the conclusions drawn from a histogram can be influenced by
the bin width used because the bin width will affect the appearance of the
data distribution. This will be investigated later in the unit.

D. i) Create a stem and leaf plot for each set of tomato data in part A.
ii) Do the stem and leaf plots support the conclusions you made earlier?
Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Creating Graphs to Show How a Data Set is Distributed
Tshewang's teacher recorded the test Test Scores (%)
scores of his students. He wanted 71 78 92 79 75 88 73
to see how the results were distributed 72 88 44 79 70 99 75
so he would know how well the class 75 92 72 89 58 98 85
had performed. 80 94 52
a) Create a graph to show how the test scores were distributed.
Find the minimum and maximum values, range, mode, and median.
b) Describe the distribution of the data. How do you think Tshewang's
teacher will summarize the results? [Continued]

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Example 1 Creating Graphs to Show How a Data Set is Distributed [Cont’d]
a) Solution 1 Thinking
Test Scores (%) • I used the tens digit for
4 4 the stems and the ones digits
5 2 8 for the leaves, since the data
6 values were all two-digit
7 0 1 2 2 3 5 5 5 8 9 9 numbers.
8 0 5 8 8 9 • I wrote the leaves for each stem in the
9 2 2 4 8 9 right column, in increasing order.
• The minimum and maximum scores were
Maximum is 99 easy to find because the values are in order.
Minimum is 44 • For the mode, I looked for numbers that
Range is 99 – 44 = 55 repeated in the leaves and 75 repeated the
Mode is 75 most.
• There are 24 data values, so the median is
Median is (78 + 79) ÷ 2 = 78.5
the mean of 12th and 13th values.

a) Solution 2 Thinking
Test Scores
• I created a frequency table
Percent Frequency using a bin width of 10 because
40 – 50 1 I wanted 6 bins and a bin
50 – 60 2 width of 10 was easy to work
60 – 70 0 with.
70 – 80 11 • For each bin, I counted the number of
80 – 90 5 data values in the set and then recorded
90 – 100 5 the total in the table.
Class Test Results • I used the frequency table to create
12
the histogram. I remembered to put 70 in
10 the 70 to 80 bin and 80 in the 80 to 90 bin.
Frequency

40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Test scores (%)

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Original data • I knew I couldn't find the maximum,
71 78 92 79 75 88 73 minimum, range, mode, and median
72 88 44 79 70 99 75 directly from the histogram so I went
75 92 72 89 58 98 85 back to the original data and ordered
80 94 52
the values from least to greatest.
In order from least to greatest • Because there was an even number of
44, 52, 58, 70, 71, 72, 72, 73, 75, 75, values, 24, I knew the median was the
75, 78, 79, 79, 80, 85, 88, 88, 89, 92, mean of the two middle values, the 12th
92, 94, 98, 99 and 13th values.
• One of my classmates graphed the data
Maximum is 99
in a stem and leaf plot with the same
Minimum is 44 intervals. When we turned the stem and
Range is 99 – 44 = 55 leaf plot, it showed the data distribution
Mode is 75 in the same way as the histogram.
Median is (78 + 79) ÷ 2 = 78.5

01223555899

05889

22489
28
4
4

9
5

b) Solution Thinking
• 21 out of 24 students, which is most • I looked to see where
of the students, scored 70% or more most of the pieces of data
on the test. were clustered. They were
• 11 students earned marks between between 70% and 100%.
70% and 79%. • I then looked for the bin
with the greatest number of values,
His teacher would say the class as
which was 70 to 80.
a whole performed well on the test.

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Example 2 Creating a Double Stem and Leaf Plot
The points scored for and against a basketball team are listed below.
Points for: 129, 128, 134, 125, 132, 107, 97, 127, 118, 135, 127, 114, 109, 118
Points against: 113, 127, 132, 109, 101, 90, 88, 105, 109, 122, 119, 102, 110, 97
a) Create a double stem and leaf plot for the data.
b) Why is a double stem and leaf plot a suitable graph for this set of data?
c) What conclusions can you draw from the data? Explain.
Solution Thinking
a) Points Scored a) The data values went from
For Against numbers in the 80s to the
Leaves Stems Leaves
8 8
130s, a range of about 60,
7 9 0 7 so it made sense to make the
9 7 10 1 2 5 9 9 stems the tens.
8 8 4 11 0 3 9
9 8 7 7 5 12 2 7 • Since I was creating a double stem and
5 4 2 13 2 leaf plot, I created a table with three
columns with the stems in the middle
because both sets of data share the
b) A double stem and leaf plot is same stems.
a suitable graph because it allows
you to examine the distribution in • I put the leaves for the “points for” data
each set of data and also to in the left column, arranging these numbers
compare the distribution in both in decreasing order, and the leaves for
sets of data h.
the “points against” in the right column,
arranged in increasing order.

c) The team seems to score more c) I looked first at the plot on the left
points than it allows in a game. (points for). The team scored under
This team likely has a winning 120 points in six games and over 120 points
record, because it appears that in eight games.
they score more points than are
scored against them. • Then I looked at the plot on the right
(points against). In 11 games, they allowed
opposing teams to score over 120 points
against them in only three games.

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Example 3 Creating and Interpreting Histograms
This data set shows the value of purchases, in ngultrums, by 30 tourists at
a market.
420 1295 875 600 780 1110
595 960 1030 775 680 1450
935 795 840 680 570 860
1150 945 855 670 990 1225
995 480 650 1000 1135 865

a) Create a frequency table and a histogram for the data.

b) What is the typical amount each tourist spends? Explain.
Solution 1 Thinking
a) Range is 1450 – 420 = 1030 a) I wanted about
Bin width is 1030 ÷ 5 = 206, or about 200 five bins. Since
Value of Tourist Purchases the range was
Value of about 1000,
Tally Frequency
groceries (Nu) I divided the range
400 – 600 |||| 4 by 5 and that gave me
600 – 800 |||| ||| 8 a bin width of about 200.
800 – 1000 |||| |||| 10 • I realized while creating
the frequency table, that I
1000 – 1200 |||| 5
needed a sixth bin for the data
1200 – 1400 || 2 value 1450, so I just added
1400 – 1600 | 1 an extra row to the table.
• To complete the frequency
Value of Tourist Purchases table, I included a tally column
10 to keep track as I counted
the values in each bin.
8
• I constructed a histogram
Frequency

6 from the frequency table.

4

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Value (Nu)

b) The typical amount spent per tourist was b) I looked for where the data
between Nu 600 and Nu 1200 (23 out of 30, or clustered. The bars between
about 75% of the purchases were between Nu 600 and 1200 were tallest so I
600 and Nu 1200). added the frequencies for those
three bars: 8 + 10 + 5 = 23.

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Example 3 Creating and Interpreting Histograms [Continued]
Solution 2 Thinking
a) Range is 1450 – 420 = 1030 a) I wanted about
Bin width is 1030 ÷ 10 = 103, or about 100 10 bins. Since the
Value of Tourist Purchases range was about 1000,
Value of I divided the range by
Tally Frequency
groceries (Nu) 10 and that gave me
400 – 499 || 2 a bin width of about 100.
500 – 599 || 2 • I realized while creating the
frequency table, that I needed
600 – 699 |||| 5
an 11th bin for the data value 1450,
700 – 799 ||| 3 so I just added an extra row to
800 – 899 |||| 5 the table.
900 – 999 |||| 5 • To complete the frequency table,
I included a tally column to keep
1000 – 1099 || 2
track as I counted the values in
1100 – 1199 ||| 3
each bin.
1200 – 1299 || 2
1300 – 1399 0
1400 – 1499 | 1

Value of Tourist Purchases • I constructed a histogram from

5 the frequency table.

4
Frequency

0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Value (Nu)

b) The typical amount spent per tourist was b) I looked for where the data
between Nu 600 and Nu 1000 (18 out of clustered. The bars between
30, or about 60% of the purchases were 600 and 1000 were tallest so I
between Nu 600 and Nu 1000). added the frequencies for those
four bars: 5 + 3 + 5 + 5 = 18.

Reprint 2023 174

Practising and Applying
1. Is each statement true or false? 3. a) Organize the data into a frequency
a) Histograms and stem and leaf plots table and create a histogram.
display data grouped in intervals. b) What conclusions can you make
b) Bins in a histogram are always about how the runners compare?
based on place value.
4. Display the following data in a double
c) You can accurately determine
stem and leaf plot.
the median, maximum, and minimum
values of a data set directly from Lengths of stories (number of words)
a histogram. Group 1: 150, 183, 287, 599, 163, 298, 376,
422, 355, 246, 168, 478, 505, 355
d) Histograms have no spaces between
the bars because the data values are Group 2: 324, 277, 256, 189, 324, 385, 412,
276, 299, 199, 310, 255, 290, 389
continuous.
e) Any stem and leaf plot of continuous 5. Use the stem and leaf plot to answer
data can be made into a histogram. the questions below.
f) All histograms can be made into stem Vehicle Speeds on
and leaf plots. Canadian Highways (km/h)
Stems Leaves
2. The quality control manager at
a biscuit factory wants to ensure
a consistent product, so the number of
biscuits in every 100th tin is counted.
Number of Biscuits per Tin a) How many vehicles had their speeds
135 154 188 137 123 151 measured?
123 119 108 119 143 150 b) How many vehicles were travelling
129 144 123 145 127 126 under 90 km/h?
127 132 133 127 142 117 c) If the maximum speed limit was
122 137 96 99 122 134 90 km/h, how many vehicles were
132 128 107 150 108 125
exceeding the limit?
a) Create a stem and leaf plot. d) What was the range of speeds?
b) Use your intervals in the stem and e) What was the median speed?
leaf plot to create a histogram.
6. Based on the data in the double stem
c) Why would these types of graphs
and leaf plot below, Aparna concludes
be useful for the manager?
that females spend a lot more time
watching television than males.
3. The following times, in seconds,
Is her conclusion valid? Explain.
were recorded for a 100 m sprint.
Hours Per Week Spent Watching TV
13.9 14.3 14.4 13.7 15.2 15.4 Female Male
13.9 14.5 14.7 14.4 13.8 13.1
5 1 1 5 5 6 8 9
12.4 13.8 12.7 13.4 13.9 14.0
5 2 2 3 4 6
14.3 14.5 11.8 12.9 12.3 12.8
8 3 1
13.1 15.0 14.8 14.2 14.4 14.8
9 8 6 4 2
13.9 13.8 14.4 13.7

Reprint 2023 175

7. For each graph below 9. Two students drew histograms for
a) make three observations the same set of data about the ages
of 40 people.
b) discuss whether you think the bin
Yuden’s Graph
widths or intervals used are appropriate
i) Heights of Students in Rishi's Class
Frequency

1 11 21 31 41 51
Age (years)

Maya’s Graph
145 150 155 160 165 170 175
Heights (cm)
ii) Number of Passengers on a Train
During a Six-Week Period
Stems Leaves

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (years)
a) Make a conclusion based on
Yuden’s graph.
b) Make a conclusion based on
Maya’s graph.
8. In a study of the longevity of a c) Compare your conclusions above
particular species of cat, biologists and discuss why they are different.
recorded the lifespans of 30 cats.
Lifespans of Cats (in years) 10. Why does it make sense to organize
12.9 13.2 14.1 13.9 12.8 a set of data that contains a large
13.1 13.2 13.6 13.0 13.4
number of values into equal intervals,
or bins, in order to draw conclusions
12.9 13.3 11.8 12.8 14.6 about the data?
10.4 14.8 11.5 13.5 13.6
9.6 14.5 13.5 13.8 14.4
13.1 13.6 12.8 12.9 13.3
a) Create a stem and leaf plot and
a histogram for the data above.
Use the same bin width for both.
b) Which is more helpful for finding
the median lifespan of a cat? Why?
c) How are the displays the same?
How are they different?

Reprint 2023 176

6.1.2 EXPLORE: Investigating Bin Width in Histograms

It can be unhealthy for a person's body fat to exceed a certain percentage

of his or her total body mass. This is why body fat is measured as part of
an overall fitness assessment.
The chart below shows the body fat percentage of a random sample of
50 American men. This data was collected as part of a study to find out
about the health of the population.

Body Fat (%) in 50 American Men

12.3 20.8 15.6 11.8 31.6
5.9 21.2 17.7 21.3 32.0
25.3 22.1 14.0 32.3 7.7
10.4 20.9 3.7 40.1 13.9
28.7 29.0 7.9 24.2 10.8
20.9 22.9 22.9 28.4 5.6
19.2 16.0 3.7 35.2 13.6
12.4 16.5 8.8 32.6 4.0
4.1 19.1 11.9 34.5 10.2
11.7 15.2 5.7 32.9 6.6

This data set can be used to explore how changing the bin width in a histogram
affects our impressions about the distribution of the data and the nature of
the conclusions we can draw from the graph.

A. i) Group the data using a bin width of 5 (%) and create a frequency table.
Start the first bin at 0 (%).
ii) Create a histogram for the frequency table you created.
iii) Based on this histogram, what is the most common body fat percentage
in American males?

B. i) Group the data using a bin width of 6 (%) and create a frequency table.
Start the first bin at 0 (%).
ii) Create a histogram for the frequency table you created.
iii) Based on this histogram, what is the most common body fat percentage
in American males?

C. Discuss how the bin width used to create histograms affects the conclusions
that can be drawn from these graphs.

Reprint 2023 177

6.1.3 Histograms and Box and Whisker Plots

Try This
A light bulb manufacturer was interested in the lifespan of the bulbs it produces.
Thirty light bulbs were illuminated until they failed. The times to failure (in hours)
are given below and graphed in the following histogram.

410 201 350 103 45 158

59 257 338 198 324 418
367 128 425 289 170 238
313 319 259 356 319 424
276 305 298 189 345 156

Light Bulb Lifespans

8

5
Frequency

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Time to failure (h)

A. i) What is the bin width used for this histogram?

ii) Why do you think this bin width was used?
B. The manufacturer claims that over 60% of its light bulbs last between 150 h
and 350 h. Describe how the graph shows whether or not this is a valid claim.

• Although histograms are useful to see how a data set is distributed, they do not
directly show how the data is related to the median. It is often useful to see how
specific pieces of data compare to the typical or average in the data set.
• Box and whisker plots, sometimes called box plots, are designed to show how
the values in a data set relate to the median. The data is always grouped into four
intervals, which are centred around the median. Although the intervals for stem
and leaf plots and histograms are equal, the intervals for box plots are usually not
equal. However, the number of data values in each interval is always the same.

Reprint 2023 178

• The four intervals in a box plot each contain 25% of the data and are separated
by these three numbers:
- The lower quartile, or Q1, is calculated by determining the median of all the data
from the minimum value to the median.
- The median, or Q2, is the middle value of the whole data set.
- The upper quartile, Q3, is calculated by determining the median of all the data
from the median to the maximum value.
• For data sets with an odd number of values, some people do not include the
median when calculating Q1 and Q3.
For example, consider the data set: 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12
The median (Q2) is 7. If you include the median when calculating Q1 and Q3,
Q1 is 4.5 and Q3 is 9. If you do not include the median when calculating Q1 and Q3,
Q1 is 4 and Q3 is 10. When the data set is large, it makes very little difference to
the results whether or not you include the median. However, when the data set is
small, your decision can influence the results. It is more mathematically sound to
include the median when calculating Q1 and Q3 (and this is what has been done
throughout this unit, unless otherwise indicated).
• The size of each interval is based on the data. The four intervals are:
- The first interval, which contains 25% of the data values — it starts at
the minimum and ends at the lower quartile, Q1.
- The second interval, which contains 25% of the data values — it starts at
Q1 and ends at the median, Q2.
- The third interval, which contains 25% of the data values — it starts at
the median, Q2, and ends at the upper quartile, Q3.
- The fourth interval, which contains 25% of the data values — it starts at
Q3 and ends at the maximum data value.
• The values for Q1, Q2, and Q3, along with the minimum and maximum values,
in order from least to greatest, is called the 5-number summary for a data set
and is used to frame the construction of the box and whisker plot.
For example, this box plot displays the prices of the same item in 15 stores:
124 135 158 110 128 131 158 95
137 165 152 144 129 143 162

Minimum value Q1 Q2 (median) Q3 Maximum value

95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165

Price (Nu)

Reprint 2023 179

• To determine 5-number summary, the data values are arranged in order:
95, 110, 124, 128, 129, 131, 135, 137, 143, 144, 152, 158, 158, 162, 165
- The minimum value is 95 and the maximum value is 165.
- There are 15 scores, so the median, or Q2, is the 8th score, 137.
- Q1 is the median of the bottom 8 scores, the mean of the 4th and 5th scores, 128.5.
- Q3 is the median of the top 8 scores, the mean of the 11th and 12th scores, 155.
The 5-number summary is 95, 128.5, 137, 155, and 165.

• To create a box and whisker plot, follow these steps:

- Draw a number scale that is appropriate for the 5-number summary.
- Draw dots above the scale to locate the lower quartile (Q1), the median (Q2),
and the upper quartile (Q3).
- Draw a box with left and right sides at the lower and upper quartiles.
- Draw a vertical line at the median equal to the height of the box.
- Draw whiskers, or lines, to connect the sides of the box to the maximum
and minimum values. Median
Q2
Minimum Maximum
value value
Lower quartile Upper quartile
Q1 Q3

Scale

• A box plot shows how the data is distributed relative to the median:
- The width of the box in relation to the median indicates how the middle 50%
of the data is clustered around the median.
- A wider box indicates a greater spread in the middle 50% of the data.
- Longer whiskers indicate a greater spread between the extreme values
and the upper and lower quartiles.
• A box and whisker plot is usually constructed from the original data set, but it
can also be estimated from a frequency table or histogram (see example 1).
• Creating a box plot and histogram which use the same horizontal scale can be
useful for finding out more information about the distribution of a set of data.

C. Create and use the 5-number summary to draw a box and whisker plot for
the light bulb data in parts A and B. Use the same scale as the histogram.
D. What conclusions can you draw from the data displayed in these graphs?

Reprint 2023 180

Examples
Example 1 Creating a Box Plot and a Histogram
This data set shows the monthly savings Monthly Savings
of 65 people. Savings (Nu) Number of people
a) Construct a histogram and a box and 0 – 200 16
whisker plot on the same scale. Show 200 – 400 12
your work. 400 – 600 8
b) What observations can you make about 600 – 800 12
the data from each graph?
800 – 1000 10
1000 – 1200 7
Solution Thinking
a) Monthly Savings a) I knew that I could
Savings (Nu) Number of persons create the histogram
0 – 200 16 from the frequency
200 – 400 12 table using the same
400 – 600 8 bins, but the box plot
600 – 800 12
was more difficult because I didn’t
800 – 1000 10
have the original data values.
1000 – 1200 7
Estimate the median, Q2
There are 65 data values so the median is • I had to estimate the 5-number
the 33rd value. There are 28 data values in summary for the box plot using the
the first two bins (16 + 12) and 36 in the data in the frequency table.
first three bins (16 + 12 + 8) so the median
is in the third bin. Since the 33rd value is
5
the 5th one in this bin of 8 values, use of
8
the bin width (200) and add it to 400:
5
Median is 400 + × 200 = 400 + 125 = 525
8
Estimate the lower quartile, Q1
The lower quartile is the median of the first
half of the data. Since there are 65 data
values, it is the median of the first 33 data
values, or the 17th number. There are 16
data values in the first bin and 28 values in
the first two bins so the 17th value is in the
second bin. Since the 17th value is the
1
1st one in this bin of 12 values, use of
12
the bin width (200) and add it to 200:
1
Lower quartile is 200 + × 200 § 217
12

[Continued]

Reprint 2023 181

Example 1 Creating a Box Plot and a Histogram [Continued]
Solution Thinking
Estimate the upper quartile, Q3
The upper quartile is the median of the last half of the
data. Since there are 65 data values, it is the median of
the last 33 data values, or the 49th value. There are
48 data values in the first four bins and 58 in the first
five bins, so the 49th value is in the fifth bin. Since the
49th value is the 1st one in this bin of 10 numbers, use
1
of the bin width (200) and add it to 800:
10
1
Upper quartile is 800 + × 200 = 800 + 20 = 820
10
Estimate the extremes
• I used the end points
Minimum is 0 and maximum is 1199
of the bins containing
the least value (0 – 199)
Monthly Savings
and greatest value
Min Q1 Q2 (Median) Q3 Max
(1000 – 1199) to
0 217 525 820 1199
estimate the extremes.
18
16
• I noticed that if
14
I placed the box plot
12 above the histogram so
Frequency

10 they shared the same

8
scale, I could see how
the data values in
6
the histogram relate to
4 the median.
2

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Savings (Nu)

b) This histogram shows that the largest group of b) It's easier to get
people saves between Nu 0 and Nu 200 a month. frequency information
It also shows that, as the amount of savings increases, from the histogram and
fewer and fewer people save greater amounts. percentage information
The box and whisker plot shows that about 50% of from the box plot.
the people are able to save between about Nu 217 and
Nu 820 a month. It also shows that the median amount
saved is about Nu 525 a month.

Reprint 2023 182

Example 2 Comparing Two Data Sets Using Box and Whisker Plots
The lifespans of 30 Brand A batteries and 30 Brand B batteries are shown below.
Measured Lifespans (years) of Measured Lifespans (years) of
30 Brand A Batteries 30 Brand B Batteries
5.1 7.3 6.9 4.7 5.0 5.4 6.3 5.0 5.9 5.6
6.2 6.4 5.5 5.5 6.9 4.7 6.0 4.5 6.6 6.0
6.0 4.8 4.1 5.3 8.1 5.0 6.5 5.8 5.4 4.9
6.3 7.5 5.0 5.7 8.2 5.7 6.8 5.6 4.9 6.0
3.3 3.1 4.3 5.9 6.6 4.9 5.7 6.2 7.0 5.8
5.8 6.4 6.1 4.6 5.7 6.8 5.9 5.3 5.6 5.9

Which brand of battery appears to be more reliable? Explain.

Solution Thinking
5-Number Summary Brand A Brand B • I created two box
Minimum 3.1 4.5 plots on the same
Maximum 8.2 7.0 scale so I could
Lower quartile, Q1 5.0 5.3 compare shapes.
Median, Q2 5.75 5.75 • I ordered the data values in each
Upper quartile, Q3 6.4 6.0 set from least to greatest to find
Comparison of Battery Life the 5-number summaries.
• Each data set had 30 values so:
- the median, or Q2 was the mean
of the 15th and 16th numbers
- Q1 was the 8th number
- Q3 was the 23rd number
• I used a scale from 3 to 9 years
to allow for both brands’ maximum
and minimum values.
• I plotted the median (Q2),
minimum, maximum, and quartiles
(Q1 and Q3) for each brand, and
then drew the box and whiskers.
Battery life (years)
Both brands have the same median life. • 50% of Brand B batteries have
There is greater spread in the data for a lifespan between 5.3 and 6 years,
Brand A. The data set for Brand B has a while 50% of Brand A batteries
smaller range and is more closely clustered
have a lifespan of between 5 and
around its median. This means the battery
life for Brand B is more consistent and 6.4 years.
therefore more reliable.

Reprint 2023 183

Practising and Applying
1. An oil refinery conducted 40 daily 3. Here are a histogram and box plot
measurements of the carbon monoxide for the percentage of sugar found in
(CO) levels emitted by one of its stacks, 62 different brands of breakfast cereal
measured in parts per million (ppm). sold in stores in North America.
Daily Carbon Monoxide Measures (ppm)
4 30 52 85
12 34 55 86
15 36 58 86
15 37 58 99 22
20 38 58 102 20
18
20 40 59 102
16
20 42 63 110 14

Frequency
21 43 63 125 12
25 43 71 132 10
8
30 45 75 141 6
a) What is the 5-number summary? 4
2
b) Create a box plot. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
c) Create a frequency table. Use the Amount of sugar in cereal (%)
intervals 0 – 15, 15 – 30, 30 – 45, ... . a) Estimate the median sugar
d) Create a histogram on the same percentage.
scale as the box plot. b) Between about what two values do
e) What does each graph tell you about the middle 50% of the data values lie?
the situation in the refinery? c) Give a possible reason for the shape
of the histogram.
2. This stem and leaf plot shows the
number of days each member of a 4. Rajesh and Meto work at a computer
running club ran with the club in May. store. The data below shows the
Days Run number of items each has sold every
Stems Leaves month over the last 18 months.
Rajesh
0 4 6 6 7 8 8 8
51 17 25 39 7 49
1 0 1 3 5 5 8 9
2 0 1 62 41 20 6 43 13
3 0 45 54 63 44 25 32
Meto
a) Construct a histogram.
34 47 1 15 57 24
b) What is the 5-number summary?
20 11 19 50 28 37
c) Construct a box plot above
18 25 45 31 27 40
the histogram.
a) Make two box and whisker plots
d) Compare how the two graphs show
using the same scale.
how the data is distributed.
b) Use the plots to compare their sales.

Reprint 2023 184

5. A group of Canadian students were 7. Here are their exam marks.
surveyed about the amount of television Group 1
they watch each week. 153 150 132 123 148
a) Estimate the 5-number summary. 137 112 146 140 154
b) Construct a box and whisker plot and 152 110 133 125 140
a histogram on the same scale.
166 135 149 88 105
c) Discuss how each graph shows Group 2
the distribution of the data. 184 69 129 150 157
Television Watched by Canadian Students 167 141 179 124 166
Hours Number of students 168 159 165 180 148
10 – 15 2 133 175 160 155 125
15 – 20 12 a) Make two box plots using the same
20 – 25 23 scale.
25 – 30 97 b) Do the conditions under which each
group took the test appear to have
30 – 35 40
affected the results? Explain.
35 – 40 38
40 – 45 8 8. In the frequency table below, the 50
states in the United States are grouped
6. The following data represents the by the dates they joined the country.
points scored by Dema and Lemo in Number of
their last 20 basketball games. Years states added
Dema 1775 – 1800 16
25 19 12 8 11 1800 – 1825 8
22 20 18 15 13 1825 – 1850 6
19 24 14 9 13 1850 – 1875 7
26 22 20 18 15 1875 – 1900 8
Lemo 1900 – 1925 3
9 12 29 15 18 1925 – 1950 0
20 32 8 10 12 1950 – 1975 2
6 4 14 22 35
30 12 7 28 15 a) Estimate the 5-number summary
and construct a box plot.
a) Create a pair of box plots on the
same scale. b) If you had the exact date that each
state joined the United States and
b) Create a pair of histograms on the
constructed a box plot for this data set,
same scale. Use the same scale as
would it look exactly the same as
for the box plots.
the one you created in part a)? Explain.
c) What conclusions can you make
using each pair of graphs? 9. Explain how you would estimate the
value of the lower quartile for a set of
7. Two groups of students wrote an data in a frequency table or histogram.
exam. Both groups performed similarly
on past exams. On this exam, Group 1 10. What information does a box plot
took the exam under difficult conditions provide that a histogram does not?
(the room was cold and noisy), while
Group 2 had better conditions.

Reprint 2023 185

6.1.4 Data Distribution

Try This
This histogram shows the Mass of Students
10
distribution of the mass in
kilograms of the students in
Dorji’s class.
8

A. i) Describe the shape of

the graph. 6

Frequency
ii) Suggest why the graph might
have this shape.
4

0
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Mass (kg)

A frequency polygon is created by using line Time Spent on Homework

segments to join the midpoints of histogram
bar tops, as shown in the graph to the right.
It is used to smooth out the "steps" of the
histogram and form a simpler representation
of the histogram and make it easier to identify
a curve of best fit and predict trends.

Mean time daily (min)

A histogram creates a picture that can help you interpret how a set of data
is distributed. The distribution is classified by the shape associated with the
histogram and corresponding frequency polygon. The shape of a histogram
is affected by the size of the intervals chosen and how the data values are
distributed among the intervals.
The following shapes, or distributions are described as follows
• A mound-shaped or normal distribution is
almost symmetrical about a line passing through
the interval with the greatest frequency. Its
frequency polygon is a mound-like curve.

If you roll a pair of dice and record the sum, you could get a normal distribution.
A sum of 7 should occur most often and would be in the middle. Sums of 2 and 12
would be the least frequent and would be represented by the outermost bars.

Reprint 2023 186

Many natural variables, such as mass or height of a large sample of humans,
have a frequency polygon that forms a mound-shaped curve that looks like a bell,
called the normal curve. Experience has shown that, as the sample size
increases, the distribution of data will more closely resemble this curve.

In a normal distribution,
- there are very few
exceptionally large or Normal curve,
small data values or normal
- the mean is in the distribution
middle and is about the
same as the median
and mode

A box plot of the data

will look symmetrical.

• In a skewed distribution,
the intervals with the greatest
frequency are near one end of
the histogram.

If the distribution is right or positively

skewed, most large frequencies occur
on the left side of the histogram, Right skewed,
or positive
creating a frequency polygon with a
distribution
tail that appears to be pulled to the
right. These extreme values pull the
mean to the right so it is greater than
the median.

A box plot of the data looks as if

the box was shifted to the left —
the right whisker is longer, and
the median is closer to the left side of
the box.
A histogram of the number of children in a Canadian family would have a right, or
positively skewed distribution because most families have one or two children, and
fewer and fewer families have more children.

Reprint 2023 187

If the distribution is left or negatively
skewed, most large frequencies occur on
the right side of the histogram, creating a Left skewed,
frequency polygon with a tail that or negative
appears to be pulled to the left. These distribution
extreme values pull the mean to the left
so it is less than the median.

A box plot of the data looks as if the box

was shifted to the right — the left whisker
is longer, and the median is closer to the
right side of the box.
If most students did well on a math test and only a few did poorly, the scores
on the test would form a left or negatively skewed distribution.

• A U-shaped distribution peaks at both ends of

the range and can be described as bimodal. The
frequency polygon is a U-shaped curve and indicates
that there may be two different groups within the data.

The distribution of the heights of a group of 18-year-old students could have a

U-shaped distribution. The females would have a different average height than
the males. The first mound would consist primarily of the heights of the female
students and the second mound would consist primarily of male heights.

• In a uniform distribution, each bin has a similar

frequency. The frequency polygon resembles a
straight line that has very little slope.
The distribution that shows the frequency of each roll of a
die rolled 100 times could have this shape. Each outcome
(1 to 6) is equally likely, so the frequencies for each are
likely to be about the same.

B. Which distribution describes the histogram, Mass of Students, from part A?

Examples
Example 1 Creating a Frequency Polygon
This frequency table shows the magnitude of Earthquakes in Canada
earthquakes in Canada from 1960 to 1964. Magnitude Frequency
a) Create a histogram and a frequency polygon. 4.35 – 4.85 1
b) Describe the shape of the frequency polygon. 4.85 – 5.35 13
c) Classify the type of distribution this represents. 5.35 – 5.85 12
d) Why might this type of distribution occur with 5.85 – 6.35 6
earthquake data? 6.35 – 6.85 5
6.85 – 7.35 3

Reprint 2023 188

Solution Thinking
a) Earthquakes in Canada 1960 to 1964 a) I created
14 the histogram
and then used
12
a line to join
10 the midpoints of
the top of each bar to create
Frequency

8
the frequency polygon.
6

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Magnitude
b) The frequency polygon rises quickly, then b) The intervals with the
decreases more slowly to the right. greatest frequencies are the
c) The distribution is right, or positively skewed. 2nd and 3rd bars. The bars
d) It makes sense that violent earthquakes decrease in size as you move
would happen less often than moderate ones. to the right.

Example 2 Identifying Type of Distribution

Identify the type of data distribution each situation will likely show.
a) The frequency of the possible outcomes when a spinner divided into four
equal sections, each a different colour, is spun 50 times
b) The frequency of the heights of all the females in Class 10 in your school
c) The number of people walking near a school each hour from 7 am to 7 pm
d) The frequency of mothers by age, 20 years and older, who gave birth to
their first child in Bhutan last year
Solution Thinking
a) Uniform a) The number of times each colour is spun should
distribution be about the same, since each sector is the same
size, so the probability of spinning each would be
the same. The bars in the histogram should all have
about the same height.

b) Normal b) There should be a large group of female students whose

distribution heights will be about the same and close to the median height for
a female in class 10. The number of females who are extremely
short or tall will be few. The histogram will be mound-shaped.
[Continued]

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Example 2 Identifying Type of Distribution [Continued]
Solution Thinking
c) U-shaped c) There will many students walking near the
distribution school in the morning and late afternoon as
they go to and from school. These time
intervals will have the tallest bars in the
histogram, giving it a U-shape.

d) Right or d) Most of the mothers who gave birth would have been in
positively skewed their early twenties. The frequency will decrease as age
distribution increases. The histogram will have bars decreasing in
height, with the tallest bars on the left.

Example 3 Examining a Data Distribution

This frequency table and histogram show the lifespan in hours of 400 light bulbs
that were tested at a light bulb manufacturing company.
Frequency Light Bulb Lifespan
(number 80
Lifespan
(hours) of light 70
bulbs)
60
300 – 400 20
400 – 500 40 50
Frequency

500 – 600 56 40
600 – 700 75
30
700 – 800 78
20
800 – 900 55
900 – 1000 50 10

1000 – 1100 18 0
400 600 800 1000 1200
1100 – 1200 8
Time (h)
a) Identify the type of distribution.
b) Estimate the mean, median, and mode. Show your work.
c) How do the mean, median, and mode relate to each other in this distribution?
d) Describe how the distribution relates to the median.
Solution Thinking
a) Normal distribution a) The graph has
an almost symmetrical
mound shape, which
indicates a normal
distribution.

Reprint 2023 190

 Light Bulb Lifespan b) The set of data is
Lifespan Frequency grouped, so there is no
(hours) (number of light bulbs) way of knowing the
300 – 400 20 individual times. I knew
400 – 500 40 I would have to estimate.
500 – 600 56 • To estimate the mean:
600 – 700 75 - I used the midpoint of each bin
700 – 800 78 to represent each data value in the bin
800 – 900 55 and then multiplied by the number of
900 – 1000 50 data values in the bin. For example, the
1000 – 1100 18 midpoint of the 300 to 400 bin was 350
and, since there were 20 values in the
1100 – 1200 8
300 to 400 bin, I multiplied 350 × 20.
b) Estimate the mean I did this for each bin.
[350 × 20 + 450 × 40 + 550 × 56 + - I found the total of all the estimated
650 × 75 + 750 × 78 + 850 × 55 + data values.
950 × 50 + 1050 × 18 + 1150 × 8] - I divided the total by 400, the total
÷ 400 number of light bulbs tested.
= 285,400 ÷ 400 = 713.5 • To estimate the median:
- I figured that with 400 pieces of
Estimate the median data, the median would be the mean of
9 .5 the 200th and 201st values.
700 + × 100 = 700 + 12.2 = 712.2
78 - I counted 191 data values in the first
four bins (20 + 40 + 56 + 75) and 269
Estimate the mode (191 + 78) in the first five bins, so
Midpoint of 700 to 800 is 750 I knew the median was the mean of
the 9th and 10th values in the fifth bin
(700 to 800).
c) All three averages: the mean, the
median, and the mode, occur in the - I assumed all 78 values were spread
same interval, 700 to 800. The evenly over the bin of 100 values, so the
estimated mean and median suggest 1
1st value would be 700 + × 100, the
they all occur early in the interval. That 78
might also be true for the mode, but 1
there is no way to be sure. 2nd value would be 700 + × 100, and
78
so on.
• To estimate the mode, I found the
middle value in the most frequent
interval, 700 to 800.
d) The graph appears to be almost d) About the same number of data
symmetric about a line through values lie on either side of the median
the median. with a bit more on the left.

Reprint 2023 191

Practising and Applying
1. For each histogram, sketch 3. d) All of the trees in this sample are
the frequency polygon and identify the same type and age. Why are they
the type of distribution. not all the same size?
a) b)
4. To determine the health of a stand of
trees, Rajesh, an employee who works
in the National Forest, wants to know
the typical height of a 5-year-old fir tree.
He measured a sample of trees from a
stand of 5-year-old trees.
c) d) Tree Heights (cm)
39 45 14 36 23
46 10 49 31 34
24 45 57 41 42
32 22 21 31 45
43 60 48 28 33
e) f) 36 12 32 25 35
12 61 92 51 26
56 50 33 77 32
8 38 15 57 20
55 55 56 42 65
a) Create a histogram of the data and
2. For each histogram in question 1, identify the type of distribution.
sketch what the corresponding box plot b) Find the mean height of a 5-year-old
might look like. fir tree. How do you know the median
height is close to the mean height
3. The set of data was collected from
without calculating?
measurements of the diameters of
a sample of trees in the forest. 5. In 1798, the English scientist Henry
Tree Diameters (cm) Cavendish repeatedly measured the
10.6 14.3 14.7 15.3 15.5 density of the earth (tonnes/metre)
16.2 16.4 16.9 17.0 17.4 relative to that of water in a careful
17.9 18.0 18.7 18.7 19.1 experiment with a torsion balance.
Here are his 23 measurements.
19.2 19.5 19.5 19.6 20.2
Density of the Earth (t/m)
20.3 20.5 20.7 21.2 21.3
21.8 22.3 22.7 23.0 5.36 5.62 5.27 5.46 5.53
23.5
24.2 25.1 5.57 5.29 5.29 5.39 5.30
5.10 5.79 5.58 5.44 5.42
5.75 5.34 5.63 5.65 5.34
5.47 5.68 5.85
a) Determine the mean, median, and
mode. How are they related?
b) Create a histogram of the data.
c) Describe the distribution.

Reprint 2023 192

6. The following box and whisker plots 7. The cars in order from top to bottom
represent the masses of three different are: Mirage, Tracer, 323, Civic, Festiva
varieties of apples grown in Canada. A M
sample of 80 apples was used for each.
Granny Smith T

323

Red Delicious C

F
McIntosh
18 22 26 30 34 38
Customer satisfaction ratings

180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 a) Which car seems to have the most
Mass (g) consistent ratings? Explain.
a) Which sample has a close-to-normal b) Are any of these data sets close to
distribution? Explain how you know. a normal distribution? Explain.
b) Which sample is left skewed? c) Identify the data sets that are right
Explain how you know. skewed. How do you know?
c) Which sample is right skewed? d) What conclusion can you draw from
Explain how you know. this set of data?
d) What does the distribution within 8. A fisheries researcher compiled the
each sample and the comparison of following data on lengths of 6-year-old
the distributions tell you about the goldfish in the same pond.
apples in each sample?
Goldfish Lengths (mm)
217 230 220 221 225
219 217 225 228 234
231 226 220 226 222
225 214 221 233 227
223 225 238 220 213
235 240 210 218 235
223 226 223 234 224
231
a) Make a histogram and frequency
polygon of the data.
A McIntosh, a Red Delicious, and b) Describe the distribution.
a Granny Smith apple c) How likely would it be for a goldfish
within each of the following ranges to
7. The box plots at the top of the next be found in the same pond? Explain.
column show consumer satisfaction 210 mm to 220 mm
ratings for five different types of cars 220 mm to 230 mm
that are popular in North America.

Reprint 2023 193

9. Identify the distribution of the data in each table. Explain your thinking.
Table A Table B
10 – 19 3 2–5 7
20 – 29 5 6–9 8
30 – 39 17 10 – 13 9
40 – 49 20 14 – 17 3
50 – 59 11 18 – 21 1
60 – 69 4 22 – 25 1

CONNECTIONS: Normal Distribution and Sample Size

Suppose you measured the heights of all

the students in your class and then
graphed the data in a histogram.
• What type of distribution do you think
the data would have?
• How do you think the distribution would
compare with a histogram that included
the heights of all the students in your
school?

1. a) Measure the heights of all the

students in your class and record the data.
b) Organize your data in a frequency table
using an appropriate bin width. Create
a histogram and frequency polygon.
c) Describe the shape of the frequency
polygon and identify the distribution.

2. a) Have your teacher ask the teachers in your school to provide the height
measurements of the students in their classes.
b) Collect the data and create a frequency table, histogram, and frequency
polygon for the new data. Do not forget to include the data from your own class.
c) Compare the data from your class to the data from the whole school.
Discuss the similarities and differences.

Reprint 2023 194

Chapter 2 Data Involving Two Variables
6.2.1 Correlation and Lines of Best Fit

Try This
On a spring day at Paro International Airport, a pilot flying for Druk Air noticed
that the temperature gauge showed the following outside temperatures as the
plane’s altitude increased on takeoff.

Altitude (km) 6.9 7.0 7.5 8.1 8.7 9.0 9.5 10.8
Temperature (°C) 15 13 5 –5 –15 –26 –44 –60

A. Create a scatter plot of the data. Is a line of best fit appropriate? Explain.
B. Describe the correlation. Is it positive or negative? weak or strong?

• Variables are things that you measure, control, or manipulate in experiments

and in research. A set of data involving two different variables is often collected
and then graphed to determine whether a relationship exists between the
independent and dependent variables.
• The independent variable, usually x, is the quantity for which you choose values.
The dependent variable, often y, is the quantity whose values are measured as
they are affected by different values of the independent variable.
• If you wanted to see whether there was a relationship between two variables,
for example, a student's height and age, you would
- Determine which is the independent variable and which was the dependent
variable. In this case, age would be independent and height would be dependent.
- Choose students of different ages and then measure their heights.
- Record the students’ ages and heights in a table of values.
Independent variable (x) Dependent variable (y)
Age Height

- Plot the data in a scatter plot, with the

vertical axis for the dependent variable,
height, and the horizontal axis for the
independent variable, age.

Reprint 2023 195

 The resulting pattern of points indicates
the type and strength of the relationship
between the variables.
If the data is continuous and shows a linear
relationship, as it does for this age and
height data, a line of best fit can be drawn
through the plotted points, as shown to the
right. The line of best fit is used to create an
equation to represent the relationship.
Note that a line of best fit is not appropriate if
there is no apparent linear relationship or if
the data values are discrete.

• Correlation is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two

variables. If the relationship is strong, you can use one variable to predict
values for the other. Note that this does not mean there is a cause-and-effect
relationship, that is, that one causes the other. Both variables may be affected
by something other than each other.
For example, in North America, an increase in outdoor temperature in warmer
months causes an increase in ice-cream sales. At the same time, an increase in
outdoor temperature also causes an increase in crime rates. So, if you graph
ice-cream sales against crime rates, you will see a correlation and you can
predict crime rates from ice-cream sales. However, you cannot conclude that
higher ice-cream sales cause crime. It is the higher temperatures that are
affecting both ice-cream sales and crime rates.

• You can estimate a correlation by examining the pattern of points in a scatter

plot. A scatter plot of a relationship between two variables shows
- a positive correlation when the pattern of points slopes up and to the right, which
means the two quantities increase together
- a negative correlation when the pattern slopes down and to the right, which
means as one quantity increases the other decreases
- no correlation when no pattern appears
- a strong correlation when the points form a line or nearly form a line
- a weak correlation when the points are dispersed widely, but roughly form a line
Note that you do not need a line of best fit to establish a correlation as correlations
apply to both continuous and discrete data.

• The correlation coefficient is a numerical value, represented by r, which ranges

from –1 to 1. You can use it to represent the extent to which two variables are
linearly related. It can be calculated using a complex formula, but most graphing
calculators and statistical computer programs can easily determine the value.

Reprint 2023 196

The closer the value of r to 1 or to –1, the stronger the correlation, positive
or negative.

A correlation coefficient of exactly 1

Dependent variable
means the data is perfectly linear, and
as one variable increases, the other
variable also increases. We call this a
perfect positive linear correlation.
If the data values are continuous, No scatter
you can draw a line of best fit.

Independent variable
r=1
A correlation coefficient close to 1
means the data values are clustered
close to a line stretching from the lower Dependent variable
left to the upper right. We call this a
strong positive linear correlation. Small
scatter
As one variable increases, the other
variable also increases but the
correlation is not as strong as with a
correlation of exactly 1.
If the data values are continuous,
you can draw a line of best fit. Independent variable
r is close to 1
A correlation coefficient close to 0.5
means the data values are loosely
clustered in a line from the lower left to
Dependent variable

the upper right. We call this a weak

positive linear correlation.
As one variable increases, the other
variable also increases, but the Large
correlation is not as strong as with a scatter
correlation of close to 1.
If the data values are continuous,
you can draw a line of best fit. Independent variable
r is close to 0.5

Reprint 2023 197

A correlation coefficient of exactly –1
means the data values are perfectly

Dependent variable
linear, and as one variable increases, No scatter
the other variable decreases. We call
this a perfect negative linear correlation.
If the data values are continuous,
you can draw a line of best fit.

Independent variable
r = –1
A correlation coefficient close to –1
means the data values are clustered
close to a line stretching from the upper

Dependent variable
left to the lower right. We call this a
strong negative linear correlation.
As one variable increases, the other Small
variable decreases, but the correlation scatter
is not as strong as with a correlation
of –1.
If the data values are continuous,
you can draw a line of best fit.
Independent variable
r is close to –1
A correlation coefficient close to –0.5
means the data values appear to be Large scatter
somewhat linear and are loosely
Dependent variable

clustered in a line from the upper left to

the lower right. We call this a weak
negative linear correlation.
As one variable increases, the other
variable decreases, but the correlation
is not as strong as with a correlation of
close to –1.
If the data values are continuous,
Independent variable
you can draw a line of best fit.
r is close to –0.5

Reprint 2023 198

A correlation coefficient of 0 means the
data values show no linear relationship.

Dependent variable
As values of one variable increase,
some values of the other variable
increase while others decrease. Very large
We say this data set has no linear scatter in all
directions
correlation.
Even if the data values are continuous,
you cannot draw a line of best fit. Independent variable
r=0

C. Estimate the value of the correlation coefficient for the outside temperature
data from part A. Explain your estimate.

Examples
Example 1 Examining the Strength of a Relationship
This scatter plot shows gold medal throws in the men’s
discus competition for the Summer Olympics, 1908 to 1992.
a) Is a line of best fit appropriate for this data set? Explain.
b) Estimate the correlation coefficient.
c) The Olympics were not held in 1944 because of World
War II. Use the graph to predict what the distance in 1944
might have been. How confident are you in your prediction?

Gold Medal Discus Throws (Olympics)

72

64
Distance (m)

56

48

40

1908 1920 1932 1944 1956 1968 1980 1992

[Continued]

Reprint 2023 199

Example 1 Examining the Strength of a Relationship [Continued]
Solution Thinking
a) A line of best fit is not appropriate. a) Even though the
The data values are discrete since points form a linear
the Olympics only happen every 4 years, pattern, you can’t draw
so there are no data values between
a line of best fit
the plotted points.
because Olympic years
b) The correlation coefficient is close to 1.
are discrete.
c) Gold Medal Discus Throws (Olympics)
b) The data values are not perfectly
72 linear, but there is definitely a
linear relationship. The points rise
64 from left to right indicating that
Distance (m)

as time progresses, the winning

56 distances increase. This shows a
strong positive correlation, which
48
is close to 1.
40
c) To help interpolate, or predict
for 1944, I drew a dashed line to
1908 1920 1932 1944 represent the linear relationship.

It looks like the winning distance in 1944

would have been about 53 m. Since the
correlation is strong, I am fairly confident
in my prediction.

Example 2 Estimating and Describing Correlation

For each scatter plot
a) describe the type of correlation
b) estimate the correlation coefficient
c) decide if there is a relationship between the variables and explain your thinking
Bacteria vs. Temperature
Number of bacteria (1000s)

Math Mark vs. Hair Length

Math mark

Hair length Temperature (ºC)

Reprint 2023 200

Solution Thinking
Math mark vs. Hair length a) The points were widely
a) no correlation scattered and with no linear
b) The correlation coefficient would pattern.
be about 0. b) With no correlation, I knew
c) There appears to be no linear r was close to 0.
relationship between a student's
math mark and hair length. That c) Since there was no correlation, I knew
makes sense, because the length there was no relationship.
of your hair should not affect how
well you learn at school.
Bacteria vs. Temperature
a) The points were scattered but clustered
a) a weak negative correlation
along a line with a negative slope.
b) The correlation coefficient would
be negative and it would be closer b) The correlation coefficient is negative
to –0.5 than –1. because as one variable increases, the
c) There is a weak linear other decreases. Since the correlation was
relationship between temperature weak, I knew r was closer to –0.5 than –1.
and number of bacteria. That
c) As temperature rises, the number of
makes sense, since the bacteria
cannot live in high temperatures. bacteria decreases.

Example 3 Correlation and Cause and Effect

A data set was collected that compared life expectancy (LE) to the number of
people per television in a number of countries.
No. of No. of
Country LE people/TV Country LE people/TV
$UJHQWLQD 70.5 4.0  3KLOLSSLQHV 64.5 8.8
&DQDGD 76.5 1.7  3RODQG 73.0 3.9
&KLQD 70.0 8.0  5RPDQLD 72.0 6.0
&RORPELD 71.0 5.6  6$IULFD 64.0 11.0
)UDQFH 78.0 2.6  7DLZDQ 75.0 3.2
*HUPDQ\ 76.0 2.6  7KDLODQG 68.5 11.0
,QGRQHVLD 61.0 24.0  8. 76.0 3.0
-DSDQ 79.0 1.8  86 75.5 1.3
0H[LFR 72.0 6.6  9HQH]XHOD 74.5 5.6
0RURFFR 64.5 21.0
[Continued]

Reprint 2023 201

Example 3 Correlation and Cause and Effect [Continued]
Rishi created a scatter plot and drew the line of best fit
Life Expectancy vs. Number of People per TV
50
45
Number of people per TV

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Life expectancy (years)
a) What are the independent and dependent variables?
b) What does this scatter plot tell you about the relationship?
c) Explain why a line of best fit is appropriate for this situation.
d) Estimate the correlation coefficient and describe the correlation.
e) Rishi concluded that, in order to increase life expectancy, the number of
televisions in the country must be increased. Is his conclusion valid? Explain.
Solution Thinking
a) The independent variable is life a) Life expectancy is on
expectancy and the dependent the x-axis and number of
variable is number of people per TV. people/TV is on the y-axis.
b) It shows that the number of
c) Life expectancy can be
people per TV in a country is
related to life expectancy. any number, not just whole
numbers, so it's continuous and the data
c) The data values are continuous
set shows a linear trend.
and there appears to be a linear
correlation so a line of best fit is d) The data points are close together in
appropriate. a linear pattern that goes down from
d) The correlation coefficient is left to right in a negative slope.
close to –1, which is a strong
e) A strong correlation only tells you
negative correlation.
that two data sets are correlated. It
e) No. The scatter plot shows that doesn't tell you that a change in the
you can make a reasonable independent variable causes the change
prediction of life expectancy if you
know number of people per TVs or in the dependent variable.
vice versa. But you cannot Maybe there is some other factor that
conclude that an increase in the influences both variables, such as
number of TVs in a country will prosperity, since that often leads both
increase life expectancy. A
to more TVs and to longer life
correlation, even if it is strong, does
not mean cause and effect. expectancy.

Reprint 2023 202

Practising and Applying
1. a) Examine each scatter plot. What 3. a) What are the independent and
type of correlation is shown — positive, the dependent variables? Explain.
negative, or no correlation? Explain. Cricket Chirp Rate
b) Estimate the value of the correlation Temp. (oC) Chirps per second
coefficient for each scatter plot. 15 20
I II 17 27
16 22
18 30
15 19
16 21
16 20
16 24
III IV
15 22
14 24
16 25
b) Create a scatter plot for the data. Is
a line of best fit appropriate? Explain.
c) Estimate the correlation coefficient.
Describe the type of correlation.
2. Is each pair of variables described d) If the temperature were 10oC, how
below positively correlated, negatively many chirps per second would you
correlated, or not correlated? For those expect? Explain your prediction.
with a correlation, explain your thinking. e) How confident are you in your
a) temperature and altitude prediction for part d)? Explain.
b) the size of a person’s hand and the
amount in that person’s savings account 4. A movie theatre monitors weekly
c) outside temperature and cold drink attendance during the first 10 weeks
sales of a movie’s showing.
d) the length of a student’s fingernails Movie Attendance
and his or her final grade in English Week Attendance
e) the number of pages left to be read in 1 2246
a book and the number of pages already 2 2115
read 3 1935
4 1675
3. The rate at which crickets chirp is 5 1440
related to air temperature as shown in 6 1200
the table at the top of the next column.
7 995
8 722
9 664
10 590
a) Create a scatter plot for the data.
Is a line of best fit appropriate?
Explain. [Continued]

Reprint 2023 203

4. [Cont'd] b) Estimate the correlation 6. One way runners are measured is
coefficient. Justify your decision. by stride rate (number of steps per
c) The movie will close when weekly second). In a study of 21 top female
attendance drops below 350. Predict runners, researchers measured the
when the movie will close. Explain your stride rate for different speeds. This
predicted. table gives the average stride rate of
in relation to the speed.
5. The winning women’s Olympic Female Stride Rates
long-jump distances for the years 1948 Speed (miles/h) Stride rate
to 2000 are shown in this table.
4.83 3.05
Women’s Long-jump
5.15 3.12
Year Distance (m)
5.33 3.17
1948 5.69
5.68 3.25
1952 6.24
6.09 3.36
1956 6.35
6.42 3.46
1960 6.37
6.74 3.55
1964 6.76
1968 6.82 a) Create a scatter plot and determine
whether there is a linear relationship.
1972 6.78
b) Is a line of best fit appropriate?
1976 6.72 Explain.
1980 7.06 c) Would it make sense to use this
1984 6.96 graph to estimate the stride rate of
1988 7.40 a runner for a speed of 50 miles/h?
1992 7.14
Explain.
1996 7.12 7. Compare the correlations shown in
2000 6.99 Figures A and B below.
a) Estimate the correlation coefficient
a) Create a scatter for each scatter plot.
plot. Is a line of best b) Compare the correlations.
fit appropriate?
Explain. Figure A Figure B
b) Estimate
the correlation
coefficient. Justify
your decision.
c) If the Olympics
had been held in
1944, what might
the winning distance have been?
d) Why is it difficult to predict the
distance of the winning jump in the
2016 Olympics?

Reprint 2023 204

6.2.2 Non-Linear Data and Curves of Best Fit

Try This
The table below relates the number of marked intersection points (dots)
within or on each large triangle to the side length of the large triangle.
(The side length of each small triangle is 1 unit.)

Number of
Side length intersection
(units) points
1 0
2 3
3 7
4
5
6

A. Complete the table above.

B. i) Sketch a scatter plot of the data.
ii) Does there appear to be a linear relationship? Explain.

Not all relationships between variables are linear. Sometimes a curve fits the
pattern of points in a scatter plot better than a straight line.
• A non-linear relationship can be modelled by a curve of best fit, when the
data values are continuous. We often use only part of the curve to model the
relationship. The types of curves are described below.
Height of a Tossed Ball
A quadratic curve or 7
relationship 6
A quadratic curve, called a
5
parabola, can be used to
Height (m)

represent a relationship such as 4

the relationship between time and
3
the height of a ball that has been
tossed into the air. 2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time (s)

Reprint 2023 205

 Amount of an Investment (Compound Interest)
An exponential curve or $2,500.00

relationship
$2,000.00
An exponential curve can be
used to represent a $1,500.00

Amount
relationship such as the
relationship between time $1,000.00
and the amount of an
investment earning $500.00
compound interest.
$0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (years)

Height Above Ground While on Ferris Wheel

22
Other curves or non-
linear relationships 18
A repeating or periodic
14
Height (m)

curve can be used to

represent a relationship 10
such as the relationship
between time and the 6
height of a person above
the ground while riding a 2
Ferris wheel.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

Volume vs. Edge Length of a Cube

140
A cubic curve can be
used to represent a 120
relationship such as the
relationship between the 100
volume of a cube and its
Volume (m3)

edge length. 80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Edge length (m)

Reprint 2023 206

• As with a line of best fit, you can draw a Cars Sold in Canada 1982 to 1992
curve of best fit even if the points do not
fall exactly along the curve, as long as
the data values are continuous. You

Number of cars (100s)

need to decide on the type of curve that
best fits the pattern and find a position for
it that relates to the points. To do this,
draw a smooth curve that passes through
or near as many points as possible. A
piece of string may help you to decide
the shape and location of the curve.
• You can estimate and make predictions
from curves of best fit by interpolating
and extrapolating, just as you do with
lines of best fit. Year

C. Use the graph and the table from part A to predict the number of intersection
points there will be when the side length of the large triangle is 7 units. Explain
each prediction.
D. What do you think causes this type of curve? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Working With Quadratic Relationships
A relief package of food, water, and medicine is released from an airplane to
help people cope with the effects of an earthquake. The table below shows the
container’s height above ground for the first part of its freefall (up until the time
its parachute is fully open).

Time (s) Height above ground (m)

0 6000
4 5920
8 5680
12 5280
16 4720
20 4000

a) Create a scatter plot of the data.

b) Draw a curve of best fit. What kind of curve is this?
c) If the container continues to fall at this rate, about when will it be 3000 m
above the ground?
d) Does your estimate make sense? How do you know?
[Continued]

Reprint 2023 207

Example 1 Working With Quadratic Relationships [Continued]
Solution Thinking
a) Height Above Ground During Freefall a) Time is the
6000 independent
5000
variable and
height is the
4000
dependent
Height (m)

3000 variable because it makes

sense that the container's
2000
height will depend on elapsed
1000 time. I put time on the
horizontal axis and height on
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
the vertical axis.
Time (s)
b) Height Above Ground During Freefall b) I drew a decreasing curve
6000 that passed through all the
points.
5000
• The curve looks like half a
4000
parabola.
Height (m)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)
I think it is a quadratic curve.
c) Height Above Ground During Freefall c) I extended the curve past
6000 the last point to extrapolate.

5000

4000
Height (m)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)
The container will be at about 3000 m after 24 s.

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d) My prediction makes sense because d) After each 4 s interval it dropped
the next drop in height would be a drop 160 m more in height than the last
of 880 m, which means it would be at time: it dropped 80 m, then 240 m,
3120 m at 24 s. This is close to my
then 400 m, then 560, and then 720 m,
prediction of 3000 m at 24 s.
so the next drop would be 880 m.

Example 2 Working With Exponential Relationships

The population of a bacteria colony is measured over a 6 hour period.
Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bacteria count 1,800 3,700 9,100 11,500 35,100 64,100 125,900

a) Create a scatter plot and draw a curve of best fit. What kind of curve is this?
b) Estimate the bacteria count at 3 h, 15 min.
Solution Thinking
a) Bacteria Growth a) Time is the
140000
independent
120000
variable and
100000 bacteria count
Bacteria count

is the
80000
dependent variable because
60000 the number of bacteria
40000
depends on elapsed time.

20000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (h)

Bacteria Growth
140000 • I drew an increasing curve
that passed through or near
120000
as many points as possible.
100000 I also tried to get an equal
Bacteria count

number of points on either

80000
side of the curve.
60000

40000

20000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 • The curve increased really
Time (h) fast so I figured it was
I think this is an exponential curve. probably exponential.
[Continued]

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Example 2 Working With Exponential Relationships [Continued]
Solution Thinking
b) Bacteria Growth b) I estimated
140000
the count at
120000 3 h, 15 min by
interpolating
Bacteria count

100000
at 3.25 h on
80000
the horizontal axis
60000 (3 h, 15 min = 3.25 h).

40000

20000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (h)
The bacteria count was about 19,000 at 3 h, 15 min.

Practising and Applying

1. Identify the following as either linear, quadratic, exponential, or none of these.
a) b) c) d)

2. AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency AIDS cases

Syndrome is a disease that affects Year
(millions)
millions of people world-wide. This 1982 0
table shows the global estimates of 1983 0.1
cumulative AIDS cases from 1982 to
1984 0.2
1996.
1985 0.4
a) Create a scatter plot. Draw a curve
1986 0.7
of best fit.
1987 1.1
b) What kind of relationship is it?
1988 1.6
c) Why does this curve make sense for 1989 2.3
this set of data?
1990 3.2
d) Estimate the number of AIDS cases 1991 4.2
in 2000. Does your estimate make
1992 5.5
sense? Explain.
1993 6.9
1994 8.5
1995 10.4
1996 12.5

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3. The data set below was collected 4. The data values in the table below
from trees growing in a site with show estimates of the world’s
relatively poor soil quality. population over the last 2000 years.
Dia- Dia- Year Population (billions)
Age Age
meter meter 0 0.3
(years) (cm) (years)
(cm) 1000 0.32
4 2.03 23 11.94 1750 0.8
5 2.03 25 16.51 1800 1
8 2.54 28 15.24 1930 2
1960 3
8 5.08 29 11.43
1974 4
8 7.62 30 15.24
1987 5
10 5.08 30 17.78 1990 5.2
10 8.89 33 20.32 1992 5.4
12 12.45 34 16.51 1995 5.7
13 8.89 35 17.78 Create a graph and use it to estimate
14 6.35 38 12.70 the world's population in these years:
16 11.43 38 17.78 a) 500 b) 1500 c) 2000
18 11.68 40 19.05 5. These diagrams show points joined
20 13.97 42 19.05 by all possible line segments.
22 14.73 2 points 3 points

a) Use the data in the table to estimate

the diameter of a 32-year-old tree.
b) How confident are you in your
estimate? Explain. 4 points 5 points
c) Sketch a curve or line of best fit.
d) Use the sketch to answer part a)
and part b) again.

a) Extend the pattern to include a

figure with six points.
b) Make a table of values that relates
the number of points to the number of
line segments.
c) Graph the data.
d) Is the relationship between the
number of points and number of
line segments a linear or nonlinear
relationship? Explain.
e) Predict the number of line segments
for seven points. Explain your
prediction.

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6. Examine this square dot pattern. 6. b) Draw the graph of Sn vs. n.
c) Is it a linear or nonlinear relation?
Explain.
d) Predict Sn when n = 30. Explain
your prediction.

4 16 36 7. Suppose you are given a table of

a) Extend the pattern to form the next two values representing the results of
dot arrays and then complete the table an experiment and you draw a graph
of the data. What kinds of patterns
below (n is the figure number and Sn is
would you look for to decide each?
the number of dots in each figure).
a) if the relationship is linear
n 1 2 3 4 5
b) if the relationship is quadratic
Sn 4 16 36
c) if the relationship is exponential

CONNECTIONS: Data Collection by Census

Let's Get Counted!

On May 30 and 31, 2005, Bhutan conducted its first ever Population and Housing
Census in accordance with international standards, as prescribed by the United
Nations. The 2005 Census was undertaken on the basis of the command received
from His Majesty the King and the resolution of the 82nd National Assembly of
Bhutan. The Census gathered current data about the citizens of Bhutan and the
lives they lead.
1. Research.
• Find out what the word Census means.
• Discover who was involved in creating the Bhutan Census.
• Find out how the data sets were collected.
• Find out how what kinds of data were collected.
• Explain why you think the government would like to know this information.

2. Most countries around the world conduct censuses regularly.

• Research to find out which country has the oldest census data on record.
• What is the most common interval of time between censuses in most countries?

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Chapter 3 Probability
6.3.1 Dependent and Independent Events

Try This
A bag holds six bank notes — three are Nu 10 notes, two are Nu 20 notes, and
one is a Nu 50 note.

Six notes are inside:

• three Nu 10 notes
• two Nu 20 notes
• one Nu 50 note

A. Suppose you were to reach in without looking and draw out a note.
What is the probability that you will draw a Nu 20 note?
B. i) Suppose you draw a Nu 20 note and then replace it.
What is the probability that you will draw a Nu 20 note the next time?
ii) Suppose you draw a Nu 20 note and do not replace it.
What is the probability that you will draw a Nu 20 note the next time?

When you want to find the probability that two events will both occur, you must
first consider if and how the events are related. Sometimes the outcome of one
event will affect the outcome of another event.
• When the outcome of one event does not affect or depend on the other event,
the two events are independent events.
For example, if you were to toss a coin that lands with Khorlo-Mebar (Burning
1
Wheel) facing up and then roll a die, the probability of rolling a 2 is . If you were
6
to toss a coin and get Tashi Ta-gye (Eight Auspicious Signs) facing up and then
1
roll a die, the probability of rolling a 2 is still . The outcome of the coin toss does
6
not affect the outcome of the roll of the die because they are independent events.

1 1
P(2) = P(2) =
6 6
Tossing a coin and rolling a die are independent events — the result of the coin toss
does not change the probability of rolling a 2.

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• When the outcome of one event affects or depends on the outcome of another
event, the events are dependent events.
For example, suppose there are four triangular and four
square blocks in a bag. If a triangular block is drawn and
then replaced, the probability of drawing a triangular block
4
the next time is . These two events — drawing a triangular
8
block followed by drawing another triangular block after
replacing the first block — are independent because the
outcome of the first event does not affect the outcome of the
second event.
Suppose the triangular block were drawn and not replaced.
The probability of drawing a triangular block the next time
4 3
would change from to . These two events — drawing a triangular block
8 7
followed by drawing another triangular block without replacing the first block —
are dependent events because the outcome of the second event was affected
by the outcome of the first event. The outcome of the first event changed the
sample space for the second from 8 possible outcomes to 7 possible outcomes
because one block was removed.
Independent Events Dependent Events

Drawing a triangle block, replacing it, and Drawing a triangle block and not replacing
then drawing another triangle block it, then drawing another triangle block

C. Look back at your answers to part B on the previous page.

i) Why are the probabilities different between parts i) and ii)?
ii) Which situation involves dependent events? How do you know?

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Examples
Example 1 Probability of Independent and Dependent Events
a) Which pair describes two independent events? Which are dependent events?
Pair A Pair B
• drawing a 4 from a deck of number • drawing a black tile and not replacing it
cards (0 – 9) • drawing a white tile on the second draw
• rolling a 4 on a die

b) For pair A, what is the probability of rolling a four on the die?

c) For pair B, what is the probability of drawing a white tile in the second draw
if the first tile drawn was black?
Solution Thinking
a) a) I know the two events in pair A are
Pair A independent because, no matter what number
independent events card you draw, it doesn't affect the outcome
of rolling the die.
• The two events in pair B are dependent.
Pair B
The probability of drawing a particular colour on the second
dependent events
draw is affected by what you draw the first time because
the first tile drawn isn't replaced. This affects the sample
space — instead of 10 tiles to drawn from, there are now
9 tiles. So the probability of drawing a second white tile is
4 3
if a black tile is drawn the first time or if a white tile
9 9
is drawn the first time.

b) b) When two events are independent, you can figure out the
Pair A probability of the second event as if it were a separate
1
event because it isn't affected by the other event. Since
P(4) = there are 6 equally possible outcomes when you roll a die
6
1
and 1 of the outcomes is four, the probability is .
6
c) c) If there are 10 tiles to start with and 1 black tile is
Pair B drawn and not replaced, there are 9 tiles left, or 9 possible
4 outcomes. Since 4 white tiles are still in the bag, there's
P(white) =
9 4
a chance that a white tile will be drawn next.
9

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Example 2 Deciding if Events are Independent or Dependent
Dawa spins this spinner twice.
Are these two events independent?
Event A Spinning a 1 on the first spin
Event B Spinning a number on the second spin such that
the sum of both spins is 5
Show your work.

Solution 1 Thinking
Create an outcome chart • I knew if the probability of
Spin 2 Event B was not affected by
1 2 3 Event A, they were independent.
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) • I created an outcome chart to find
Spin 1

2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) all possible outcomes of two spins.

3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3)

If A happens … • Event A (spinning a 1 on the first spin) was

Spin 2 represented by the first row of the chart. That
1 2 3 meant the sample space for Event B was only
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) 3 possible outcomes because there are only three
Spin 1

2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) possible outcomes if the first spin has to be 1.

3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) Since 0 of them result in a sum of 5, the
P(B) = 0 probability of Event B happening if Event A
0
happens is , or 0.
3
• Then I thought about what would happen if
If A does not happen …
Event A didn't happen (if the first spin was a 2
Spin 2
or a 3). This was represented by the second and
1 2 3
third rows of the chart, so the sample space for
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3)
Event B was now 6 possible events (since there
Spin 1

2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) are only six possible outcomes if the first spin
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) was 2 or 3). Since only 2 of these result in a sum
2 of 5, (2, 3) and (3, 2), the probability of Event B
P(B) =
6 2 1
happening, if Event A didn't happen, is or .
6 3

Since P(B) = 0 if Event A • Since the probability of Event B is affected

1 by the outcome of Event A (whether Event A
happens, and P(B) = if
3 happens or not), I knew the two events are
Event A does not happen, dependent.
Events A and B are
dependent (and therefore,
they are not independent).

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Solution 2 Thinking
If my first spin is 2 or 3, I can get a sum of 5 on I used reasoning
my second spin. If my first spin is 1, a sum of 5 to figure it out.
on my second spin is impossible. That means
the outcome of Event A affects Event B so they
cannot be independent events.

Practising and Applying

1. The 11 letters in the word 3. You spin this
PROBABILITY are written on 11 cards spinner twice.
and placed in a bag. Two cards are Tell whether 5 1
drawn from the bag, one after the other. the events in
a) You draw a card with the letter B and each pair below
are dependent or 4 2
then replace it. What is the probability
that you will draw a card with the letter independent.
3
B on the second draw? Explain how you
know.
b) You draw a card with the letter B and
do not replace it. What is the probability a) Event A First spin is 4
that you will draw a card with the letter Event B Second spin is 4
B on the second draw? b) Event A First spin is even
c) Are the probabilities in part a) and Event B Second spin is odd
part b) the same or different? Why? c) Event A First spin is 3
d) Which are dependent, the two events Event B The sum of the first and
in part a) or the two events in part b)? second spin is 3
How do you know? d) Event A first spin is 2
Event B the difference between
2. A bag contains the first and second spins is 1
three white tiles and
four black tiles. You 4. Is each pair of events described
reach in and draw one below independent or dependent?
tile and then you draw How do you know?
another tile. Pair A
What is the probability • Rolling a 2 on a die
of drawing each? • Rolling a second time and getting
a number that results in a total of 5 or
a) a second white tile if the first tile
more for both rolls
drawn is white and you replace it
before drawing again Pair B
• Rolling a 3 or a 4 on the first roll of
b) a second white tile if the first tile
a die
drawn is white and you do not replace it
• Rolling a number less than 5 on
c) a white tile on the second draw if the second roll
the first tile drawn is black and you
replace it 5. a) Describe two events that are
dependent. How do you know they
d) a white tile on the second draw if
are dependent?
the first tile drawn is black and you
do not replace it b) Describe two events that are
independent. How do you know they
are independent?

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6.3.2 Calculating Probabilities

Try This
Dechen is going to spin this spinner twice.
A. i) What is the probability that she will spin a 3 on
the first spin?
ii) What is the probability that on her second spin
she will spin a number that is greater than the
number she spun the first time?
iii) What is the probability that she will spin a sum of
4 on the two spins?

• To calculate the probability of two independent events happening, you can

calculate the product of each event happening.
For example, consider these two independent events involving rolling a die twice:
Event A Event B
Rolling a 1 on the first roll Rolling an even number on the second roll
1 1
P(A: 1 on first roll) = P(B: even on second roll) =
6 2
The probability of rolling a 1 on the first roll and an even number on the second roll
1 1 1
is P(A, B) = × = .
6 2 12
1
The tree diagram below shows why makes sense — there are 12 possible
12
outcomes in the sample space when you roll two dice and only one of them is a
roll of 1 followed by a roll of an even number, (1, E).
First Roll 1 2 3 4 5 6

Second roll E O E O E O E O E O E O
(1, E) (1, O) (2, E) (2, O) (3, E) (3, O) (4, E) (4, O) (5, E) (5, O) (6, E) (6, O)
1
The probability of rolling a 6 and then rolling an even number is 1 in 12, or .
12
• If two events are dependent, the separate probabilities of each event happening
cannot be multiplied to calculate the probability of both events happening because
one outcome is related to the other. This fact can be used to determine in two
events are dependent or independent.
For example, consider these two events involving rolling a die twice:
Event A Rolling a 1 in the first roll Event B Rolling a sum of 5 in two rolls
To figure out whether these two events are dependent or independent, you can
determine the probability of both events happening as if they were separate
independent events and then compare that probability to the probability of both
events happening as combined events. If the probabilities are the same, the
events are independent. If the probabilities are different, the events are dependent

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For example:
Determine the probability of both events happening as separate events
1 1
P(A: rolling a 1 in the first roll) = P(A) = because, out of six possible
6 6
outcomes in the sample space (1, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 6), one of them is 1.
4
P(B: rolling a sum of 5 in two rolls) =
36

+ 1 2 3 4 5 6
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 P(B) = because, out of 36 possible
36
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
outcomes in the sample space, four of
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 them have a sum of 5 (1 + 4, 2 + 3,
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 + 2, and 4 + 1).
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 4 1 1 1
P(A) × P(B) = × = × =
6 36 6 9 54
Determine the probability of both events happening as combined events
1
P(A and B) =
36

+ 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 P(A and B) = because, for a sum
36
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 of 5 in two rolls if the first roll is a 1,
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 the second roll has to be 4. There is
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 only one favourable outcome out of a
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 sample space of 36 possible outcomes.
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 1
Compare the probabilities Since  , the events must be dependent.
54 36

• In the example above, Event B happened after Event A, but it is possible to

have two events happen at the same time. You can still determine if the events
are dependent or independent in the same way. For example:
You roll a die once and the following two events can happen in the same roll:
Event A Rolling an even number Event B Rolling a 6
Probability as separate events Probability as combined events
3 1 1
P(A: even) = P(B: 6) = P(even and 6) =
6 6 6
3 1 1 1 1
P(A) × P(B) = × = × =
6 6 2 6 12
1 1
Compare the probabilities Since  , the events must be dependent.
12 6

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• The following steps summarize one way to determine if two events are
independent or dependent:
Step 1: Determine the probability of both events happening as separate events.
Step 2: Determine the probability of both events happening as combined events.
Step 3: Compare the probabilities from Steps 1 and 2 — if the probabilities are
the same, the events are independent; if they differ, the events are dependent.
• Depending on the complexity of the situation, you might use reasoning instead
to figure out if two events are dependent. For example, since rolling a 6 makes it
certain that you have also rolled an even number, the two events are dependent.
The event of rolling a 6 clearly affects the event of rolling an even number.
• The probability of Event B happening if you assume Event A has already
happened is called a conditional probability. It is written as P(B|A) and read
as “the probability of B given A.” Since P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B|A), you can
use P(A and B) to calculate the conditional probability of two dependent events.
You can also use the conditional probability, P(B|A), to calculate P(A and B).
(See Example 2.)

B. Look at your answers to part A on the previous page.

i) Are the events in parts i) and ii) independent or dependent? Explain.
ii) Are the events in parts i) and iii) independent or dependent? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Calculating to Show That Two Events are Dependent
In a group of ten families, two families have both cats and dogs as pets, five
have only cats, two have only dogs, and one has no pets. You select one family
at random from the group. Show that the two events below are dependent.
Event A Event B
Selecting a family that has a dog Selecting a family that has a cat
Solution Thinking
Probability of both events • I drew a Venn diagram to sort
happening as combined events the families into the different
Dogs subgroups: those with only cats,
Cats
those with cats and dogs, those
with only dogs, and those with
no pets. Each dot represented one family —
I placed each dot according to what pets each
family had. The dot outside the circles is the
family with no pets.
2
P(A and B) = • To determine the probability of both events
10
happening at the same time, I created a
fraction with the number of families with cats
and dogs, 2, as the numerator and the total
number of families, 10, as the denominator.

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Probability of both events happening as • 4 out of 10 families have dogs
separate events and 7 out of 10 families have cats.
4 7
P(A) = P(B) = • I compared the product of the
10 10
2
4 7 28 two probabilities to . Since
P(A and B) = × = 10
10 10 100 they were different, I knew the
2

28
, so Events A and B are dependent. events were dependent.
10 100

Example 2 Determining Conditional Probabilities

You draw two cards, one at a time, from a deck of playing cards.
a) Use reasoning to explain why Events A and B are dependent if
the first card is not replaced before drawing the second card.
b) What is P(B|A)?
c) Show that P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B|A).
Event A Event B
Draw a 7 in the first draw Draw a 7 in the second draw
Solution Thinking
a) Events A and B are a) If I draw a card and do not replace
dependent since the it, the sample space changes from 52
probability of Event B is for the first draw to 51 for the second
affected by the outcome
draw, which means the probability of
of Event A.
Event B is affected by Event A.
3 b) P(B|A) is the probability of Event B, if Event A
b) P(B|A) =
51
happens. If Event A happens, the first card drawn is
a 7, which leaves 51 cards and three of them are 7s.
That means there is a 3 in 51 chance of Event B
happening (drawing a 7 the second time).
12 c) To find the probability of both Events A and B
c) P(A and B) =
2652 happening, I thought about all the possible
4 arrangements of two cards I can draw. There would
P(A) =
52 be 2652 possibilities (52 for the first card × 51 for
P(B|A) =
3 the second). Of these, there would be 12 with two 7s:
51 7Ɔ, 7Ƅ 7Ƈ, 7Ƅ 7ƅ, 7Ƅ 7Ƅ, 7Ɔ
4 3
P(A) × P(B|A) = × 7Ɔ, 7ƅ 7Ƈ, 7ƅ 7ƅ, 7Ƈ 7Ƅ, 7Ƈ
52 51
7Ɔ, 7Ƈ 7Ƈ, 7Ɔ 7ƅ, 7Ɔ 7Ƅ, 7ƅ
12
= 4
2652 • The probability of drawing a 7 the first time is
52

Therefore, and the probability of drawing a 7 the second time

3
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B|A) is (from part b)).
51

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Practising and Applying
1. The Venn diagram below shows 3. Dechen randomly chooses an integer
the number of students in a class of 40 from 1 to 50.
who have only brothers, only sisters, Event A The number is a multiple of 3
brothers and sisters, and no siblings.
Event B The number is a multiple of 5
a) What is the probability of each?
Brothers Sisters
i) Event A happening
10 19 8 ii) Event B happening
iii) Events A and B both happening
3 b) Are Events A and B dependent or
independent? Explain.
a) A student is randomly selected.
4. Indra randomly chooses an integer
What is the probability that the student
from 1 to 100
i) has brothers?
Event A The integer is even
ii) has sisters?
Event B The integer is a multiple of 4
iii) has brothers and sisters?
a) What is the probability of each?
iv) has no siblings? i) Event A happening
b) Are the events in part i) and part ii) ii) Event B happening
dependent or independent? Explain.
iii) Events A and B both happening
2. This spinner is spun twice. b) Are Events A and B dependent or
independent? Explain.
c) Show each:
1 2 i) P(A and B) = P(A|B) × P(B)
ii) P(A and B) = P(B|A) × P(A)
4 3 5. A bag contains black and white
marbles. Two marbles are pulled out
one at a time without replacing the first
Explain how you can you use the Venn one. The probability of selecting a black
diagram below to determine each. marble first is 0.6. The probability of
(Hint: The pairs of numbers represent selecting a black and then a white
the numbers spun, for example, 2, 3 is marble is 0.25. What is the probability
a spin of 2 and then 3.) of selecting a white marble if a black
is selected first?
Both odd Total of 6
1, 2 1, 4 6. Show that each pair of events is
1, 3 4, 2
2, 1 2, 2 dependent. You can use calculating or
1, 1 3, 3 2, 4 2, 3 3, 2 reasoning or both.
3, 1 3, 4 4, 1 a) Rolling a 4, and then rolling again so
4, 3 4, 4
that the sum is 10
b) Selecting a red marble from a bag of
a) probability that both spins will be odd five red and five blue marbles, and then
b) probability that the sum of both spins selecting a blue marble (without
will be 6 replacing the red marble first)
c) whether the two events in part a)
and part b) are dependent

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UNIT 6 Revision

1. Describe a situation that has not 4. Crates of oranges were packed in

already been presented in this unit two different shipments. The mean
where you might use each graph. diameter (in cm) of the oranges in
a) a stem and leaf plot each crate was recorded.
b) a double stem and leaf plot
c) a histogram
d) two box and whisker plots

2. You are given a set of data that

contains 100 numbers. What are some
advantages and disadvantages of
displaying the data using each graph?
a) a stem and leaf plot
b) a histogram Shipment 1 (mean diameter per crate in cm)
c) a box and whisker plot 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.0 10.0
8.9 8.3 8.8 9.4 8.5
3. One week after planting, the heights 8.9 9.8 8.7 8.4 9.6
of 30 bean plants were measured (cm). 9.2 9.0 8.3 9.2 7.0
5 25 22 32 10 25 9.5 8.5 8.7 8.4 9.6
21 27 29 39 37 18 11.0 9.5 9.3 9.7 10.0
10 36 11 33 48 16
24 36 45 38 7 26 Shipment 2 (mean diameter per crate in cm)
15 37 17 22 25 13 8.9 9.9 8.4 9.7 6.0
6.1 9.7 7.2 6.8 8.1
6.0 9.3 9.3 8.5 6.8
7.1 8.5 8.9 6.7 8.8
6.4 9.8 7.1 9.6 6.4
8.3 6.2 10.0 7.7 9.1
The shipment of larger, more uniformly
sized oranges will be sold as oranges
and the other shipment will be made
into juice.
a) Create a box and whisker plot for
each shipment using the same scale.
a) Create a stem and leaf plot. b) Which shipment should be used for
b) Use the stem and leaf plot to create juice? Justify your decision.
a histogram with the same interval size.
c) Identify the type of distribution.
d) Create a box and whisker plot.
e) Which of the three types of graph do
you prefer? Explain why.

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5. Ten batteries from each of three 8. The list below gives the age in
brands (A, B, and C) were tested to months of 30 snow leopards tagged
determine their lifespans in hours. in Jigme Dorji National Park.
a) Create three box plots on the same
scale to compare them.
b) Which brand appears to be the best?
Explain.
Brand A (Lifespan in h)
41 189 204 102 28
94 179 87 116 155
Brand B (Lifespan in h)
39 65 22 64 22 47 28 31 41 39 25
21 29 26 23 34 25
171 99 32 142 70
33 37 28 45 18 36
Brand C (Lifespan in h)
54 40 33 47 42 29
24 95 159 122 41
37 22 42 37 48 64
72 75 44 43 18
a) Create a histogram for this data set.
6. This frequency table shows the b) Describe the shape of your graph
results of a math exam in Pema’s class. and identify the distribution.
Score (%) Frequency c) Find the mean, median, and mode.
40 – 49 2 d) How likely is it that a snow leopard
50 – 59 3 that is caught and tagged will be less
60 – 69 5 than 50 months old?
70 – 79 12
9. Examine scatter plots I to IV.
80 – 89 10
90 – 99 8 I II
a) Construct a histogram and a box plot
on the same scale.
b) Use your graphs to summarize how
the data set is distributed.
7. Two sets of data were graphed.
SET I SET II III IV

a) Sketch a frequency polygon for each. a) Which scatter plot shows the
b) Describe the shape of each strongest correlation?
frequency polygon and then identify b) Which scatter plots show a negative
the distribution. correlation?
c) Describe a situation that each
histogram might represent.

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9. c) Which scatter plot shows no 12. a) Sketch two scatter plots on
correlation? the same grid, one for the male life
d) Which scatter plot shows a weak expectancy data and one for the
negative correlation? female data.
e) Which scatter plot shows a strong b) Describe each correlation.
positive correlation? c) Estimate each correlation coefficient.
f) Estimate the correlation coefficient d) Is it appropriate to draw lines of best
for each scatter plot. fit for this set of data? Explain.
e) Use the graphs to predict the
10. For each relationship below, identify
average life expectancy both for
the type of correlation you would expect
Canadian males and for Canadian
to find and estimate the correlation
females in the year 2021.
coefficient
a) Relationship A 13. A set of rectangles is made up of
the relationship between the volume of 1 cm squares. The first rectangle
petrol remaining in a gas tank and the measures 1 cm × 2 cm. The next is
distance driven since the tank was filled 2 cm × 4 cm, then 3 cm × 6 cm.
b) Relationship B The pattern continues with the length
the relationship between the average always being twice the width.
amount of monthly rainfall and the a) Draw the patterns of squares to help
number of umbrellas sold by a store you visualize the pattern. Use your
diagrams to complete the table.
11. Give an example of two quantities,
or variables that would show each. Width Length Area
Shape
a) a positive correlation (cm) (cm) (cm2)
b) a negative correlation 1 2 2
c) no correlation
2
12. Statistics Canada produces reports
based on Canadian census data. The
table below shows how the average life
expectancy for Canadians has changed 3
every 10 years since 1920.
Year Male Female
4
1920 58.8 60.6
1930 60.0 62.1
1940 63.0 66.3 5
1950 66.4 70.9
1960 68.4 74.2
b) Create a scatter plot to show each.
1970 69.4 76.5
• the relationship between length and width
1980 71.9 79.1 • the relationship between area and width
1990 74.6 81.0 c) Is it suitable to draw a line or a
curve of best fit for each relationship
in part b)? Explain.

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14. Explain how not replacing an item 17. You randomly select one integer
when you draw items from a bag affects from 1 to 19.
the probability of drawing two items of a) Create a Venn diagram to help you
the same kind, one after the other. determine the probability of selecting
a number that is both greater than 10
15. Novin rolled a pair of dice. The first and even.
roll was 6 and the sum of both rolls was
b) How do you know the two events in
10. He calculated the probability of both
part a) are dependent?
events happening by multiplying the
probability of getting a 6 on the first roll
18. You have a bag of blue and red
by the probability of rolling a sum of 10
marbles. You select two marbles one
on both rolls. What did he do wrong?
after another without replacing the first
one. The probability of selecting a blue
16. A bag contains 4 black, 5 white, marble is 0.6. The probability of
and 6 grey balls. selecting two blue marbles is 0.3.
What is the probability of selecting a
blue marble second if the first marble
was blue? Explain your thinking.

a) You draw a black ball and do not

replace it. What is the probability of
drawing a white ball next?
b) You draw a grey ball and do not
replace it. What is the probability of
drawing a black ball next? 19. You roll a die twice.
c) You draw a grey ball and do not a) What is the probability that you roll
replace it. What is the probability of a number greater than 4 the first time?
drawing another grey ball?
b) What is the probability that the total
d) You draw a white ball and do not of the two rolls is 6?
replace it. What is the probability of
c) Are the events in parts a) and b)
drawing another white ball?
independent? Explain.

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 UNIT 7 TRIGONOMETRY
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. Create a 6-by-6 grid and then copy the triangle as shown below.

B. On the grid, draw all triangles that are similar but not congruent to the
triangle. Each triangle must have at least two side lengths with whole number
values and each vertex of each triangle must be located at a grid intersection.
If triangles are in different positions, they are considered to be different.
C. How do you know each triangle you drew is similar to the first triangle?
D. How do you know there are no other such triangles on the grid?

Skills You Will Need

1. Calculate the value of x for each.
x 30 12 8
a) = b) =
10 40 x 15

7 x 15 16.5
c) = d) =
36 12 x 1.21

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2. Without measuring, calculate the missing angle in each triangle.
a) 65° b)
35°

25° x
x 55°

3. Without measuring, calculate the length of the missing side s.

(Hint: The triangles are similar.)
a)

6.5
4.5

s
6.0

b) Draw another triangle similar to the two above.

4. Without measuring, calculate the length of each missing side.

a) b)

6 cm
5.61 cm 7.11 cm

8 cm

5. Calculate the area of each triangle.

a) b)

38 mm
2.8 cm

6.0 cm
4 cm

6. Two of the lines below are parallel.

Which pairs of angles in the diagram
are equal? How do you know? a
b
c
d

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Chapter 1 Defining Trigonometric Ratios
7.1.1 Using Similarity Properties to Solve Problems

Try This
To find the height of the tree, you can compare the triangle
created by the tree, the shadow of the tree on the ground,
and the sun's rays with the triangle created by the person,
the person’s shadow on the ground, and the sun's rays.
The sun's rays are represented by the dashed line.

1.7 m

4.8 m 6.2 m

A. What is the height of the tree?

Recall that two triangles are similar when they have equal angles and when
the corresponding sides are proportional. The ratio of the corresponding sides
is called the scale factor.
For example, if side AB in ¨ABC is twice as long as its corresponding side DE
in ¨DEF, the scale factor that relates ¨DEF to ¨ABC is 2. That means BC is
also twice as long as EF and AC is also twice as long as DF.
C ¨ABC ~ ¨DEF because
∠A = ∠D
8 units 70° F ∠B = ∠E
4 units
4 units
70° 2 units ∠C = ∠F
and
A 30° 80° B 30° 80° AB AC CB
D E = = =2
6 units 3 units DE DF FE

• When you indicate that two triangles are similar, it is important to list
corresponding vertices in the same order. In the two triangles above, ∠ A = ∠ D,
so the vertices A and D are written in the same position (first) in the similarity
statement, ΔABC ~ ΔDEF. ∠ B = ∠ E, so they are both listed next,
ΔABC ~ ΔDEF, and ∠ C = ∠ F, so they both come last, ΔABC ~ ΔDEF.
• When you know two triangles are similar, you can set up proportions to
determine the missing side lengths in the triangles.
For example:
A
To find x in ¨DEF, because ¨ABC ~ ¨DEF, then
AB
= DE → 3 = 2.1 , and x = 2.1 units. 3
D
BC EF 3 x
C 3 B 2.1
F E
x

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• Sometimes you have to use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the
side lengths to be used in the proportions.
For example,
AG BG 3 BG
To find s in Δ TUX, because ¨BAG ~ ¨TUX, then = → = .
UX TX 4 s

T
B

s
3

G A X U
3
4

You cannot solve a proportion with two unknown values, so you use the
Pythagorean theorem to find BG.
32 + 32 = BG2
18 = BG2
BG = 18 § 4.24
3 4.24
Now you can complete the proportion and solve it: = , so s = 5.65 units
4 s

• Sometimes, to solve a missing length problem you have to create the similar
triangles yourself.
For example, suppose you want to know the distance across a river, but you
cannot measure it directly. You can create two similar triangles following these
steps (refer to the diagram on the next page as you read these instructions):
- Find a marker such as a rock on the other side of the river and call it point A.
- Mark point B on your side of the river directly across from point A.
- Walk ten paces west from point B and mark point C.
- Walk one more pace west and mark point D.
- Turn south and count the paces to the point (marked E) so that point E,
point C, and the rock (point A) all line up. In this example, it takes four paces
to reach point E.
Δ ABC ~ Δ EDC because of AAA ( ∠ ACB = ∠ ECD and ∠ B = ∠ D = 90º)
Now you can use similar triangles and the Pythagorean theorem to determine
the distance across the river, AB.

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 N

A rock

BC AB
=
DC ED

10 AB
=
1 pace 1 4

AB = 40
D
C 10 paces B
The distance across the river (AB)
E is 40 paces.
4 paces

B. i) Name the similar triangles in the diagram in part A.

ii) What proportion could you set up to find the height of the tree?

Examples
Example 1 Solving for a Side Length When Triangles are Similar
Sonam wants to enlarge an isosceles triangle design to make a large copy for
her poster. She uses a dilatation. How long is the base of the larger triangle?

9 cm 9 cm
94.5 cm 94.5 cm
8 cm

[Continued]

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 Example 1 Solving for a Side Length When Triangles are Similar [ Continued]
Solution Thinking
• I knew the triangles were
9 cm
94.5 cm similar because a dilatation
9 cm
results in similar triangles.
8 cm • I knew two side lengths in
one triangle and one side
b length in the other triangle that
corresponded to one of them. I knew it
9 8
= corresponded because of the star design.
94.5 b
9b = 756 • That meant I could set up a proportion
using ratios of corresponding sides and
b = 84
solve it to determine the missing base
The base is 84 cm. length.

Example 2 Determining Similarity

How long is CD?
A
D

5 cm

C 12 cm B

Solution 1 Thinking
AB BC • I knew Δ ABC ~ Δ ACD since each has
=
AC CD a 90° angle and they share ∠ A (AAA).

AB 12 • I set up a proportion based on the

= similarity.
5 CD

52 + 122 = AB2 • To find CD, I first needed to calculate AB.

I knew I could use the Pythagorean theorem.
25 + 144 = AB2
AB = 13
13 12
= • I solved the proportion for CD.
5 CD
12 × 5
CD =
13
CD § 4.62 cm

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Solution 2 Thinking
A • When I looked at the diagram,
D
I realized that CD was a height
5 cm of  ABC if AB was the base. So,
if I could figure out the area of
 ABC and the length of AB, then
C 12 cm B I could use the area formula, A = bh, to figure
out CD (h).
12  5
Area of  ABC =
2 • I was able to figure out the area of  ABC
= 30 by thinking about CB as the height and AC as
AB  CD the base.
30 =
2 • I created an equation using the area formula,
5 + 12 = AB
2 2 2
with AB as the base and CD as the height.
25 + 144 = AB2 Then realized I needed to find AB before
AB = 13 I could solve it.
13  CD • I used the Pythagorean theorem to find AB.
30 =
2
CD = 60 ÷ 13 • I substituted 13 for AB in my equation and
solved for CD.
≈ 4.62 cm

Practising and Applying

1. Calculate the length of side FG without measuring.
The triangles in each pair are similar.
a) c) F
A
E
A
5.5 4.4
8 cm
G F
C B B
4.5 G 9 cm C 6 cm

b) 2. How long is side s?

A
E F
2
5.3 6 4
s

G 5.2
C B

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3. What is the distance across the lake 7. Pythagorean triples are whole
from D to E? number values that could be the
A three sides of a right triangle. Some
48 m
B examples are 3-4-5 and 5-12-13, as
shown below. Other examples are
10 m
C 8-15-17 and 7-24-25.
9m
5 13
3 5
E D

4. The woman on the left is looking at 12

the reflection of the top of the prayer Use triangles similar to either of those
flag pole in the mirror on the ground. above to determine which Pythagorean
How tall is the prayer flag pole? triples could include the number 24 as
one of the side lengths. Find all three
possibilities.

1.8 m 8. Pema positioned a 3 m pole at

point F. Then he stood 5 m east of the
3.6 m 10.7 m pole to sight the top of a 100 m radio
tower. How far was he from the tower
5. How wide is the river? (assuming his eye is at ground level)?

A B
60 m

80 m C 133 m

100 m
E D

6. At the same time of day, the shadow

of a pole and the shadow of a girl were
measured. How tall is the pole? 3m
(Hint: The sun’s rays are parallel.)
F
5m

9. Explain how knowing the concept of

similar triangles can help you measure
h distances that are otherwise hard to
measure.
1.5 m

4.6 m 0.8 m

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7.1.2 EXPLORE: Special Ratios in Similar Triangles

This diagram includes three triangles: E

Δ ABG, Δ ACF, and Δ ADE
Each triangle has
F
• a vertical side (BG, CF, and DE)
• a horizontal side (AB, AC, and AD)
• an hypotenuse (AG, AF, and AE) G

45°
A B C D

Use these three triangles to answer the questions below.

A. Copy the chart below.

B. For each triangle, measure the lengths of all three sides (vertical,
horizontal, and hypotenuse) to the nearest tenth of a centimetre.
Record the values in the first three columns of your chart.

C. For each triangle, calculate these three ratios:

vertical horizontal vertical
hypotenuse hypotenuse horizontal
Round each value to three decimal places. Record the values in the
last
h l f h
∠ A is vertical horizontal vertical
vertical horizontal hypotenuse
45º hypotenuse hypotenuse horizontal
Δ ABG
Δ ACF
Δ ADE

D. What do you notice about the values in each of the last three columns?

[Continued]

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 E. Copy the chart below. Record the values from the last three columns
of your chart from part C in the 45° column of your new chart.

F. Create sets of three right triangles like the ones on the previous page,
Angle ∠ A to one
but change 10° 20° of the
30°other 40°
values in the chart
50° 60° below.
70° Complete
80°
the chart for
opposite the three ratios.
hypotenuse
adjacent Angle A 30° 45° 60°
hypotenuse vertical
opposite hypotenuse
adjacent
horizontal
hypotenuse
vertical
horizontal

G. Why was it not necessary to put in three values for the three different
triangles you used for each angle?

H. i) Use the picture on the left below to help explain what happened to
the values in the first and second rows of the chart.
ii) Use the picture on the right below to help explain what happened to
the values in the third row of the chart.

I. What do you notice about the values in the first and second rows
of the chart in part F?

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CONNECTIONS: Using a Clinometer

A clinometer is a device you can use to estimate the heights of very tall objects
indirectly using similar triangles.

You can construct

a very simple
clinometer with a
drinking straw, a
piece of graph paper
glued to a rigid piece
of cardboard, a
length of string, and
a weight, as shown.

You sight the top

of the tall object
through the straw
and someone marks
a point X on the
graph paper where
the weighted string
crosses the
horizontal line from
your eye.

1. Why is Δ ADX on the clinometer similar to Δ RDO (the triangle formed by

your eye at D, the top of the tree at R, and the middle of the tree directly
across from your eye, at O)?

2. Use Δ ADX and Δ RDO to estimate the height of the tree.

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7.1.3 The Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios

Try This
A. Carefully construct two different right triangles, each with a 45° angle.
i) What is the ratio of the leg length to the hypotenuse in each triangle?
ii) How do you know?

In any right triangle, the two legs of

the triangle are given special names
hypotenuse
with respect to each non-right, or opposite
acute angle. The leg that is part of
the angle is called the adjacent side angle x
and the leg that is not part of the adjacent
angle is called the opposite side.
The side opposite the right angle is
called the hypotenuse.

• The ratios of the side lengths in any right triangle have special names,
according to the acute angle being considered. For angle x in the triangle
above, the special ratios are:

opposite adjacent opposite

sin x = cos x = tan x =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

The ratios are pronounced "sine of x," "cosine of x," and "tangent of x," if x is
the angle. They are called trigonometric, or trig ratios.

• For the other acute angle in the right triangle, angle y, the side lengths that
are adjacent and opposite change and the trigonometric ratios are:

hypotenuse
angle y adjacent

opposite

opposite adjacent opposite

sin y = cos y = tan y =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

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• These ratios only apply to the acute angles in a right triangle. They do not apply
to the right angle.
For example, in this triangle, these ratios can be calculated:
6.06 3 .5
cos 30° = § 0.866 cos 60° = = 0.5
7 60º 7 7
3.5 3.5
tan 30° = § 0.577 6.06 § 1.732
6.06
tan 60° =
30° 3.5
6.06

• Regardless of the dimensions of the right triangle, the sine, cosine, and tangent
of a particular angle size do not change. This is because all right triangles with a
particular pair of acute angles are similar, so the ratios of the sides do not vary.
For example, all these right triangles have acute angles of 30° and 60°. Although
their side lengths vary, the trig ratios are the same.

sin 30° = 0.5 cos 30° § 0.866 tan 30° § 0.577

sin 60° § 0.866 cos 60° = 0.5 tan 60° § 1.732

• The sine and cosine ratios for any angle between 0° and 90° are always less
than 1 because the opposite and adjacent sides used in the ratios are the legs
of a right triangle, which are always shorter than the hypotenuse. Therefore, the
numerator for the sine or cosine ratio is always smaller than the denominator,
the hypotenuse.

• The value of the sine ratio increases as the angle increases from 0° to 90°
while the cosine ratio decreases. This is because the opposite side becomes
longer and the adjacent side becomes shorter as the angle increases, while
the hypotenuse stays the same length.

4 4
3.06
1.37
20° 50°
3.76 2.57

1.37 3.06
sin 20° = = 0.342 sin 50° = = 0.766
4 4
3.76 2.57
cos 20° = = 0.940 cos 50° = = 0.643
4 4

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• The value of the tangent ratio depends on the relative sizes of the sides that
are opposite and adjacent to the angle. In the example on the previous page,
the tangent for the 30º angle is less than 1 because the opposite side is shorter
than the adjacent side. However, the tangent of the 60° angle is greater than 1
because the opposite side is longer than the adjacent side. Tan 45° is 1 since
the opposite side is the same length as the adjacent side. Tangent is not defined
for 90° since the denominator (representing the adjacent side) is 0. Similarly,
tan 0° is 0 since the numerator (representing the opposite side) is 0.
• You can use your calculator to calculate trig ratios, given the angles, or to
calculate the angles, given the trig ratios.
For example:
First make sure your calculator is in degree mode (look for DEG in the display),
- To calculate the sine of 45º, press [sin] 45 [=].
- To calculate the angle for cosine 0.7, press [cos–1] 0.7 [=].
(Note that cos–1, sin–1, and tan–1 are called inverse functions.)

• The chart below can help you estimate trig ratios.

For example, an angle of 62º would have a sine of about 0.88, a cosine of
about 0.47, and a tangent of about 1.95.
Angle 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°
Sine 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 0.766 0.866 0.940 0.985
Cosine 0.985 0.940 0.866 0.766 0.643 0.500 0.342 0.174
Tangent 0.176 0.364 0.577 0.839 1.192 1.732 2.747 5.671
NOTE: A trig table for multiples of 5º is found at the back of this book on page 380.

B. Which trigonometric ratios were you working with in part A?

Examples
Example 1 Comparing Sine and Cosine
A right triangle has an angle of 35°.
a) Without measuring, predict which ratio will be greater: the sine of 35° or
the cosine of 35°. Explain your prediction.
b) Estimate each ratio and then measure and calculate to check.
Solution Thinking
a) a) I drew a right triangle with an
angle of 35°. I knew it didn’t matter
what the dimensions were as long as
35° it was a right triangle with an angle
of 35° because the trig ratios are
Predict
the same.
cos 35° > sin 35°
because adjacent > opposite • I could see that the side adjacent to 35° was a
bit longer than the opposite side, so I predicted
the cosine would be greater than the sine.

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Solution Thinking
b) Estimate b) I know sin 30° = 0.5 and sin 40° = 0.643, so
sin 35° is about 0.6 I estimated sin 35° to be about 0.6.
cos 35° is about 0.8 • I know cos 30° = 0.866 and cos 40° = 0.766, so
I estimated cos 35° to be about 0.8.
Measure and calculate • I measured to check. My prediction was correct —
2.15 the cosine ratio was greater than the sine ratio.
sin 35° = = 0.574
3.75
• My estimate for the cosine was about right but
3.07
cos 35° = = 0.819 my estimate for the sine was a bit high.
3.75

cos 35° > sin 35°

Example 2 Determining an Angle with a Particular Tangent

The tangent of an acute angle is 1.2.
a) Is the angle greater than or less than 45º? How do you know?
b) Estimate the angle. Use a calculator to check your estimate.
Solution Thinking
a) a) I sketched a right triangle, with
one leg a bit longer than the other
x because the tangent (the ratio of
the two legs) was just a bit greater
than 1.
• I located angle x so that the longer leg was
opposite
x > 45º because opposite to it, because > 1.
adjacent
opposite side > adjacent side
• I knew angle x was bigger than the other acute
angle because its opposite side was longer than its
adjacent side. That meant it had to be greater
than 45º because both acute angles in a right
triangle add to 90º, so if one is bigger, it must be
greater than 45º.
b) Estimate b) I knew tan 50º = 1.192 and tan 60º = 1.732, so
tan–1 (1.2) is about 51º. I estimated that a tan of 1.2 would have an angle
of about 51º.
Calculate to check • I used a calculator to get the actual angle.
tan–1 (1.2) = 50.19º My estimate was close.

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Example 3 Determining an Angle when Side Lengths are Known
The legs of a right triangle are 5.0 cm and 8.0 cm. What are the angle measures
in the triangle?
Solution Thinking
• I sketched the triangle and
y labelled both acute angles.
5
x
• If I had wanted to use the sine or
8 cosine ratios, I would have to have
5 used the Pythagorean theorem to
tan x = = 0.625
8 calculate the hypotenuse. I used the tangent
If tan x is 0.625, then x = 32°. ratio instead because I already had the values
I needed.
y = 90 – 32 = 58°

Practising and Applying

1. Determine the sine, cosine, and 3. Determine the sine, cosine, and
tangent for each ∠ A using the given tangent for each angle.
measurements. Round to two decimal a) 35° b) 55°
places.
c) 12° d) 80°
a)

3 4. For which acute angle is each true?

a) sin x = 0.85
A b) cos x = 0.24
4
15
c) tan x = 0.2
b) A
5. Draw three triangles, one to fit
each description.
17
a) The sine of one angle is 0.7.
b) The cosine of one angle is 0.5.
c) The tangent of one angle is 2.4.
2. Determine the sine, cosine, and
tangent for each ∠ A. Round to 6. a) The sine of ∠ A is greater than the
two decimal places. sine of ∠ B and both angles are acute.
a) What do you know about the sizes of
the two angles?
12
b) If sin ∠ A > cos ∠ B and both angles
A
33 are acute angles, can you be certain
about which angle is greater? Explain.
b)
A
46 7. How does knowing about similarity
help you understand how trigonometric
ratios work?
45

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7.1.4 Trigonometric Identities

Try This
A. i) Draw two right triangles so that the cosine of the
base angle in one triangle is the same as the sine of Base angle
the base angle in the other triangle.
ii) What do you notice about the two triangles?

Some equations are true for only certain values of a variable, for example,
2x = 6 is only true if x = 3. But other equations are true for all values of the
variable in the equation, for example, 2x + 2x = 4x is true for any value of x.
Equations that are true for all values of the variable are called identities.
• Some equations involving trig ratios are trigonometric identities. These
identities represent relationships among the trig ratios and are useful for
finding other trig ratios if you know one trig ratio and for solving problems.
- One trigonometric identity involves the relationship between the sine and
cosine of complementary angles, that is, angles that have a sum of 90°.

cos (90º – x) = sin x sin (90º – x) = cos x

This identity makes sense because, in any right triangle, the two acute angles
add to 90°, so if one angle is x, the other angle must be 90º – x and, because
of the placement of the acute angles in the right triangle, the opposite side for
one angle is the adjacent side for the other, and vice versa.

opposite adjacent 90 – x
x
adjacent opposite

You can use this identity to find the cosine ratio A

if you know the sine ratio, or the sine ratio if you
know the cosine ratio. 50°
For example, suppose you were asked to 10
calculate the cosine of ∠ B in Δ ABC.
You could follow the steps on the left below to find
the length of BC and then calculate the cosine B C
ratio. Or you could use sin (90º – x) = cos x, as
as shown on the right.
BC BC If cos x = sin (90º – x), then
sin 50° = ĺ 0.766 =
10 10
cos 40º = sin 50º = 0.766
BC = 0.766 × 10
So cos 40º = 0.766
BC = 7.66
adjacent 7.66 As you can see, using the identity
cos B = = = 0.766 sin (90º – x) = cos x was simpler.
hypotenuse 10

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- Another identity is sometimes called the Pythagorean identity, since it is based
on the Pythagorean theorem.

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

The following explains why this identity works:

Since the Pythagorean theorem applies
to any right triangle, the equation to the adjacent2 + opposite2 = hypotenuse2
right is true.
2 2
adjacent opposite hypotenuse 2
2
+ 2
=
Divide both sides of the equation by hypotenuse hypotenuse hypotenuse 2
hypotenuse2. 2 2
adjacent opposite
2
+ 2
=1
hypotenuse hypotenuse
Substitute cos x for one ratio and sin x
for the other. cos2 x + sin2 x =1

This identity is useful for finding the cosine of an angle if you know its sine, or
vice versa. You can rearrange the equation to suit your needs.
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 ĺ sin2 x = 1 – cos2 x ĺ sin x = 1 − cos 2 x
For example, suppose you know that cos x is 0.5 and you want to know sin x.
If cos x = 0.5 and sin x = 1 − cos 2 x , sin x = 1 − 0.5 2 = 1 − 0.25 ≈ 0.866

• Sometimes identities are true because they are definitions that relate trig ratios.
sin x
For example, some mathematicians define tan x as , if x is not 90°.
cos x
It is clear that this must be true since
sin x opposite adjacent opposite
= ÷ = = tan x
cos x hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

• Mathematicians have defined three other trigonometric ratios based on the

primary trig ratios: sine, cosine, and tangent. Each one is the reciprocal of a
primary trigonometric ratio. These are read as secant, cosecant, and cotangent.
1 1 1
sec x = csc x = cot x =
cos x sin x tan x

They can also be described in terms of the sides of the right triangle:
hypotenuse
sec x =
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite hypotenuse
csc x =
angle x opposite
adjacent adjacent
cot x =
opposite

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- The secant, cosecant, and cotangent ratios can be considered identities
because, as defined, they represent relationships among the trig ratios.
- Since sine and cosine are always between 0 and 1, the cosecant and secant are
always 1 or more. If cos x = 0, then sec x is not defined (you cannot divide by 0).
Similarly, if sin x = 0 (when x = 0°), csc x is not defined. If tan x = 0 (when x = 0°)
or tan x is not defined (when x = 90°), cot x is not defined.
• If you know the sine or cosine of an angle, you can use the Pythagorean identity,
and the identities defining tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent to calculate
the values of all of the other five trig ratios for that angle.
• Certain trig ratios are basic and should be memorized. They are shown here:
0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
2 3
sin x 0 0.5 or 0.707 or 0.866 1
2 2
3 2
cos x 1 or 0.866 or 0.707 0.5 0
2 2

2 3
- Note that the values and are exact while their decimal equivalents,
2 2
0.866 and 0.707, are approximations. By knowing these approximate values,
you can estimate angle sizes for other situations.
For example, if you know sin x is 0.75; you know x is between 45° and 60°.
- These basic ratio values are easy to reconstruct using the Pythagorean theorem
and the trig identities. The explanations that will allow you to recall these are
described below.
Reconstructing the ratios for 45º
In a 45°-45°-90° right triangle, the opposite and adjacent sides are equal, so
opposite2 + opposite2 = hypotenuse2
2 2
opposite opposite hypotenuse 2
2
+ 2
= opposite
hypotenuse hypotenuse hypotenuse 2
2
§ opposite · 45º
2× ¨ ¸ =1
© hypotenuse ¹ adjacent

opposite 1
=
hypotenuse 2
2
sin 45º = § 0.707
2

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Reconstructing the ratios for 30º and 60º
A 30°-60°-90° right triangle is half of an equilateral
triangle. Therefore, the side opposite the 30° angle 30°
is half the hypotenuse. The side adjacent to the adjacent
30° angle can be calculated using the Pythagorean
theorem. 60°
opposite

2
§ hypotenuse ·
hypotenuse2 = ¨ ¸ + adjacent
2
© 2 ¹
2
§ hypotenuse ·
hypotenuse2 – ¨ ¸ = adjacent
2
© 2 ¹
3
adjacent2 = hypotenuse2
4
2
§ adjacent · 3
¨ ¸ =
© hypotenuse ¹ 4

adjacent 3 3
= or
hypotenuse 2 2

3
cos 30° = § 0.866
2
Since cos 30° = sin 60° and sin 30° = cos 60° (using cos (90° – x) = sin x),
the values for 60° angles can also be reconstructed.

Reconstructing the ratios for 0º and 90º

- sin 0° must be 0 since there is no opposite side in the triangle (the length is 0)
so that means cos 90° is also 0.
- sin 90° and cos 0° must each be 1 since sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.

B. Which identity were you really using in part A?

Examples
Example 1 Calculating cos x When sin x is Known
Calculate cos x for the right triangle shown.

6.5 cm
2.5 cm
x

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Solution 1 Thinking
The missing side length is I used the Pythagorean theorem to
calculate the other side length so
6.5 2 − 2.5 2 = 36 = 6, so
I could determine the cosine ratio.
6
cos x = ≈ 0.923
6.5
Solution 2 Thinking
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 I knew from the given
measurements of the triangle that
0.3852 + cos2 x = 1
2.5
sin x was or 0.385, so I used
cos2 x = 1 – 0.3852 6 .5
cos2 x § 0.852 the relationship between the
squares of the sines and cosines
cos x § 0.923
to find cosine.

Example 2 Using the Reciprocal Ratios

In a right triangle, sec x = 2. What is the value of x?
Solution 1 Thinking
1
If sec x = 2, then cos x =
1
. • I knew that sec x = , so I used
cos x
2
the secant ratio to find cosine.
1 1
• I knew that cosine was for one
2
of the angles in a 30°-60°-90° triangle. I drew
x that triangle as half of an equilateral triangle
1 to help me figure out whether x was 30° or 60°.
2 • Cosine is based on the adjacent side, so the
1
The angle must be 60°. angle with cosine of must be the 60° angle.
2
Solution 2 Thinking
1 My calculator doesn’t have a button
If sec x = 2, then cos x = .
2 for sec–1 that gives the angle if you
1 enter the secant, but it does have a
cos–1 = 60°
2 button for cos–1. That's why I used
the relationship between secant and
cosine to find the value of the cosine ratio.

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Practising and Applying
1. For each angle x below, use the 5. In each case, which acute angle is
given measurements to determine the greater, x or y? How do you know?
secant, cosecant, and cotangent. a) sec x > sec y
a)
b) csc x > csc y
2 cm c) cot x < cot y

x 6. Complete each with an acute angle.

3.5 cm
a) sin 37° = cos ___
b) cos 42° = sin ___
b)
c) sin ___ = 0.8
4 cm d) cos ___ = 0.8
1 cm
x e) tan ___ = 0.8

7. Explain how you know that an

2. Calculate the other five trigonometric acute angle with a sine of 0.7 must
ratios based on the given one. be close to 45°.
a) sin x = 0.8
b) cos x = 0.4 8. Tell whether each statement is true
or false. Explain your thinking.
c) tan x = 1.0
a) cos x > sin x, if x is less than 45°
d) sec x = 5
b) cos x < tan x, if x is less than 45°
3. Determine the acute angle for which but greater than 0°
each is true. c) sin x = (tan x)(cos x), if x is not 90°
a) csc x = 2 d) cos x = (tan x)(sin x), if x is not 90°
b) cot x = 1.4
9. The tangent of an angle is 0.5.
c) sec x = 3.4
Explain how to calculate each of
the other five trig ratios.
4. Draw a picture and indicate the
necessary calculations that show
why tan 60° = 3 .

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Chapter 2 Applying Trigonometric Ratios
7.2.1 Calculating Side Lengths and Angles

Try This
A. Describe how to calculate the value of x 50°
in this right triangle
ii) using the sine ratio x 1.2
ii) using the cosine ratio

The properties of similar triangles can be used to determine unknown lengths

and angles in one triangle using information about known lengths and angles in
another similar triangle. Trigonometric ratios can be used to determine unknown
lengths or angles in any right triangle.
- In the example below, an unknown side length is found using trig ratios and
known side lengths.
Δ ABC is a right triangle. You can determine the length of d using the known
side lengths and the sine or cosine ratio for the known angle 35°:
7 7 7
• sin 35° = , so d = = § 12.20
d sin 35° 0.574
A
10 10 10
• cos 35° = , so d = = § 12.21
d d cos 35° 0.819
7
Notice that the value for d varies slightly when it is
35° calculated using a different trig ratio. This is because
B 10 C the side measurements are approximations.
• You cannot use tan to find d, because you end up with
7
an equation without d as an unknown: tan 35° = .
10
Note that you could also have used the Pythagorean theorem to determine d:
d2= 72 + 10 2 = 149 § 12.21
- In the next example, an unknown angle measure is found using trig ratios and
known side lengths.
Δ DEF is a right triangle. You can determine the measure of angle D using the
sine ratio and the known side lengths.
E If you were to find the length of DE using the
D Pythagorean theorem, you could instead have
2 used the cosine or tangent ratio to find ∠ D:
9
F
DE2 + 22 = 92 ĺ DE2 = 92 − 22 = 77 § 8.77
2 8.77
sin D = § 0.222 cos D = § 0.974, so ∠ D § 13.09°
9 9
If sin D is 0.222, ∠ D § 12.83°. 2
tan D = § 0.228, so ∠ D § 12.85°
8.77
Notice that the value of the angle varied again.

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B. Could you have calculated the value of x in part A directly using the tangent
ratio? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Solving a Problem using Trigonometric Ratios
Vishnu leaned a 10 m ladder against a building at an angle of 70°.
How high up the building does the ladder go?
Solution Thinking
• I drew a picture and
labelled it with the
10.0 m h
information I knew to
70° help me visualize.
• I knew that I wanted to
sin 70° =
opposite find h, the side length opposite
hypotenuse the 70° angle.
h
sin 70° = • Since I knew the hypotenuse, 10 m,
10.0
and wanted to know the opposite side,
h
0.940 = I used the sine ratio.
10.0
h = 9.4 • I used my calculator to get the value
of sin 70° and substituted it into the
The ladder goes about 9.4 m up the wall. equation. Then I solved the equation.

Example 2 Relating Trig Ratios to Equations of Lines on a Graph

At what acute angle does the graph of y = 2x cross the x-axis?
Solution Thinking
• First I graphed y = 2x and
then I located the angle where
y = 2x crossed the x-axis.
I labelled the angle b.
• I could see that angle b could
2 be one of the acute angles in a right triangle
with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0), and (1, 2).
So I drew a right triangle and used the
b coordinates of the vertices to figure out
the lengths of its legs.
1 2
• I saw that the tangent of angle b was .
1
2 • I used my calculator to find the angle that
tan b = = 2, so b § 63.4°
1
has a tangent of 2.

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Practising and Applying
1. Calculate the values of x, y, and z for 6. Calculate the area of this triangle.
each right triangle, without measuring.
10
a) x
72°
y 37°
z
10
7. a) Graph y = 3x + 3.
b) 10 b) At what acute angle does y = 3x + 3
z
1 cross the x-axis?
y
c) What would the acute angle be if the
x
graph were y = 3x + 5? Explain your
answer.
2. A ladder leaning against a wall forms
a 25° angle with the wall at the top of 8. Determine the acute angle formed
the ladder. If the ladder reaches 2.8 m where the graph of y = x and the graph
up the wall, how long is the ladder? of y = 2x – 1 intersect.

3. A tree is 6.2 m tall. It casts a shadow

y
that is 13.4 m long. At what angle do
the rays from the sun meet the top of
the tree?

4. For safety reasons the maximum

angle at which a wheelchair ramp can
be sloped is 5°. Could a ramp with a
1
slope of be used for a wheelchair?
7
Explain. x

9. A ladder is safest when it forms an

angle of 60° to 75° with the ground.
a) If you are using an 8 m ladder,
what are the minimum and maximum
distances you should place it from
the wall?
b) Is the ladder closer to the wall when
the angle is 60° or when it is 75°?
Wheelchair ramp at Paro Hospital
10. A right triangle has five components
besides the right angle: two acute
5. On the path to a school, the rise is angles and three side lengths. How
80 m for a run of 500 m. What is the many of these components do you
angle of the path from the horizontal? need to know in order to use
trigonometric ratios to calculate all five
components? Explain.

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7.2.2 Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression

Try This
Karma is looking up at the top of a tree.
He measured his distance from the tree,
6.2 m, and measured the angle up from
his eye, 25°. He drew this picture to help 25°
him visualize the situation. He plans to 6.2 m
determine the height of the tree by
multiplying tan 25° by 6.2.

A. i) Explain the thinking behind his plan.

ii) What has he forgotten to consider?
.
Two special angles are often used to solve trigonometry problems.
• If someone is looking at something up high, the acute angle formed by
the horizontal and the line of sight is called the angle of elevation.

Line of sight

Angle of elevation
Horizontal
• If a person is looking down at something low, the acute angle formed by
the horizontal and the line of sight is called the angle of depression.

Horizontal
Angle of depression

Line of sight

For example, to determine the height of a tall building, b:

• measure the angle of elevation of your
line of sight, e h
• measure your distance from the
building, d b
e
• use the tangent ratio of ∠ e d
to calculate the height of the p p
building above your eye, h
• add h to your height up to
your eye, p

B. Is the angle in part A an angle of elevation or depression? Explain.

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Examples
Example 1 Using an Angle of Elevation
Dawa stood 12.0 m from a prayer flag pole and
looked up to the top of the pole at an angle of 40°.
Dawa’s eyes are 1.5 m above the ground.
How tall is the pole?

Solution Thinking
• I drew a diagram and
s labelled it with the
p information I knew.
40°
12 m 1.5 m

• I saw that I could use the tangent

s ratio for 40º to figure out the height
tan 40° =
12 of the pole above Dawa’s eyes, s.
s
0.839 =
12
s § 10.1 m
• I remembered to add s to the height
10.1 + 1.5 = 11.6 of Dawa's eyes (1.5 m) to find the
The pole is 11.6 m tall. height of the pole, p.

Example 2 Using an Angle of Depression

A plane is landing. It is a horizontal distance of 347 m from where it will touch
down. The angle of depression is 3°. At what altitude is the plane currently flying?
Solution Thinking
347 m
• I drew a diagram and
3° a labelled it with the
a
tan 3° = information I knew.
347
a • I saw that I could use
0.052 =
347 the tangent ratio for the 3º angle
a § 18.0 to figure out the altitude, a.
The plane is flying at an altitude of 18 m.

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Example 3 Solving a Problem Using Two Angles of Elevation
Dendup and Karma are both looking at the top of a 100 m high hill. Both boys are
standing on flat ground. Their eyes are 1.4 m above ground level. Dendup is
200 m from the centre of the hill and Karma is 300 m from the centre of the hill, but
on the opposite side. At what angle of elevation is each boy looking up at the hill?
Solution 98.6 m Thinking
• I made a sketch of the
d k situation and labelled it
with what I knew —
200 m 300 m
D K I subtracted 1.4 m from
100 m for the height of the
98.6
tan d = = 0.493, so d § 26.24° hill above the boys' eyes.
200
• I used tan to figure out angles d
98.6
tan k = = 0.329, so k § 18.19° and k, since I knew the opposite and
300
adjacent side lengths.
Dendup is looking up at an angle of 26°. • It made sense that Karma's angle of
Karma is looking up at an angle of 18°. elevation was smaller than Dendup's,
since Karma is farther away.

Practising and Applying

1. Pema’s eyes are 1.5 m above 5. A boy looks at the top of a tree from
ground. He is looking at the top of an a window 15 m above ground at an
18.6 m high tree that is 27.5 m away. angle of elevation of 30°. He also looks
He and the tree are on level ground. at the base of the tree at an angle of
At what angle is he looking up? depression of 60°. Find the height of the
tree.
2. Maya is standing at the window of a
tall building. Her eyes are 12.6 m above 30°
the ground and she is looking down at
an object that is a horizontal distance of 60°
59 m away from the base of the
building. What is the angle of 15 m
depression?
3. Dechen sights a car from a tower.
Her eyes are 22 m above the ground.
6. Two students, whose eyes are about
The angle of depression of her sight
140 cm above ground, are standing
line is 26°. How far is the car from the
150.2 m apart, looking at the top of a
base of the tower?
hill from opposite sides. One is looking
4. Points A and B are 15 m apart on a at an angle of 30° and the other at an
flat road on opposite sides of a prayer angle of 35°. How high is the hill?
flag. The angle of elevation is 22° from
7. Tell how the angle of depression
point A and 31° from point B. How far
changes as you get closer to an object.
above road level is the top of the prayer
Explain why that happens. Use
flag?
diagrams to support your explanation.

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7.2.3 Areas of Polygons

Try This
Nima found a regular hexagon tile. He wanted to know
its area, but all he could easily measure was a side
length of 15 cm. 15 cm

A. i) Draw the smallest square you can that encloses the

polygon.
ii) Estimate the area of the hexagon.

Trigonometric ratios are useful for calculating the areas of triangles,

parallelograms, and regular polygons.
• The formula for the area of a parallelogram is
A = bh, where b is the base and h is the height.
But what if you only know the side lengths of the
parallelogram, a and b? You can still calculate the
area by using the sine ratio.
a h Since the height and side length form a right
h
triangle with part of the base, sin x = and
x a
b
h = a sin x. That means the formula for the area
of a parallelogram can be written like this:
A = a × b × sin x, or A = ab sin x, where x is the
measure of the angle less than 90°.
A = ab sin x

• Since you can always combine two congruent

triangles to form a parallelogram, the area of one
a triangle is half the area of the related
parallelogram.
x
Since the area of a parallelogram is A = ab sin x,
b 1
A= ab sin x, where a and b are two side lengths
2
and x is the angle where they meet.
1
A= ab sin x
2

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Each regular polygon can be divided into congruent triangles that are always
isosceles and sometimes equilateral. The area of the polygon is the sum of the
areas of the triangles. The area of each triangle can be found using trigonometry.
• A regular hexagon is made up of six equilateral triangles
s with side lengths s and angles of 60°.
1
The area of each triangle can be found with A = ab sin x.
2
Since a = b = s and sin 60° = 0.866, the area of each
1 1
triangle is A = × s × s × 0.866 or A = × 0.866s2.
2 2
1
So the area of a regular hexagon is 6 × × 0.866s2, or
2
s s A = 3 × 0.866s2

60º For example, for a regular hexagon with a side length

of 1 cm, A = 3 × 0.866 (1)2 = 2.60 cm2.
s
• For other regular polygons, the area is still the total of
s the areas of the congruent triangles. The number of
triangles in each polygon and their angles vary.
If you know the side length of a regular polygon, you
know one of the side lengths of each triangle. You can
use the tangent ratio to find the height. You can then find
1
the area of each triangle using A = bh.
2
The size of each triangle's angle at the centre of the
360
360° polygon is , where n is the number of sides of the
n
n
polygon. This is because the 360° angle in the centre is
distributed equally among the n angles that meet there.
Since the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180° and
the two other angles are equal (isosceles triangle),
360 360
180 − 180 −
n n degrees.
2
each of those angles is
2
For example, for a regular octagon, each central angle is
45° 360
or 45° and the other two angles in each triangle are
8
h each half of 135°, or 67.5°.
h h
67.5° tan 67.5º = ĺ 2.414 § ĺ h § 1.21s
s÷2 s÷2
s s 1
2 2 Using A = bh, the area of each triangle is
2
1 1
A= × s × 1.21s ĺ A = × 1.21 × s2 ĺ A = 0.605s2
2 2
The area of the octagon is 8 × 0.605s2, or 4.84s2.

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B. i) Use one of the methods shown to calculate the area of the hexagon
in part A.
ii) Was your estimate in part A ii) reasonable?

Example 1 Using Trig to Find the Area of a Composite Shape

The trapezoid below is made up of a triangle and a parallelogram.
Find the area of the trapezoid.
25
10
40°
10

Solution Thinking
25 • I sketched the
10 trapezoid and added
10
40° 40° more information that
10 25 I knew:
- I knew the opposite
sides of the parallelogram were the
Area of the parallelogram
same length as the sides I knew.
A = ab sin x [a = 25, b = 10, x is 40º]
= 250 × 0.643 - I knew the triangle had a 40° angle.
The sides of the parallelogram are
§ 160.75 square units
parallel so the two 40° angles
correspond.
Area of the triangle • I calculated the area of the
A=
1
ab sin x [a = 10, b = 10, x is 40º] parallelogram using the sine of the
2
40° angle and the two side lengths.
= 100 × 0.643 ÷ 2
• I calculated the area of the triangle
§ 32.15 square units
using the sine of the angle contained
by the two known side lengths.
Area of the trapezoid • I combined the area of the
160.75 + 32.15 = 192.90 square units parallelogram and the area of the
triangle to get the area of the
trapezoid.

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Example 2 Using Trig Ratios to Find the Area of a Regular Pentagon
A regular pentagon has a side length of 60 cm. What is its area?
Solution Thinking
• A regular pentagon is made
up of five congruent isosceles
60 cm triangles. I planned to find the
area of one triangle and then
multiply by 5.
• I knew the triangle's base was 60 cm
72° because it's the same as the side of the
h pentagon, so all I needed was its height.
54°
54° • To calculate the height, I wanted to
30 cm 30 cm use the tan ratio, so I needed to know
(60 cm) the angle opposite the height. I calculated
The height of the triangle all the angles:
h h - The top angle was 72° (360° ÷ 5).
tan 54° = ĺ 1.376 =
30 30 - Each other base angle is 54° since they're
h = 30 × 1.376 equal, and the sum of the angles in a
h = 41.28 cm triangle is 180° [(180 – 72) ÷ 2 = 54],
The area of the triangle • I used tan 54° to find the height, and
bh 60 × 41.28 1
A= = § 1238.4 cm2 then the formula A = bh to find the area.
2 2 2
The area of the pentagon • I multiplied by 5 since there are five of
5 × 1238.4 § 6192 cm2 these triangles in the pentagon.

Practising and Applying

1. Calculate the area of a rhombus 4. Each of the shapes below has a
with a side length of 20 cm and angles perimeter of 60 cm:
of 60° and 120°. • a square
• a regular pentagon
2. Calculate the area of this shape. • a regular hexagon
4 • a regular decagon
43°
3. a) Calculate the area of each shape.
136° 5 You will find it helpful to sketch each.
3.
5
b) What do you observe?
c) Why do you think a circle with
circumference 60 cm might have a
3. Calculate the area of a regular greater area than any of the four shapes
10-sided shape (a decagon) with a listed above?
side length of 10 cm.

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5. Express the area of this triangle in 6. How is trigonometry useful in
terms of b1, b2, ∠ X, and ∠ Z. determining the areas of any triangle?
Y Explain.

X b1 b2 Z

GAME: Race to Five

Race to Five is a game for two players. You will need two dice and two
calculators.
Players take turns.
• Roll two dice and combine the digits of the two values rolled to create an angle
measure.
• Calculate the sine, cosine, or tangent of the angle.
Players keep a running total of the trigonometric ratio values they get each time.
The first person to get the highest value less than or equal to 5.1 wins the game.
For example:
Suppose you roll a 3 and a 5.
You can calculate the sine, cosine or tangent of either
35° or 53°. Your decision about which ratio and which
angle will depend on where you are in the game.
If you already have 4.214 points, you do not want
more than 0.886 or you will go over 5.1.
sin 35° = 0.574 cos 35° = 0.819 tan 35° = 0.777
sin 53° = 0.799 cos 53° = 0.602 tan 53° = 1.327
It looks like the best choice is cos 35°.
You will win the game because your total
will be 4.214 + 0.819 = 5.013.

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7.2.4 Vectors and Bearings

Try This
Here is a set of walking directions
• Face south and go 2 km.
• Turn toward the east and walk another 2 km.
A. After following these directions, about how far are you from your starting
position? How do you know?

Directions are often given using words like north, south, northeast, and so on, but
it is sometimes important to be more precise. In these cases, it is common to use
bearings. Bearings are angles measured in degrees clockwise from the north.
N
000° Bearings are reported
to three digits, for
example, 45º is 045 º.

270° 090°

180°

• If you are given directions to walk 1 km at a bearing of 180° and then 2 km at a

bearing of 090°, you would move like this.

The arrows showing the components of the trip are called vectors. Vectors show
movement in terms of direction and distance. A longer vector represents a trip of
greater distance. A distance that is twice as long as another will be represented
with a vector that is twice as long, as shown above. The direction (arrow) of the
vector tells the bearing.
• You can use the benchmark degrees of 0° or 360° (north), 90° (east),
180°(south), and 270° (west) to help you determine the bearing of a vector.
N
000º

270° 225° 090°

45º
The bearing of this vector is 180 + 45 = 225º.
180°

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 N
000º Think of 000º as 360º.
10º

270° 090°
350º
The bearing of this vector is 360 – 10 = 350º.

180°
• If you have taken a trip that involves several components shown by several
vectors, you can describe the final result using a single vector with a bearing.
For example, if someone walks 1.0 km at a bearing of 180° and then 2.0 km
at a bearing of 270°, the trip can be shown two ways, as two vectors, as shown
on the left, or as one vector, as shown on the right below.
Showing all components Showing the final result using one vector
Start

1 km x
OR

2 km
The trip can be represented by the single black vector.
To determine the bearing of the single vector, you need to know the value of
angle x as indicated in the diagram below. The bearing will be 180º + x°.
Because the two original vectors formed a right triangle
and their lengths are known, the tangent ratio can be
used to find x.
tan x = 2 ÷ 1 = 2
If tan x is 2, then x § 63.43°. The bearing The
of the single
bearing of
vector will
this vector
be 180º ++ xx..
is 180º
x

If x § 63.43°,
then the bearing is 180 + 63.43 § 243°.
180°

To determine the distance of the single vector, you can use the Pythagorean
theorem and the known values of the two original vectors:
12 + 22 = v2
5 = v2
v § 2.24
The single vector that describes the trip is about 2.24 km long at a bearing of 243°.

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B. Use a single vector to describe the trip in part A. Use a distance and a
bearing to describe the vector.

Examples
Example 1 Combining Two Vectors
You walk 3 km at a bearing of 90°. Then you turn and walk 4 km at a bearing
of 180°. Use a single vector to describe the trip. Use a distance and a bearing
to describe the vector.
Solution Thinking
3 km • I drew and labelled a
diagram using two vectors
to describe the trip.

4 km

N
• I connected the start and end points
to create the single vector that would
3 km also describe the trip.
x • I noticed that the single vector
completed a triangle with the original
4 km two vectors.
• I knew that if I could find angle x,
I could add it to 90º to calculate the
bearing of the single vector from the
north.

The bearing is
4
• I used the tangent ratio for x
tan x = or 1.333 because I knew the opposite and
3
adjacent side lengths of the triangle.
If tan x is 1.333, then x is about 53.12°.
90 + x = 90 + 53.12 § 143º

The vector distance, v • To calculate the vector distance,

I used the Pythagorean theorem,
v= 32 + 42 = 25 = 5 km
because the vector was the hypotenuse
of a right triangle with the original
The single vector is 5 km at a bearing of
vectors as the legs.
143° from the north.

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Example 2 Combining More Than Two Vectors
Lungten walked 2 km at a bearing of 45° and then 5 km at a bearing of 135°.
Use a single vector to describe his trip. Use a distance and a bearing to
describe the vector.
Solution Thinking
N • I drew and labelled a
diagram using two vectors
90°
to describe the trip.
45° 45° I broke the 135° bearing
2 km 5 km
from North into two parts:
a 90° part and a 45° part.

• Then I connected the start and end

points to create a single vector to
2 km 5 km describe the trip.
• I noticed that the triangle was a right
triangle since the angle where the
vectors met was 180 – (45 + 45) = 90°.
The vector distance • To calculate the length of the vector,
22 + 52 = v2 I used the Pythagorean theorem.
4 + 25 = v2
v = 29 § 5.4 km

The vector bearing

• To calculate angle y, I used the tan
5
tan y = = 2.5, so y § 68.20° ratio because I knew the opposite side
2
length and the adjacent side length of
45° angle y.
y

45 + 68.20 § 113° • I added the value of angle y, 68º,

to 45° (the bearing of the first
The single vector is about 5.4 km original vector) to get the bearing
at a bearing of 113° from the north. of the single vector.

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Practising and Applying
1. Estimate the bearing for each vector. 4. c)
2.5 km
a) b) c)

3.5 km

2. Draw a vector to show each bearing.

a) 225°
b) 135°
c) 315°
d) 240° d)

3. a) Draw a single vector to represent 1.5 km

45°
each two-part trip. What is its bearing 1 km
and distance?
1.5 km
i) 2 m at a bearing of 225° and 1 m at
a bearing of 45°
ii) 1 m at a bearing of 160° and 1 m at 5. Tshewang walked 3 km at a bearing
a bearing of 340° of 135° and 4 km at a bearing of 45°.
iii) 2 m at a bearing of 050° and 1 m at Represent his two-part trip as a single
a bearing of 230° vector. What is its bearing and
b) Why was each two-part trip in part a) distance?
fairly easy to describe?
6. A trip can be described as 10 km at
4. Represent each trip as a single a bearing of 120°. What two-part trips
vector. What is its bearing and could have resulted in this single trip?
distance? List three possibilities using different
a) 3.5 km
pairs of bearings each time.

7. You are representing a two-part trip

with a single vector. The trip includes
2 km
a 2 km part at a bearing of 90° and a
4 km part at a bearing of 180°, but you
are not sure which part happened first.
a) Does the length of the vector depend
b) 1.7 km on which part happened first? Explain.
b) Does the bearing of the vector
depend on what part happened first?
1.4 km Explain.

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CONNECTIONS: Relating Trigonometric Ratios to Circles

Mathematicians often think about the trigonometric ratios in terms of a circle.

Examine the circle below with radius 1 unit. The angle where ED meets the radius
of the circle is a right angle.

E
F

1 unit

40°
A C B D

1. Measure each length on the diagram, based on AE as 1 unit.

a) EC b) AC c) DE

2. Look up the values for sine, cosine, and tangent of 40°. What do you notice?

3. Show that ΔACE ≅ ΔEFA.

4. Show that ΔEFA ~ ΔECD.

5. Use the relationship in question 4 to express the length of ED in terms of

a trig ratio.

You might find it interesting to know that the word tangent also means a line
that touches a circle at exactly one point.

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UNIT 7 Revision

1. Which pairs of triangles are similar? 3. How wide is the river?

Explain how you know.
A.

4.2 9.8

8.4
6 4. How wide is the bay?
3

B. 5

32°
8

5
32°
5. Determine the sine, cosine and
3.9
tangent of ∠ A for each. Then calculate
the size of ∠ A to the nearest degree.
2. What is the value of x?
a) a) 3.0
1.4
3
3 A 2.7
5
x

b) b)
1.5
4

A
x 2.5
8
6. For each triangle in question 5,
order the following ratios from least to
20 greatest: sec ∠ A, csc ∠ A, cot ∠ A.
What do you notice? Why does this
happen?

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7. Fill in each blank with an acute 13. Dawa is looking up at the top of the
angle. structure from 120 m away. His eyes
a) cos ___ = 0.2 are 155 cm above ground level. The
angle of elevation is 5°. Estimate the
b) sin ___ = 0.2 height of the structure.
c) tan ___ = 1.5
d) sin ___ = cos 85°

8. A garage is building a ramp so that

workers can stand below a car to work
on it. If the platform for the car must be
1.7 m above the ground and the angle
at which the ramp meets the ground is
20°, how long should the ramp be?

1.7 m
20°
14. Calculate the area of a regular
nonagon (9-sided shape) with a side
9. Graph the lines y = 2x and y = 3x +1. length of 20 cm.
Calculate the acute angle where the
two lines intersect.
15. What bearing describes each
vector?
10. A carpenter leans a 4 m ladder
against a wall. It reaches 3.5 m up a) N b) N
the wall. Find the angle the ladder
makes with the wall.

11. A ramp rises 2.5 m for every 5.5 m

of run. What is the slope angle of the
ramp at its base?
16. Draw a single vector to represent
this two-part trip. Describe its bearing
12. From the top of a cliff, the angle of
and distance.
depression from the horizontal down
toward a car is 30°. If the cliff is 60 m N
high, how far is the car from the base
of the cliff? 5 km

6 km

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Reprint 2023 268
 UNIT 8 GEOMETRY
Getting Started

Use What You Know

A. How can you use each method below
to determine whether the white trapezoid
is symmetrical?
i) folding
ii) measuring
iii) using coordinates

B. What measurements would you need to take to determine

whether the white and gray trapezoids are congruent? Explain.

C. How could you use the two trapezoids to create a shape that has
rotational symmetry? How do you know it has rotational symmetry?

Skills You Will Need

1. What is the name of each shape?
a) b) c)

d) e)

2. Use a ruler, protractor, and compass to draw each triangle.

a) Draw ΔABC: AB = 7.5 cm, BC = 6.3 cm, and ∠ B = 24º
b) Draw ΔPQR: PQ = 4.7 cm, QR = 6.6 cm, and PR = 7.5 cm
c) Draw ΔLMN: LM = 8 cm, ∠ L = 12º, and ∠ N = 47º

3. a) What information do you need to Z W

determine if two triangles are congruent?
b) What further information could you use V
to prove that ΔVZY ≅ ΔVXW? Explain how
this information would help. Find more than X
one answer. Y

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Chapter 1 Symmetry and Reasoning
8.1.1 2-D and 3-D Reflectional Symmetry

Try This
Gembo made these two
structures using 15 cubes
for each.

A. Why might someone say

that the structure on the left
is more balanced than the
structure on the right?
B. Why might the structure on
the left more likely be a model
for a building than the structure
on the right?

• Research has shown that humans like balance

in the form of symmetry. You have probably
noticed this about your own preferences. A face
looks pleasant when it is the same on both sides.
We build things like windows, for example,
to have symmetrical properties.
• When people say that a shape is symmetrical,
they usually mean that, from a certain point of
view, the shape looks the same on the left or top
as it does on the right or bottom. This is called
mirror symmetry, or reflectional symmetry.
If you could fold the shape along a line, one half
would match the other congruent half.
• The line that you imagine to be the fold line is called the line of reflection
or line of symmetry. It has this name because if a mirror were placed on this
line, the mirror image of one half of the shape would reflect exactly on top of
the other half.
• One of the properties of reflectional
symmetry is that for each point on
one side of the shape, the line
segment joining it to its matching
point on the other side of the shape
is perpendicular to the line of
symmetry. The line of symmetry
bisects the line segment. Line of symmetry

Reprint 2023 270

• Many shapes have more than one line of symmetry.
For example, any square has four lines of symmetry, as
shown on the right. This means that when you fold
the square along any of these lines, each half will match
its opposite half exactly.
A square has
four lines of symmetry.

• 3-D shapes can also have reflectional symmetry. The imaginary surface that
cuts, or divides a 3-D shape into congruent and matching halves is called
the plane of symmetry. Reflectional symmetry of 3-D shapes is sometimes
called plane symmetry.
As with reflectional symmetry of
2-D shapes, a line segment joining any
two matching points on either side of
the plane of symmetry is bisected by
the plane and perpendicular to the plane.

A plane of symmetry
• You cannot fold 3-D shapes to determine whether they have reflectional
symmetry, but you can visualize to estimate whether the shape is the same on
both sides of a plane of symmetry.
For example, if you look at a classmate's head, you can visualize a vertical plane
of symmetry that passes through the chin, mouth, nose, and between the eyes.
This indicates that the head is symmetrical.
• The regular pentagon-based prism shown below has six planes of symmetry;
one of them is shown. The other five planes of symmetry are indicated by the
dashed lines. The planes of symmetry are related to the lines of symmetry of the
prisms' faces. Five of the six planes, including the one shown, are extensions of
the lines of symmetry in the 2-D pentagon base. One plane of symmetry divides
the lateral faces in half; that plane is an extension of one of the lines of symmetry
of each rectangle face.

In addition to the plane of symmetry

shown in grey, this regular pentagon-
based prism has five other planes of
symmetry, each shown by dashed lines.
The planes of symmetry relate to the
lines of symmetry of the prism's faces.

• If you were to cut the prism along any plane of symmetry, the resulting two
pieces would be congruent halves, each half the mirror image of the other.

C. i) Which structure in part A has a plane of symmetry? How do you know?

ii) How many planes of symmetry are there and where are they?

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Examples
Example 1 Creating a Shape with Reflectional Symmetry
a) Create two shapes with three lines of symmetry.
b) Create two shapes with four lines of symmetry.
Solution Thinking
a) a) I know that an equilateral triangle
has three lines of symmetry. Each line
joins a vertex to the midpoint of
the opposite side.

• To get another shape was harder, I decided

to modify the shape I already had by adding
something to each part. I cut out the shape and
folded it to make sure the folded halves matched
for each of the three lines of symmetry.

b) b) I used the same idea for four lines of symmetry

by starting with a square for the first shape and
then modifying it to create the second shape. I cut
out the shape and folded it to make sure the folded
halves matched for each of the three lines of
symmetry.

Example 2 Locating Planes of Symmetry

Show the planes of symmetry of each shape.
a) prism with an isosceles triangle base b) regular hexagon-based pyramid

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Solution Thinking
a) a) I knew that if a plane is going
to divide the prism into mirror
halves, then one of the faces
has to be divided into mirror
halves as well. So I first located
the lines of symmetry on all the faces.

• One plane of symmetry goes through the

line of symmetry on both triangle bases, as
well as through one of the lines of symmetry
on one lateral rectangular face and the edge
opposite to it.

• A second plane of symmetry goes through

the other lines of symmetry on each of the
lateral rectangular faces.

There are two planes of

symmetry.

b) b) I located the six lines of symmetry for

the regular hexagon base. I knew that any
plane that went through one of those lines
and the apex (top) of the pyramid would be
a plane of symmetry because it would cut
the pyramid into matching halves.

There are six planes of symmetry.

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Practising and Applying
1. How many planes of symmetry 4. a) What do you notice about the
does this structure have? number of lines of symmetry in a
regular polygon? Explain why this
property applies to all regular polygons.
b) How does this property relate to the
number of planes of symmetry of a
prism with a regular polygon base?
c) How does this property relate to the
number of planes of symmetry of a
pyramid with at regular polygon base?

5. Create two 2-D shapes, each with

six lines of symmetry.
2. How many lines of symmetry does
each shape have? Sketch each and 6. Is it possible to create a triangle with
show the lines. two lines of symmetry?
a) equilateral b) regular
triangle pentagon 7. a) How many different planes of
symmetry are there in a square-based
prism that is not a cube? Show this in
a sketch.
b) How many different planes of
symmetry are there in a cube? Show
this in a sketch.
c) regular hexagon d) regular octagon

8. How many different planes of

symmetry are there in a regular
tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid with
each face an equilateral triangle)?
Show this in a sketch.

3. Use your results from question 2

to predict the number of planes of
symmetry for each shape below.
a) b)

9. a) How many lines of symmetry does

a circle have?
b) How many planes of symmetry does
c) d) a cylinder have? Explain.
c) How many planes of symmetry does
a cone have? Explain.

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8.1.2 2-D and 3-D Rotational Symmetry

Try This
A baby is playing with a small cube block that fits into a square hole
in a bigger cube block.

A. How many ways can the baby fit the small cube block into the hole?
(The cross design on the front of the block has to face forward.)

There are various kinds of symmetry, even though in normal conversation

the word 'symmetry' usually refers to reflectional symmetry.
• One type of symmetry in mathematics is turn symmetry, which is also called
rotational symmetry. A shape has turn symmetry when it is turned or rotated
around a fixed point called the centre of rotation and it looks the same more
than once during one complete rotation.
• The number of times the shape looks the same during a complete rotation is
the order of turn symmetry.
For example, the square below has turn symmetry of order 4, since it looks the
same 4 times as it is turned 360º around its centre.
1 2 3 4

Centre of rotation

• When you describe turn symmetry, you must indicate

- where the centre of the rotation is, and
- how many times the shape looks the same (the order of turn symmetry) during
a complete rotation of 360º around that centre of rotation.
• If a shape has no turn symmetry, this means it has to be turned a full 360°
before it looks the same as it does in its initial position. That means the order
of turn symmetry for a shape with no turn symmetry is 1 (because it looks the
same once in a full rotation).

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• A 3-D shape has turn symmetry when it can be turned or rotated around a
line called the axis of rotation and it looks the same more than once within a
full rotation. As with 2-D turn symmetry, the number of times the shape looks
the same is the order of turn symmetry.
For example:
When it is rotated around the axis that passes through the centres of the bases,
the regular pentagon-based prism below has turn symmetry of order 5.
When it is rotated around the axis that passes through the lateral faces,
the regular pentagon-based prism has turn symmetry of order 2.

Axis of rotation Axis of rotation

Turn symmetry of order 5 Turn symmetry of order 2

• An axis of rotation connects or passes through two of these parts of a 3-D shape:
- a vertex
- the centre of a face or base
- the midpoint of an edge
In the first example above, the axis passes through the centres of both bases.
In the second example, the axis passes through the midpoint of an edge and
the centre of a lateral face.

B. i) How does the question in part A relate to rotational symmetry?

ii) What is the order of turn symmetry of the small cube? Explain.

Examples
Example 1 Describing Turn Symmetry in 2-D
Create three shapes with rotational symmetry of order 2.
Solution Thinking
• I know that a rectangle has
Before 180º turn After 180º turn rotational symmetry of order
around centre around centre 2 because when I turn it
through a full rotation around
the centre, it looks the same
twice.

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 • I know that a parallelogram has rotational
Before 180º turn After 180º turn symmetry of order 2 because when I turn
around centre around centre it through a full rotation around the centre,
it looks the same twice.
• For the third shape, I used a rectangle
that I knew had turn symmetry of order 2
and added two small congruent rectangles
to two sides, directly opposite each other.
That way, it didn’t change the symmetry.
• The new shape has turn symmetry of
order 2 because it looks the same twice
in a full rotation.

Example 2 Axes of Rotation for a Rectangular Prism

Find all the axes of rotation of a rectangular prism that is not a cube.
Solution Thinking
Through the centres of the top and • I knew that if the shape had
bottom faces turn symmetry, I could find
axes of rotation by visualizing
lines that pass through its
vertices, the centres of its
faces, and the midpoints of its edges.

Through the centres of the side • I visualized a line that passed through
faces the centres of the top and bottom faces.
I knew it was an axis of rotation because if
I turned the prism around the axis, it would
look exactly the same after half a turn.

Through the centres of the front • I realized that I could visualize an axis of
and back faces rotation through any two opposite faces —
through the two side faces and through
the front and back faces.

• I tried visualizing lines that pass through

vertices and through midpoints of edges,
but none of them would work as axes of
rotation.

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Practising and Applying
1. Use the centre of each regular 7. Passang noticed that in a regular
polygon as the centre of rotation. What hexagon-based prism, there is turn
is the order of turn symmetry for each? symmetry of order 2 using an axis of
a) equilateral b) regular rotation that passes through the centres
triangle pentagon of two opposite lateral faces.

c) regular hexagon d) regular octagon

There are other axes of rotation, with
order 2 or more.
a) How many axes of rotation are
there? Use a diagram to show the axes.
b) Describe the turn symmetry for each
axis of rotation in part a).

2. What do you notice about the order 8. a) How many axes of rotation are
of turn symmetry in a regular polygon? there in a triangular prism with an
Explain why this property applies to all equilateral triangle base? Use a
regular polygons. diagram to show the axes.
b) Describe the turn symmetry for
3. Is it possible for a triangle to have each axis.
turn symmetry of order 2? Explain.

4. Create a 2-D shape with turn

symmetry of order 4 that is not
a square. 9. a) How many axes of rotation are
there in a regular tetrahedron? Use
5. a) Which pairs of points on this cube a diagram to show the axes.
can you connect to create axes of b) Describe the turn symmetry for
rotation? each axis.
b) How many axes of rotation are there
for a cube?

10. Which has more axes of rotation —

a sphere or a cylinder? Explain.

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8.1.3 Reasoning

Try This
At a very young age, Buthri noticed that only women get
pregnant, not men. So when her parents told her she would
soon be a big sister, she knew that her mother would be
the one who would give birth. After she explained her
reasoning to her cousin Mindu, he explained to her that the
reason her mother was the one that would give birth was
that only women have babies because their bodies are
designed to give birth.

A. Compare the reasoning of Buthri and her cousin.

i) What information is Buthri using to conclude that her
mother will give birth?
ii) What information is Mindu using to conclude that
Buthri's mother will give birth?

B. Think of something that you know to be true.

What information has convinced you that it is true?

• There are many ways of explaining things. One way to categorize explanations
is to distinguish between explanations that are based on inductive reasoning and
those that are based on deductive reasoning.
- If an explanation uses inductive reasoning, it is based on examples that
suggest something might be always true.
- If an explanation uses deductive reasoning, it is based on knowledge and
information.
For example, if for several regular polygons you compare their number of lines
of symmetry to their order of turn symmetry (using the centre of the polygon as
the centre of rotation), you will notice that the numbers are the same. You might
predict they would also be the same for other regular polygons. In this case,
you are using inductive reasoning. You used the particular examples to decide
that something was probably true more generally. In order to give a deductive
explanation for why the number of lines of symmetry is always equal to the order
of rotational symmetry, you would have to use knowledge to explain why the
numbers are the same.
• An example of deductive reasoning for why the number of lines of symmetry
is always equal to the order of rotational symmetry is described below.
- Every regular polygon with n sides can be divided into
n congruent triangles by the lines of symmetry (because
the lines are lines of symmetry, the triangles on either side are
congruent because of SAS and since each pair of triangles is
congruent, then all the triangles are congruent).
[Continued]

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 1 2 3
- If the triangles are congruent, then each triangle can be moved , , , … and
n n n
n −1
way around the shape before it comes back to where it started. This means
n
the order of turn symmetry is n.
• When you have an idea or prediction that something is true, it is called a
conjecture. After you have proven that it is true based on deductive reasoning,
it is called a theorem. For this reason, deductive explanations (deductions) are
often called proofs.
• If you show something to be true using inductive reasoning, mathematicians
would say that you have verified it, but you have not proven it. Many young
students use inductive reasoning because they do not have the mathematical
knowledge to allow them to prove something deductively. Inductive reasoning is
still valuable and is often the first step toward realizing something might be true.
• To prove something is not true, you only need to show one example for which
it is not true, called a counterexample.
For example, if you conjectured that the order of turn symmetry is the same as
the number of lines of symmetry for all polygons, you can prove that your
conjecture is not true when by using a counterexample such as a parallelogram.

C. i) Was Buthri's explanation an example of inductive reasoning or deductive

reasoning? How do you know?
ii) Was Mindu's explanation an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning? How do you know?

Examples
Example 1 Distinguishing between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Identify each statement as an example of inductive or deductive reasoning.
a) "I have noticed that when a ball is released in the air it falls to the ground,
so I know that when Mindu releases that ball it will fall."
b) "Gravity pulls all objects to the earth, so when Mindu releases that ball I
know it will fall to the earth."
c) "Whenever I add the measures of the degrees in the non-right angles in a
right triangle, I get 90°.”
d) “The angles in a triangle always total 180°, so the non-right angles in a
right triangle also total 90°.”
Solution Thinking
a) Inductive a) The person is relying on examples
to make a prediction.

b) Deductive b) The person is using known information

about gravity to make a prediction related
to that information.

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c) Inductive c) The person is relying on experience to make
a prediction.
d) Deductive d) The prediction is a logical result of the first
statement, which provides already proven information
about triangles — if all the angles in a triangle add to
180° and a right triangle has one 90° angle, then it
follows that the other two angles have to add to 90°.

Example 2 Disproving a Conjecture using a Counterexample

Does a 2-D shape with rotational symmetry always have reflectional symmetry?
Solution Thinking
Examples — all have both rotational and • I drew a few 2-D
reflectional symmetry shapes that had
rotational symmetry
and found that they
all had lines of
symmetry too. I started to think
that the answer was yes —
A counterexample — an example that has whenever there is rotational
rotational symmetry but not reflectional symmetry, there is also
symmetry reflectional symmetry.
180° turn
• Then I drew a parallelogram and
saw that it has rotational
symmetry, but no line of
symmetry.
• Just one counterexample was
No, a 2-D shape with rotational symmetry enough to prove that the
does not always have reflectional symmetry. conjecture was not true.

Example 3 Proving a Conjecture Using Deductive Reasoning

Use deductive reasoning to prove that an isosceles triangle that is not equilateral
has exactly one line of symmetry.
Solution Thinking
A • I drew a diagram
to help me visualize
my plan.
D B
• I thought I should
first prove that
C there is one line of symmetry,
ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD and then prove that there can't
[Continued] be more than one.

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Example 3 Proving a Conjecture Using Deductive Reasoning [Continued]
Solution Thinking
Proving there is one line of symmetry • I showed
ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD because of ASA: that the
• DB = DB because it is the same segment. triangles
• ∠ A = ∠ C because ΔABC is isosceles formed by the
• ∠ BDA = ∠ BDC = 90º predicted line
Therefore DB is a mirror line. of symmetry are congruent,
proving that there is one
Proving there is no other line of symmetry line of symmetry.
A
E
• To show that another line,
B CE, is not a line of
symmetry, I proved that
C angles A and B are not equal
ΔAEC is not congruent to ΔBEC because ∠ B  ∠ A: in an isosceles triangle that
• ∠ B = 180º – ∠ A – ∠ C = 180º – 2 × ∠ A is not equilateral:
• For ∠ B to be equal to ∠ A, ∠ A must be 60º.
• ∠ A can only be equal to 60º if ΔABC is equilateral, • I knew that
and ΔABC is not an equilateral triangle. 180º – ∠ A – ∠ C
Because ΔAEC is not congruent to ΔBEC, CE is not = 180º – 2 × ∠ A
a line of symmetry. because the sum of the
The same reasoning can be used for the third angles in any triangle is 180º
possible line of refection from vertex A to side CB.
and ∠ A = ∠ C in ΔAEC.
Therefore there is exactly one line of symmetry in
an isosceles triangle that is not equilateral.

Example 4 Proving a Conjecture Using Deductive Reasoning

Use deductive reasoning to prove that a prism always has more edges than
vertices.
Solution Thinking
• The bases of a prism
are congruent polygons
n edges on one base and each base has n edges
n edges on the other base and n vertices.
n edges to connect the bases • The other edges come
That is 3n edges altogether. from connecting each vertex on
one base to its corresponding vertex
n vertices on one base
on the other base. Since there are
n vertices on the other base
n vertices on each base, there are
That is 2n vertices altogether.
n connecting edges.
Since 3n > 2n, there are always more • I know that 3n > 2n when n is positive,
edges than vertices on a prism. like in this situation.

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Practising and Applying
1. Identify each statement as an 4. Drakpa conjectured that pyramids
example of inductive or deductive have the same number of planes of
reasoning. symmetry as the number of lines of
a) "Dogs have sharp teeth, so it would symmetry in the base.
hurt if you were bitten by a dog." a) Verify that her conjecture is true
b) "It has rained every Friday this using inductive reasoning.
month, so I know that next Friday b) Prove her conjecture to be true for
will be rainy." pyramids using deductive reasoning.
c) "The sun will rise between those
two hills. It always does." 5. Dechen conjectured that 2-D shapes
d) "When I ride my bicycle downhill, I with two lines of symmetry at right
feel cool because the increased speed angles have to have rotational
makes more wind to cool me." symmetry. Prove that her conjecture
is true.
2. a) Complete this chart describing
plane symmetry in regular polygon- 6. a) Measure the exterior angles in
based prisms. several polygons for which all angles
Number of Number of are less than 180º and find their sum.
sides in the planes of An exterior angle is the angle created by
prism’s base symmetry a side length and a line extending from
3 the adjacent side length, for example:
4
5
6
Exterior
angle
b) Use the chart to make a conjecture
about symmetry in a regular polygon-
based prism.
c) Why is your conjecture the result of
b) Use what you noticed to develop
inductive reasoning?
a conjecture.
d) Use deductive reasoning to explain
c) Prove your conjecture to be true
why your conjecture must be true.
using deductive reasoning.
3. Lemo conjectured that pyramids with
a certain base have one fewer face 7. A student conjectured that triangular
than prisms with that same base. prisms with scalene right triangle bases
cannot have symmetry. Use a
a) Verify her conjecture to be true
counterexample to prove that this
using inductive reasoning.
conjecture is false.
b) Prove her conjecture to be true
using deductive reasoning.
8. Why might some people think that
deductive reasoning is more powerful
than inductive reasoning?

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Chapter 2 Constructions
8.2.1 EXPLORE: Rigidity

• Tshering once heard someone

describe a rhombus as "a square that
has been pushed over." He thought
that was a good description.
He tried it out by creating a skeleton of
a square using tape and four pencils
of equal length. He then pushed on
one of the vertices and the square "Pushing" a square to make a rhombus
became a rhombus.
Tshering then wondered what other shapes could be pushed over.
He and Devika decided to explore different shapes.
• Tshering and Devika were exploring something that mathematicians and
engineers call rigidity. A shape that holds its shape when it is pushed is
called a rigid shape. A square is not considered rigid because its shape
changes when it is pushed.
• You can also test the rigidity of 3-D shapes in the same way.
For example, you can make the skeleton of
a cube using pencils, sticks, or drinking straws
and then push on one of its vertices. You will
discover that it will not hold its shape.

A cube skeleton

A. Explore the rigidity of triangles by taping sticks together to make skeleton

models. What kinds of triangles are rigid? Consider all types of triangles:
scalene (including right scalene), isosceles (including right isosceles), and
equilateral triangles.
B. i) You can make a square rigid by adding a diagonal to the skeleton.
Explain why this works. Is your explanation an example of inductive or
deductive reasoning? How do you know?
ii) What could you do to a regular pentagon to make it rigid? Try to do this
with as little material as possible. Explain what you did and why it worked.
iii) Describe what you would do with other 2-D shapes to make them rigid.
C. Explore 3-D shapes by taping sticks together to make skeleton models.
Predict which 3-D shapes are rigid and explain your prediction. Test your
predictions by creating the skeleton models and testing their rigidity.
D. i) Why do you think people consider a triangle to be a unique shape?
ii) Why do you think triangles are commonly used in structures such
as bridges and towers?

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8.2.2 Perpendiculars and Bisectors

Try This
Two players are doing football drills. The players
take their positions and the ball is placed
an equal distance from each player. Upon
hearing the whistle, the players must run to the
ball and compete to possess it. One obvious
location for the ball is at the midpoint of a line
segment that goes from one player to the other.
What other locations are possible?
A. i) Draw two points, P and Q, on a piece of paper to represent the two players.
Then locate five points that are the same distance from P as from Q.
ii) How did you locate the points?
iii) How did you know they were the same distance from P as from Q?
B. i) Draw two intersecting line segments on a piece of paper. Locate five
points that are the same distance from each line segment.
ii) How did you locate the points?
iii) How did you know they were the same distance from each line segment?

• People have been doing constructions with a straight-edge (a ruler with

no markings) and a compass for thousands of years. Two of the most basic
constructions are the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, and
the angle bisector:
- A perpendicular is a line that intersects a line segment at 90º.
- A bisector divides something exactly in half (the prefix bi means two).
- A perpendicular bisector does both — it divides a line segment in half at 90º.
- An angle bisector divides an angle in half.
• Recall the following constructions you have learned in previous classes:
To construct an angle bisector
Step 1: Use a compass to make an arc on each arm to mark equal distances
from the vertex.
Step 2: Use a compass to make intersecting arcs of equal radius from
the intersection of the arcs and the arms.
Step 3: Use a straight-edge to draw a line from the vertex through the
intersection of these arcs to bisect the angle.
Angle bisector
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Note that any point along
an angle bisector is
equidistant (the same
30º distance) from the arms
60º 60º 30º of the angle it bisects.

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To construct a perpendicular bisector of a line segment
Step 1 Step 2
Use a compass to draw arcs of equal Use a straight-edge to draw a line
radius from each endpoint, A and B, through the intersections of the arcs.
on both sides of the line segment. Perpendicular bisector
B B

A A

Any point along a perpendicular bisector

of a line segment is equidistant from the
endpoints of the line segment.

To construct a perpendicular from a point to a line segment

Step 1 Step 2
Use a compass to draw an arc from Construct the perpendicular bisector of
the point so that it intersects CD in two line segment AB (see To construct
places. The intersection points will be a perpendicular bisector above).
the endpoints of line segment AB.
Perpendicular of
CD from a point

D D
B B
C A C A

The perpendicular bisector of AB is a

perpendicular from a point to CD.

To construct a perpendicular from a point on a line segment

Step 1 Step 2
Use a compass to draw an arc from Construct the perpendicular bisector of
the point so that it intersects EF in two line segment AB (see To construct
places. The intersection points will be a perpendicular bisector above).
the endpoints of line segment AB.
Perpendicular of EF

E A A
E
B B

F F

The perpendicular bisector of AB is a

perpendicular through a given point on EF.

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These constructions will help you construct these features of triangles:
• The circumcircle — the circle that
Circumcircle of ΔPQR
passes through all three vertices
P
• The circumcentre — the centre of
the circumcircle, which is found at Incentre
the intersection of any two side
Circumcentre
length perpendicular bisectors
• The incircle — the circle inside
the triangle that touches each side of
the triangle once
• The incentre — the centre of R
the incircle, which is found at
Q
the intersection of any two angle
bisectors Incircle of ΔPQR

C. i) Connect points P and Q from part A to create line segment PQ and then
construct the perpendicular bisector of PQ. What do you notice about this
perpendicular bisector in relation to the five points?
ii) Construct the bisectors of the angles formed by the intersecting lines in part B.
What do you notice about the angle bisectors in relation to the five points?

Examples
Example 1 Constructing a Triangle With a Straight-edge and Compass
Without using a ruler or protractor, construct ΔPQR with
3
PQ = QR and ∠ PQR = 60°.
4
Solution Thinking
Step 1 Step 1: I drew a line segment and
Q R labelled it QR to create side length
QR of ΔPQR.
Step 2 3
Step 2: I needed to find of the
4
length of QR so I could create side length PQ.
Q M R
To do this
- I constructed QR's perpendicular bisector and
labelled the intersection point M.
- I constructed MR's perpendicular bisector and
labelled the intersection point N.
R 3
Q M N I knew QN was QR so I could use this
4
information in Step 3 to begin locating vertex P.

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Example 1 Constructing a Triangle With a Straight-edge and Compass [Cont'd]
Solution Thinking
Step 3 Step 3: I put my compass point on Q
and extended it to the length of
QN. I then drew a large arc with
a radius equal to QN, which I knew
Q M N R 3
was QR. Vertex P could be
4
3
anywhere on that arc to make PQ = QR
4
Step 4 Step 4: I needed ∠ PQR = 60°. To do this,
- I visualized ¨PQN, an equilateral triangle with
all angles 60°, including ∠ PQN. I knew that if
∠ PQN = 60°, then ∠ PQR = 60° because they
Q R
M N are the same angles.
- I put my compass point on N and set it to the
length of QN. I then drew a large arc with a
radius equal to QN. Vertex P could be anywhere
Step 5 P on that arc and ∠ PQR would be 60°.
Step 5: I knew that vertex P had to be on both
large arcs for ∠ PQR to be 60° and PQ to be
3
Q R QR so I located vertex P where the two large
M N 4
arcs intersected. I then drew QP and PR to
complete the triangle.

Example 2 Constructing Perpendicular Bisectors to Construct the Circumcircle

Construct the circumcircle of ΔDEF with DF = 3.6 cm, ED = 5.1 cm, and ∠ D = 49º.
Solution Thinking
Step 1 Step 1: I drew ΔDEF by
5.1 cm
E - using a ruler to draw a 5.1 cm line segment
D
49º
labelled ED
3.6 cm
- using a protractor to make ∠ D = 49º
F - marking point F 3.6 cm away from point D
such that ∠ D = 49º and then drawing DF and FE
Step 2A Step 2: To draw the circumcircle of ΔDEF, I needed

D E to find the circumcentre — the centre of the circle that

travels through D, E, and F. I knew the circumcentre had
to be the same distance from E as from F, so I
constructed the perpendicular bisector of EF. (Any
F point on a perpendicular bisector is an equal distance
from the end points of the line segment it bisects.)

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Step 2B The circumcentre also had to be the same distance
E from D as from F, so I constructed the perpendicular
D
bisector of DF. The only point the two perpendicular
bisectors had in common was the intersection point,
so that had to be the circumcentre.
F
Step 3 Step 3: I placed my compass point on the
circumcentre, set its radius at vertex E, and then
drew the circumcircle. I knew it would also pass
D E through vertices D and F because I already knew
that its circumcentre was just as far from F as
from E and just as far from D as from E.

Example 3 Using Angle and Perpendicular Bisectors to Construct the Incircle

Construct the incircle of ΔABC using only A
a straight-edge and a compass.

C
B
Solution Thinking
Step 1 Step 1: To draw the incircle of ΔABC,
A I needed to find its incentre.
- The incentre had to be the same
distance from AC as from BC, so
I constructed ∠ C's bisector. (Any
C point along an angle bisector is the same distance
B
from the arms of the angle it bisects.)
- The incentre also had to be the same distance
Steps 2 and 3
from AC as from BC, so I bisected ∠ A.

A - The only point the angle bisectors had in common

was the intersection, so that had to be the incentre.
Step 2: To find the point on BC where the incircle
touched, I constructed a perpendicular from the
C incentre to BC.
B
Step 3: I placed my compass point on the incentre
and set its radius at the intersection of the
perpendicular bisector and BC. Then I drew the
incircle. I knew the incircle would also just touch AB
and AC because its incentre was just as far from AC
as from BC and just as far from AB as from BC.

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Practising and Applying
1. Construct the circumcircle for each. 7. Lobzang started with a large circle
a) Acute ABC: AB = 6.5 cm, and randomly chose three points on it
BC = 4.3 cm, and  B = 65º to form ABC.
C
b) Right DEF: DE = 6.5 cm,
EF = 4.3 cm, and  E = 90º
c) Obtuse JKH: JK = 6.5 cm,
KH = 4.3 cm, and  K = 115º
2. a) What do you notice about B A
the location of the circumcentre in
each type of triangle in question 1?
b) For which types of triangles do you
predict the circumcentre will be outside He constructed ABC's incircle. Then
the triangle? he randomly chose three points on
c) How could you determine whether ABC's incircle to form DEF and
your conjecture from part b) is true? constructed DEF's incircle. He
repeated this until he had constructed
3. Construct the incircle for each. four circles altogether. Follow his
a) LMN: LM = 8.1 cm,  L = 81º, procedure to see if there is a pattern.
and  M = 35º
8. a) Use trigonometry to prove that any
b) PQR: PQ = 7.4 cm, QR = 8.9 cm, point P on the bisector of an angle is
and PR = 5.3 cm equidistant from the arms of the angle.
4. a) Construct an equilateral triangle, b) Use your proof from part a) to prove
its circumcircle, and its incircle. that point P, the intersection of two
b) Compare your constructions with angle bisectors, is the incentre of
a classmate's. What do you conclude a triangle.
about the circumcentre and incentre A
9. Andu noticed that for
of an equilateral triangle? isosceles triangle ABC,
5. Construct each, using only a straight- the perpendicular
edge and a compass. bisector of BC (the non-
equal side length) and
1 the angle bisector of
a) ABC: AB = AC and  A = 45°
2  A (the angle opposite
C B
1 to BC) are the same line.
b) ABC: AB = AC and  A = 30°
2 He conjectured that this was the case
for any isosceles triangle.
6. a) Draw a quadrilateral and then
construct the circle that passes through a) To prove Andu's conjecture
three of its vertices (the circumcircle of deductively, show how
the triangle formed by these vertices). • the triangles formed by the
Does the circle also pass through the perpendicular bisector are congruent.
fourth vertex of the quadrilateral? • the triangles formed by the angle
b) Repeat part a) with different-shaped bisector of the angle opposite to the
quadrilaterals until you feel ready to perpendicular bisector are congruent.
conclude whether all quadrilaterals b) Andu's conjecture works for any side
have circumcircles. length and its opposite angle in an
equilateral triangle. Explain.

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Reprint 2022 290 Unit VIII
8.2.3 Medians and Altitudes

Try This
A family wants to divide its land equally
between two children. Their triangular plot
of land measures 58 m, 89 m, and 93 m
along its boundaries.

A. i) Draw a scale model of the plot of

land, ΔABC, with sides AB = 93 mm, C
BC = 89 mm, and AC = 58 mm.
ii) Measure the height of ΔABC and 58 m
89 m
then calculate ΔABC's area.
iii) Locate the midpoint of AB using
a perpendicular bisector. Label it point
M and then draw a line from C to M to B A
93 m
create two triangles, ΔBMC and ΔAMC.
iv) Calculate the areas of ΔBMC and ΔAMC.
v) What do you notice about the areas of ΔABC, ΔBMC, and ΔAMC?

In the previous lesson, you learned how to construct the circumcentre and the
incentre of a triangle. These are two of its centres. There other ways to think about
the centre of a triangle. This lesson shows two more.
Medians and the centre of gravity
• The centre of gravity of a triangle is
sometimes called the centroid.
• The centre of gravity is the intersection The centre of
point of the triangle's medians. It is the gravity, or centroid
is located at the
point on which the triangle would balance intersection of the
under the influence of gravity (see the medians.
Balancing Triangles game on page 295).
• A median is a line segment that joins a vertex to the midpoint of the side
opposite to it. A triangle has three medians.
• To construct a median of a triangle, locate the midpoint of a side length using
a perpendicular bisector. Draw a line to connect it to the opposite vertex.
• You need to construct only two medians to locate the centroid, because the
third median would automatically travel through the same intersection point.

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Altitudes and the orthocentre
• An altitude is a perpendicular line segment from
a vertex of a triangle to its opposite side. A triangle has
three altitudes.
• This is a useful construction because the altitude is
the height of the triangle, which is used to determine
the triangle's area.
• To construct an altitude for an acute triangle,
construct a perpendicular from a vertex to Altitude of an acute triangle
the opposite side.
• To construct an altitude for an obtuse
triangle, you may need to extend the
side you will be using and then
construct the perpendicular from the
opposite vertex. In obtuse triangles, two
of the altitudes are outside the triangle.
• The point of intersection of the Altitude of an obtuse triangle
altitudes is called the orthocentre.
The orthocentre
• You need to construct only two is located at the
altitudes to locate the orthocentre, intersection of
because the third altitude would the altitudes.
automatically travel through the
same intersection point.

B. Which construction was used in part A to divide the triangular field in half?
How else could the field be divided in half?
C. Construct and measure the altitude from C to AB to make sure you measured
the height of the triangle properly when you calculated the area in part A ii).

Examples
Example 1 Constructing Medians to Locate the Centroid of a Triangle
Locate the centroid of this triangle, using
only a straight-edge and a compass.

Solution Thinking
Step 1 • To locate the triangle's centroid,
I had to construct two of its medians.
I knew the point at the intersection of
the medians would be the centroid.
Step 1: A median is a line segment that
goes from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite
side, so I constructed the perpendicular bisectors of
two of the sides in order to locate their midpoints.

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Step 2 Step 2: I drew the medians by connecting the
Centroid midpoints of the two sides to the vertices opposite
them. The intersection point was the centroid, or
centre of gravity.

Step 3 (Optional) Step 3 (Optional): Just to double-check, I constructed

the third median. I saw that it went through the
intersection point of the other two medians.

Example 2 Constructing the Altitude of a Triangle to Determine its Area

Draw ΔABC with AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm, and AC = 5 cm. Determine its area.
Solution Thinking
B
Step 1 Step 1: I drew ΔABC using my ruler
to draw a 6 cm line segment, AB.
6 cm
4 cm To locate vertex C, I used my ruler
to set my compass at 4 cm and then
I made a 4 cm arc from B. I then
A
5 cm C re-set my compass to 5 cm and made a 5 cm arc
from A — the intersection of the arcs was C.
B
Step 2 Step 2: To determine ΔABC's area, I needed its
height. I knew that the altitude was the same as
6 cm the height. I decided to construct the altitude
from vertex C to side AB so I constructed a line
3.3 cm
perpendicular to AB that travelled through C.
A
I measured the altitude to be 3.3 cm.

Step 3 Step 3: I used the formula for the area of a

A = bh ÷ 2 = (6)(3.3) ÷ 2 triangle and substituted the values for height
= 9.9 cm2 (3.3 cm) and base (6 cm).

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Practising and Applying
1. Locate the centroid of each. 6. a) Draw or construct any equilateral
a) ΔABC: AB = 6.5 cm, BC = 4.3 cm, triangle.
and ∠ B = 65º b) Locate its circumcentre, incentre,
b) ΔDEF: DE = 6.5 cm, EF = 4.3 cm, centroid, and orthocentre.
and ∠ E = 90º c) What do you notice about the
location of these points?
c) ΔJKH: JK = 6.5 cm, KH = 4.3 cm,
and ∠ K = 115º
7. a) Construct any right triangle ΔPQR
2. Do you think it is possible for with ∠ P = 90º.
the centroid, or centre of gravity of b) Locate its centroid. Label it point C.
a triangle to be outside the triangle? c) Construct perpendiculars from C to
Explain. PQ and from C to PR. Label the points
of intersection of the side lengths and
3. Determine the area of each triangle. the perpendiculars S and T, as shown.
a) ΔPQR: PQ = 7.4 cm, QR = 8.9 cm, P
and PR = 5.3 cm T
S
b) ΔLMN: LM = 4.1 cm, ∠ L = 23º,
and ∠ M = 122º R C

4. a) Construct any triangle ΔABC, its Q

altitude from A, and the median joining
A to the midpoint M of the side BC. d) Measure to calculate the ratio of
b) What do you notice about the altitude the lengths PQ to PS and PR to PT.
of ΔABC compared to the altitudes of e) Compare your results with those
ΔAMB and ΔAMC? of several classmates. What do you
c) Calculate the areas of ΔAMB and notice?
ΔAMC. What do you notice?
8. Draw several right triangles and
d) Compare your results with those construct their altitudes. Why is it easier
of several classmates. to construct the altitudes of a right
e) What can you conclude about triangle than any other type of triangle?
medians and triangles? Are you using
inductive or deductive reasoning? 9. Explain why it makes sense that the
intersection of the medians of a triangle
5. a) Construct any triangle and its is the centre of gravity, or balance point
incircle. of a triangle.
b) Estimate whether the incircle
covers more than half or less than
half of the triangle's area.
c) Determine the areas of the triangle
and incircle and compare them to
check your estimate in part b).
d) Compare your results with those of
several classmates.
e) What can you conclude about the
area of triangles and their incircles?

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CONNECTIONS: Paper Folding Constructions

Although technically mathematical constructions require the use of a straight-edge

and compass, it can be interesting to do things differently. Some mathematicians
investigate constructions that can be done with a compass only (and no straight-
edge). Others explore what can be done with paper folding.
For example, here is a very basic paper-folding "construction":
To construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, draw a line segment
on a piece of paper and then fold the paper so that the two endpoints of the line
segment match. When you unfold it, the fold line is the perpendicular bisector.
Below are some other paper-folding constructions for you to try.
1. Cut out an acute triangle and use folding to find the intersection of the three
perpendicular bisectors. Measure to check that this point is equidistant from
each vertex. What special point are you finding?

Folding an acute triangle to find the perpendicular bisector of one of its sides

2. Explore to find ways of using paper folding to construct the following:

a) an angle bisector b) the incentre of a triangle
c) an altitude of a triangle d) the orthocentre of a triangle
e) a median of a triangle f) the centroid of a triangle

GAME: Balancing Triangles

In this game or contest, groups of players try

to make a perfectly-balanced triangle out of stiff
paper. They then compete against each other to
see whose triangle balances the longest.
• Each group cuts a triangle out of stiff paper and
then uses constructions to locate the centroid.
• When everyone is ready, a representative of each
group balances his or her group's triangle by placing
the centroid on the point of a compass.
• The group whose triangle balances the longest
wins.
Balancing a triangle on its centroid

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UNIT 8 Revision

1. How many lines of symmetry does 10. Dema is making the skeleton of
each shape have? Sketch them. a square-based prism using sticks for
a) isosceles b) regular its edges. Explain how she could make
trapezoid pentagon her cube rigid.

11. a) Construct ΔABC:

3
AB = AC and ∠ A = 22.5º
4
b) Construct the circumcentre and
circumcircle of ΔABC.
2. Create a shape that is not a
rectangle but that has exactly two
12. a) Construct ΔPQR: PQ = 4.7 cm,
lines of symmetry. Show the lines
QR = 6.6 cm, and PR = 7.5 cm
of symmetry.
b) Construct the incentre and incircle
3. Describe a 3-D shape with exactly of ΔPQR.
five planes of symmetry.
13. a) Draw ΔLMN: LM = 8.0 cm,
4. Describe the order of turn symmetry ∠ L = 12º, and ∠ N = 47º
for each shape in question 1.
b) Explain how to use constructions
5. a) Describe the turn symmetry of to locate the centroid of ΔLMN.
a regular pentagon-based pyramid. c) Use constructions to locate the
b) Describe the turn symmetry of centroid.
a regular pentagon-based prism.
14. a) Construct an altitude for ΔLMN
6. a) Sketch a 2-D shape that has from question 13 and use it to
no rotational symmetry. calculate the area of ΔLMN.
b) Sketch a 3-D shape that has b) Construct a different altitude for
no rotational symmetry. ΔLMN from question 13 and use it to
calculate the area ofΔLMN.
7. a) Describe the reflectional symmetry c) Why might your answers in parts a)
of a cone. and b) be slightly different?
a) Describe the rotational symmetry of
a cone. 15. Use deductive reasoning to explain
why a median divides the area of a
8. There is a relationship between triangle in half.
the number of edges of a pyramid and
the number of sides on its base. 16. The circumcentre, incentre, and
Use inductive reasoning to develop centroid of any isosceles triangle are
and verify a conjecture about this collinear (all in a straight line). Explain
relationship. how you might use inductive reasoning
to verify this conjecture.
9. Use deductive reasoning to prove
that an equilateral triangle has an order
of turn symmetry equal to its number
of sides.

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 GLOSSARY
Instructional Terms

calculate: Figure out the number that measure: Use a tool to describe an
answers a question; compute object or determine an amount (e.g., use
classify: Put things into groups according a protractor to measure an angle; use
to a rule and label the groups; organize balance scales to measure mass; use
into categories a measuring cup to measure capacity)
compare: Look at two or more objects or model: Show or demonstrate an idea
numbers and identify how they are the using objects, pictures, words, and/or
same and how they are different (e.g., numbers (e.g., model addition of integers
compare 6.5 and 5.6; compare the size of using red and blue counters, model
the students’ feet; compare two shapes) a relationship using an equation)
conclude: Judge or decide after reflection predict: Use what you know to work
or after considering data out what is going to happen (e.g., predict
the tenth number in the number pattern
construct: Make or build a model; the
1, 2, 4, 7, …)
term construct is sometimes reserved for
drawings that use a compass and straight- relate: Describe how two or more
edge only. objects, drawings, ideas, or numbers
are connected or similar
create: Make your own example or
problem represent: Show information or an idea
in a different way (e.g., draw a graph of
describe: Tell, draw, or write about what
an equation; make a model from a word
something is or what something looks like;
description; create an expression to
tell about a process in a step-by-step way
model a situation)
determine: Decide with certainty as
show your work: Record all
a result of calculation, experiment, or
calculations, drawings, numbers, words,
exploration
or symbols that make up the solution
draw: 1. Show something in diagram form
simplify: Write a number or expression
2. Pull or select an object (e.g., draw a
in a simpler form (e.g., combine like
card from a deck; draw a tile from a bag)
terms of a polynomial)
estimate: Make a reasonable guess (e.g.,
sketch: Make a rough drawing not
estimate how long it takes to walk from
necessarily to scale, (e.g., sketch a
your home to school; estimate how many
picture of the field with given dimensions)
leaves are on a tree; estimate 3210 ÷ 789)
solve: 1. Develop and carry out a
evaluate: 1. Determine whether
process for finding an answer to a
something makes sense; judge
problem 2. Find the value of a variable
2. Calculate the value as a number
2 in an equation or inequality
(e.g., evaluate m + 3 for m = 5)
sort: Separate a set of objects, drawings,
explain: Tell what you did; show how
ideas, or numbers according to an
you know
attribute (e.g., sort 2-D shapes by
explore: Investigate a problem by number of sides)
questioning, brainstorming, and trying
visualize: Form a picture in your head of
new ideas
what something is like (e.g., visualize the
extend: 1. In patterning, continue the number six as two rows of three dots;
pattern visualize the equation y = x as a diagonal
justify: Give convincing reasons for line at a 45º angle)
a prediction, an estimate, or a solution;
tell why you think your answer is correct

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Definitions

A
absolute value: The value of a number angle bisector: A line that separates
without regard to its sign (e.g., |5| = 5 an angle into two equal parts
and |–5| = 5) angle of depression: The acute angle
absolute value equation: An equation that formed by the horizontal and the line of
represents an absolute value function when sight, if someone is looking down at
the function has a specific value (e.g., the something
absolute value function f(x) = |x – 5| + 2 Horizontal
can be used to solve the absolute value
equation |x – 5| + 2 = 7) Angle of depression
absolute value function: A function that
uses absolute values
accuracy: A measurement is accurate angle of elevation: The acute angle
when the measurement is taken correctly. formed by the horizontal and the line of
Accuracy is affected by the sight, if someone is looking up at something
use and interpretation of the measuring
instrument. Angle of elevation
acute angle: An angle less than 90º
acute triangle: A triangle in which all
interior angles are acute angles Horizontal
address of a matrix: The location of an angle of rotation: The angle through which
element in a matrix, usually described as an a shape has moved after a rotation
ordered pair with the row number first and
the column number second (e.g., in this annually: Once a year, or yearly
matrix, the element 9 is at (3, 2)) apex: The highest point or vertex of a cone
or pyramid when resting on its base
ª4 3 1 0 º
« » area: The measure of the surface of
«7 3 1 8 » a 2-D shape, expressed in terms of the
«¬5 9 1 4»¼
number of square units needed to cover the
adjacency matrix: A square matrix that shape; the number of square units needed
describes the connections in a network to cover a surface
adjacent side: In trigonometry, the leg array: A rectangular arrangement of items,
of a right triangle that is next to the angle usually numbers (e.g., a matrix is an array
you are using of items)
average: In common use, average is
Hypotenuse
Opposite the same as mean. See mean
Angle x axis: A line drawn for reference when
locating points in a coordinate system
Adjacent
axis of rotation: A line around which
algebraic expression: A combination a 3-D shape may be turned; a shape has
of one or more variables that may include turn symmetry if it looks the same more
numbers and operation signs than once within a full rotation.
(e.g., 8x + 2y2 – 9) axis of symmetry (of a parabola):
altitude: The line segment that represents A vertical line that is perpendicular to
the height of a 2-D or 3-D shape. In a the x-axis and travels through the vertex of
triangle, it is a perpendicular segment from a parabola. The axis of symmetry is the line
a vertex to the opposite side. of symmetry of the parabola.

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B
balance of a loan: The amount still centre of gravity of a triangle:
owing on a loan at any point in time, Sometimes called centroid; the
taking into account all interest charged intersection point of the medians of a
and all payments made up until that point triangle; the point on which the triangle
would balance under the influence of
base: 1. The face that determines
gravity.
the name of a prism or pyramid
2. In a 2-D shape, the line segment that centre of rotation: A fixed point around
is perpendicular to the height which the points in a shape rotate in
3. The number that is repeatedly a clockwise (cw) or counter-clockwise
multiplied in a power (e.g., in the (ccw) direction. The centre of rotation
power 53, the base is 5) may be inside or outside the shape.
bearings: Angles measured in degrees centroid: See centre of gravity
clockwise from the north, used with circumcircle: The circle that passes
vectors as part of a set of directions through all three vertices of a triangle
bimodal: See U-shaped distribution circumcentre: The centre of the
binomial: A polynomial with two terms circumcircle of a triangle, which is found
(e.g., 4x – 7y and 5x2 + 3 are binomials) at the intersection of any two side length
perpendicular bisectors
bin: An interval of data values used in
frequency tables and histograms; bins Circumcircle of ΔPQR
are always of equal size, called the bin
P
width
bin width: See bin Incentre Circumcentre
bisect: Divide in half (e.g., an angle
bisector divides an angle in half,
a perpendicular bisector passes through
the midpoint of a line segment at a right
angle)
bisector: See angle bisector and R
perpendicular bisector Q
box and whisker plot: A graph that
uses the median (Q2) and extremes as Incircle of ΔPQR
well as the lower and upper quartiles
(Q1 and Q3) to organize a set of data
into four intervals that each contain circumference: 1. The boundary of a
an equal number of data values. circle 2. the length of the boundary of a
Q1 Q2 Q3 circle calculated using the formula
C = 2ʌr, where r is the radius, or C = ʌd,
where d is the diameter; also called
perimeter
coefficient: The numerical coefficient
is the number by which a variable is
multiplied; the literal coefficient is the
variable by which another variable is
box plot: See box and whisker plot multiplied (e.g., in the term 3z, the
numerical coefficient of z is 3; in the term
C 2 2
by , the literal coefficient of y is b)
capacity: The amount that a container column matrix: A matrix with only one
can hold. Common units are millilitres column and any number of rows
(mL) or litres (L). Capacity can be related commission (amount): The amount of
to volume (e.g.,1 mL = 1 cm3). money a salesperson earns based on
how much he or she sells

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common factor: A number or algebraic together and in a negative correlation
expression that divides into two or more one variable increases as the other
other numbers or expressions with no variable decreases.
remainder correlation coefficient: A measure of
composite transformation: A how well the points in a scatter plot fit
transformation that can be described a linear model. A value close to 1 or –1
by two or more single transformations indicates a good fit and a value close to
compound interest: Interest charged 0 indicates a poor fit.
on a loan (or earned in the case of an corresponding angles: Congruent
investment) for which the interest is angles that are formed by a transversal
calculated as a percentage of the and two parallel lines (e.g., in the
outstanding balance (or growing balance diagram below, a and c are
in the case of an investment) at the end corresponding angles)
of each interest period
compounding frequency: How often a
compound interest is calculated on a
loan or investment (e.g., annually or c
monthly)
conditional probability: The probability
of Event B happening if you assume
cost price: The price that the seller or
Event A has already happened, written
storeowner pays for an item. A seller will
as P(B|A) and read as “the probability of
mark up this price in order to sell the
B given A”
item at a higher price and make a profit.
cone: A 3-D shape that has a circular
counterexample: One example that
base and a curved surface from the
proves something is not true
boundary of the base to a vertex or apex
cube: 1. To raise a number to a power
congruence: The property shared by
or exponent of 3 2. A polyhedron that
geometric shapes that are identical in
has six congruent square faces
shape and size. Shapes can be
congruent. Line segments and angles cube root: One of three equal factors
can also be congruent. of a number (e.g., the cube root of 8
is 2 because 23 = 8)
conjecture: An idea or prediction that
something is always true curve of best fit: A non-linear
relationship can be graphed in a scatter
construction: Geometrical diagrams
plot and then reasonably represented
drawn using only a straight-edge and
by a curve of best fit; curves can be
compass
quadratic (parabolas), exponential, or
continuous data: A set of data with another shape such as a cubic
no gaps, represented by a solid line or
cylinder: A 3-D shape with two
curve on a graph; also represented by
congruent, parallel, planar, circular faces
bars in a histogram with no spaces in
joined by one curved lateral surface
between them
coordinates on a plane: A pair of
numbers used to define a position in
D
the x-y-plane; in the form of ordered daily: Every day, or once a day
pairs (x, y) data: Information gathered in a survey,
correlation: A description of the in an experiment, or by observing
relationship between two variables (e.g., data can be in words like a list of
as indicated by the pattern in the students’ names, in numbers like quiz
plotted points of a scatter plot. In a marks, or in pictures like drawings of
strong correlation the points form a favourite pets). The word data is plural,
line or nearly form a line and in a weak not singular
correlation the points roughly form a
line but are dispersed. In a positive
correlation the variables increase
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data distribution: The overall dimensions of a matrix: The size of a
appearance of a set of data as a whole matrix described as the number of rows
(e.g., a set of data might have a normal by the number of columns (e.g., this
distribution or mound shape or it might matrix has dimensions 3-by-4 or 3 × 4)
be left or right skewed with the data ª4 3 1 0 º
values clustered at the right end or at the « »
left end). The distribution of a data set is «7 3 1 8 »
«¬5 9 1 4»¼
best observed when the data set is
graphed in a histogram along with a
frequency polygon, although box plots directed edge: An edge or path in a
and stem and leaf plots also show data network that has a specified direction
distribution. See edges of a network
directed graph: A network for which
the edges have given directions, usually
called digraphs See edges of a network
discount amount: The amount by which
a marked price is decreased, usually to
Normal distribution Right skewed distribution encourage a purchase
deductive reasoning: An explanation discrete data: A set of data that consists
that is based on reasoning using known of isolated points that is sometimes
or assumed facts represented by a dashed line or dashed
degree of a polynomial: The greatest curve on a graph
exponent that appears in any term of a dividend amount: The amount of
single-variable polynomial; the greatest money an investor earns from holding
sum of exponents in any term of a multi- shares in a company, usually annually.
variable polynomial (e.g., 3x + 2xy is A dividend paid as a percentage is called
degree 2 because of the term xy) the dividend rate.
dependent event: In probability, an dividend rate: See dividend (amount)
event that is affected by the outcome down payment: An initial partial amount
of another event of money paid at the time an item is
dependent variable: In a function, purchased; often stated as a percentage
a variable whose output values are of the purchase price (e.g., a 20% down
determined by the input values of the payment is required on the purchase of
other (independent) variable; often a car worth Nu 200,000)
represented by y and plotted on the
vertical axis E
digraph: See directed graph edge of a network: A path in a network
dilatation: A transformation that that begins and ends at a vertex
enlarges or reduces a figure by a scale (e.g., the network below has five edges:
factor. Lines joining corresponding points between A and B, between B and C,
on the original and the image meet at the between C and D, between D and A, and
centre of dilatation. between A and A, the loop). Edges can
dilatation of a quadratic function: A be directed or not (e.g., the edges in the
vertical dilatation of a function transforms network below are all directed edges).
every point in the function using the
mapping (x, y) ĺ (x, ay). If |a| > 1, the
dilatation is called a vertical stretch and if
0 < a < 1, the dilatation is called a
vertical compression. If a < 0, the
dilatation is a negative dilatation and it
appears as a refection in the x-axis.
dimension: The size or measure of element of a matrix: Each item in
an object (e.g., the width and length a matrix
of a rectangle are its dimensions)
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entire radical: A number that is entirely exponential function or relation:
under the radical sign (e.g., 5 is an A relation between two variables that can
entire radical in its simplified form, be represented by an equation with an
exponential expression (e.g., y = 2x – 5)
whereas the entire radical 45 can be
exponential curve: The shape of
simplified to 3 5 , a mixed radical) a graph of an exponential relationship
equation: A mathematical statement in
which the value on the left of the equals
sign is the same as the value on the right
of the equals sign (e.g., the equation
5n + 4 = 39 means that 4 more than the
product of 5 and a number equals 39)
equidistant: The same distance
(e.g., all points on the circumference of
a circle are equidistant from the centre)
equilateral triangle: A triangle with
three sides of equal length and with
all angles equal and 60º extrapolate: To estimate a value that
equitable shapes: Shapes that have the is beyond the range of given data by
same area, but may not be congruent following a pattern or trend
equivalent functions: Functions that extreme: The greatest or least value in
have the same output value for every a set of data
input value. If two quadratic functions
have the same output value for three F
different input values, they must be face value of a share: The printed price
equivalent (e.g., f(x) = 4(x + 2)(x – 6) on a share or stock; sometimes called
2
is equivalent to f(x) = 4x – 16x – 48). nominal value or issue price. Share-
equivalent interest rates: Interest rates holders can sell their stocks at a market
that may have different compounding price that is lower than the face value
frequencies or different per annum (sold at a discount), equal to the face
interest rates but result in the same value (sold at par), or more than the f
interest amount earned or charged ace value (sold at a premium).
(e.g., 14.5% p.a. compounded annually factor or factorise: To express a
is essentially equivalent to 14% p.a. number or algebraic expression as the
compounded monthly; 14% p.a. product of two or more numbers or
compounded monthly is equivalent to algebraic expressions. The numbers or
14.9% p.a. compounded annually) algebraic expressions in such a product
event: A set of outcomes for a 2 2
are also called factors (e.g., a – b can
probability experiment (e.g., if you roll be factored as (a + b)(a – b), the factors
a die with the numbers 1 to 6, the event are (a + b) and (a – b); 24 can be
of rolling an even number has the factored as 8 × 3 or 2 × 2 × 2 × 3; the
outcomes 2, 4, or 6); a subset of the factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24)
sample space factored form of a quadratic relation:
expand: Write the full product of an A degree 2 polynomial that can be
algebraic or numerical (including radical) written as the product of two linear
2
expression (e.g., (x + 2) = (x + 2)(x + 2) factors and a number (e.g., (x – 1)(x + 2),
= x2 + 4x + 4, ( 3 + 2 5 )( 5 + 3)= 2x(x – 3), and 5(x + 2)(x – 1))
13 + 3 15 ) favourable outcome: The desired
result when calculating a probability
exponent: A superscript in mathematics (e.g., that a spinner will stop on green
that denotes repeated multiplication instead of red)
(e.g., 43 means 4 × 4 × 4; the exponent
is 3); sometimes referred to as a power
or an index

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finite differences: In a table of values function: A relation between two
where the x-coordinates are evenly variables such that for any value of the
spaced, the first differences are the independent variable (usually x), there
differences between consecutive is only one corresponding value of the
y-coordinates. The second differences dependent variable (usually y)
are the differences between consecutive function notation: A function rule or
first differences, and so on. For a linear equation written using a form such as
function the first differences are f(x) for the dependent variable (e.g.,
constant, while for a quadratic function f(x) = 6x – 7, f(w) = 3w – 2, and
they are not. The second differences are g(a) – 2a2 + 5 are in function notation)
constant for a quadratic function.
function rule: An equation that
first-degree polynomial: A polynomial describes how the values of the
in which the exponent of the variable is 1 dependent variable (output values)
(e.g., 8x – 17) are calculated from the values of the
first differences: See finite differences independent variable (input values)
five-number summary (or 5-number
summary): The minimum value, H
the lower quartile (Q1), the median (Q2), height: The perpendicular distance from
the upper quartile (Q3), and the the base of a geometric shape to its
maximum value of a set of data used highest point
to divide a data set into four intervals,
hexagon: A six-sided polygon
each containing 25% of the data values;
the 5-number summary is used to frame histogram: A graph with vertical or
the construction of a box plot horizontal bars that show frequencies of
data organized into intervals, sometimes
frequency: The number of times a data
called bins. The intervals line up side by
value or range of data values occurs in
side without gaps on the scale because
a data set
the data values are continuous.
frequency of compounding: How often
hypotenuse: The side opposite the right
compound interest is calculated and
angle in a right triangle
applied to an investment or loan
(e.g. daily, monthly, quarterly, semi-
annually, and annually) Hypotenuse
Leg
frequency polygon: A frequency
polygon is created by using line
segments to join the midpoints of Leg
the tops of the bars in a histogram
identities: Equations that are true for all
values of a variable
identity matrix: A matrix by which you
can multiply another matrix, A, and the
product will be A; it is like multiplying
a number by 1
frequency table: A table that organizes image: A new shape that is created
a set of data into intervals and indicates when a shape undergoes a geometric
the number of times data values occur in transformation
each interval incircle: The circle inside the triangle
Age Frequency that touches each side of the triangle
0 – 11 50 only once See circumcentre for diagram
11 – 22 300 incentre: The centre of the incircle of a
22 – 33 250 triangle, found at the intersection of any
33 – 44 400 two angle bisectors See circumcentre
44 – 55 550 for diagram

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independent events: In probability, contains 25% of the data values and
when the outcome of one event does not the intervals are usually not equal.
affect or depend on the other event, the inverse operation: An operation that
two events are independent events undoes another operation (e.g., addition
independent variable: In a function, is the inverse of subtraction)
the input values upon which the output irrational number: A number that
values of the other variable depend; cannot be written as the quotient of two
often represented by x and plotted on a
the horizontal axis integers, , where b  0 (e.g., ʌ, 5)
b
inductive reasoning: An explanation isosceles triangle: A triangle with at
that is based on examples that suggest least two sides of equal length; some
something might be always true people define an isosceles triangle as
inequality: A mathematical statement in having exactly two equal sides.
which the value on the left side is
compared with the value on the right side L
(greater than, greater than or equal to, lateral surface: The surface of a prism,
less than, or less than or equal to) cylinder, pyramid, or cone that does not
(e.g., the linear inequality 5n + 4 > 39 include the base(s)
means that 4 more than the product of 5
and a number is greater than 39) left skewed: See skewed distribution
integers: The set of whole numbers and legs of a right triangle: The two side
their opposites (…, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, …) lengths of a right triangle that are
perpendicular to each other and that are
intercept: The distance from the origin not the hypotenuse See hypotenuse
of the x-y-plane to a point at which the
graph meets or crosses the x- or y-axis like terms: Terms of a polynomial that
(the x-intercept or y-intercept); the value have the same variables and exponents
of the y- or x-coordinate where the graph but may have different numerical
meets or crosses the axis coefficients (e.g., in 3x2 + 2x + 6x + 5,
the like terms are 2x and 6x, which
interest period: The period of time means that their sum or difference can
during which compound interest is be simplified); with radicals, like terms
calculated, also called the compounding
period (e.g., if 5% p.a. interest have the same radical (e.g., 3 5 + 4 5
compounded monthly is applied to a can be simplified to 7 5 because they
loan, the interest period is monthly and are like terms, while 3 5 + 3 2 cannot)
the interest rate for the interest period
will be 5% ÷ 12 = 0.4%) line of best fit: The straight line that
best models the relationship between
interior angle: One of the angles inside
two variables in a scatter plot of data
a polygon at a vertex (e.g., a square has
four interior angles) line of reflection: See line of symmetry
interpolate: To estimate or predict line of symmetry: A line that goes
a value between two given elements of through a shape such that, if a shape
data by following a pattern or trend were folded on the line, one half of the
shape would match the other
intersection point: The point shared
by two or more graphs. The values of linear equation: A degree 1 equation
the coordinates make the equation of representing a linear relation between two
each graph true. variables, often in the form y = mx + b
interval: A range of values, often used linear inequality: See inequality
in creating histograms (e.g., 0–10 is the linear function or relation: A relation
interval from 0 to 10). Stem and leaf between two variables that appears as
plots have intervals based on place a straight line when graphed and is
value. In stem and leaf plots and represented by a first-degree equation
histograms, the intervals are equal. involving two variables (e.g., y = 2x + 1
In box and whisker plots, each interval and f(x) = 3x – 4)

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linear system: See system of linear minimum: The least value taken by
equations a dependent variable. In a data set,
loop of a network: An edge that begins the minimum value is the first value
and ends at the same vertex. A loop can when the data values are in order from
be a directed edge or not least to greatest. In a graph of a
quadratic relation the minimum is at the
lower quartile: Also referred to as Q1
vertex of a parabola that opens upward.
See box and whisker plot
mirror symmetry: Also called
M reflectional symmetry or line symmetry
See symmetry
mapping notation: A way to show a
mixed radical: A number that is the
transformation rule by showing an
product of an integer and a radical
original point and its image, connected
by an arrow (e.g., (x, y) → (x + 2, y + 3)) (e.g., 3 5 is a mixed radical) See
marked price: The original selling price entire radical
of an item. A discount is often applied to mode: The data value(s) that occurs
a marked price to bring the price down most often in a set of data; there can
to a lower selling price to encourage a be one, more than one, or no mode.
purchase. monthly: Once a month
markup amount: The amount the price
of an item is increased above the cost N
price to allow the seller to make a profit
negative correlation: In a relationship
market price of a share: The value at between variables, as one variable
which a share or stock is sold by the increases, the other variable decreases
shareholder See share and face value
negative dilatation of a quadratic
matrix (plural is matrices): A rectangular function: See dilatation of a quadratic
array of elements, usually numbers function
ª4 3 1 0º negatively skewed: See skewed
« » distribution
«7 3 1 8 »
«¬5 9 1 4»¼ net: A 2-D pattern you can fold to create
a 3-D shape. This is a net for a cube:
maximum: The greatest value taken by
a dependent variable. In a data set, the
maximum value is the last value when
the data values are in order from least
to greatest. In a graph of a quadratic
relation, the maximum is at the vertex of
a parabola that opens downward.
mean: The sum of a set of numbers network: A set of connected "paths"
divided by the number of elements in consisting of edges (paths) and vertices
the set; often called the average (where paths meet) See edges of a
median: 1. A line that joins network
a vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of nonlinear relation: A relationship
the opposite side 2. The middle number between two variables that does not fit
of a set of data arranged in order. If there a straight line when graphed
is an even number of numbers in the set,
normal curve: See normal distribution
the median is the mean of the two middle
numbers. In a box plot, the median is normal distribution: A set of data that is
sometimes referred to as Q2. symmetrical about a line passing through
the interval with the greatest frequency;
midpoint: The point that divides the line
sometimes described as a mound-
segment into two equal parts
shaped distribution See data distribution
numerical coefficient: See coefficient

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O P
opposite angles: Non-adjacent parabola: An open curve shaped like the
congruent angles that are formed by two graph of y = x2; the graph of a quadratic
intersecting lines as indicated by the relation. A parabola can open downward,
symbols below: as shown below, or upward

opposite side: In trigonometry, the leg

of a right triangle that is across from the x
angle being used See adjacent side
obtuse triangle: A triangle in which one
angle is obtuse, that is, an angle greater
than 90º and less than 180º
order of operations: Rules describing A parabola — the graph of y = x2
the sequence to use when evaluating
parallel: Always the same distance apart
an expression:
(e.g., railway tracks are parallel)
1 Evaluate within brackets
parallelogram: A quadrilateral with pairs
2 Calculate exponents and square roots of opposite sides that are parallel
3 Divide and multiply from left to right per annum (p.a.): Annual interest rate.
4 Add and subtract from left to right Simple and compound interest
order of turn symmetry: The number percentages are always stated on
of times a shape looks the same during an annual basis regardless of how
a complete rotation (e.g., a square has frequently they are calculated. The per
turn symmetry of order 4) annum interest rate used to calculate
the interest rate that is applied to each
ordered pair: A pair of numbers in which
interest period (e.g., if an investment
the order is important. The coordinates
earns 5% p.a. compounded quarterly, it
of a point in the x-y-plane form an
earns 1.25% interest (5% ÷ 4 = 1.25%)
ordered pair (e.g., the ordered pairs
on the growing balance every three
(3, 5) and (5, 3) represent points in
months).
different positions)
percent: A special ratio that compares
origin: The intersection of the axes on
a number to 100 using the symbol %;
a coordinate grid represented by the
also called percentage
ordered pair (0, 0)
percent commission: The percentage
orthocentre: The point of intersection of
of sales that a salesperson earns on
the altitudes of a triangle
what he or she sells; also called rate of
outcome: A single event that is commission
proposed as the result of a probability
percent discount: The percentage by
experiment (e.g., One outcome of rolling
which the marked price of an item is
a die is the number 1. The five other
decreased to reach a lower selling price.
possible outcomes are 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.)
A discount is applied to bring the price
down to encourage a purchase.
percent markup: The percentage by
which the cost price of an item is
increased to reach a higher marked price
and allow the seller to make a profit
See markup and cost price

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perfect cube: A whole number whose positive correlation: In a relationship
cube root is an integer (e.g., 8 is a between variables, as one variable
perfect cube because 8 = 2 or –2) increases, the other variable also
increases
perfect power: A whole number whose
positively skewed: See skewed
root is an integer. Perfect squares and
distribution
perfect cubes are perfect powers.
possible outcome: A single result that
perfect square: A whole number whose
can occur in a probability experiment
square root is a whole number (e.g., 16
(e.g., when tossing a coin, getting Tashi
is a perfect square because 16 = 4) Ta-gye is a possible outcome)
perimeter: 1. The boundary of a 2-D power: A numerical expression that
shape 2. The length of the boundary. shows repeated multiplication (e.g.,
The circumference of a circle is a special the power 53 is a shorter way of writing
perimeter. 5 × 5 × 5). A power has a base and an
perpendicular: At a right angle (e.g., the exponent: the exponent tells the number
base of a triangle is perpendicular to the of equal factors there are in a power.
height of the triangle); or, a line that Sometimes the exponent is also called
intersects a line segment at 90º the power or index.
perpendicular bisector: A line segment 3 is the exponent of the power
that is perpendicular to another line
segment and that bisects, or passes
through the midpoint of, that line 53 = 125
segment Perpendicular bisector
5 is the base of the power
precision: The level of exactness in
measuring. The more significant digits
used or the smaller the unit, the more
precise the measurement (e.g., 31 mm
or 3.1 cm is more precise than 3 cm)
ʌ (pi): The value of the circumference prime number: A whole number with
of any circle divided by its diameter. exactly two different factors, 1 and itself
It is an irrational number with a value of (e.g., 17 is a prime number since its only
3.141592654 … or about 3.14, rounded factors are 1 and 17; 1 is not prime since
to two decimal places there is only one factor)
plane of symmetry: The imaginary principal: The original amount that is
surface that cuts or divides a 3-D shape invested in the case of an investment,
into congruent and matching opposite or borrowed in the case of a loan
halves prism: A polyhedron with two parallel
plane symmetry: Reflectional or mirror and opposite congruent bases. The other
symmetry of 3-D shapes faces are parallelograms or rectangles in
polygon: A closed 2-D shape formed by the case of a right prism. The shape of
three or more line segments in a plane. the base of the prism determines the
Examples include quadrilaterals, name of the prism (e.g., pentagon-based
hexagons, and decagons prism).
polyhedron (plural is polyhedra): probability: A number from 0 (will never
A 3-D shape that has faces that are all happen) to 1 (certain to happen) that
polygons represents how likely it is that an event
polynomial: An algebraic expression will happen
consisting of one or more terms with proof: A logical procedure using
variables raised to whole-number deductive reasoning to show or prove
2
powers, usually in the form a + bx + cx , that a conjecture or statement is always
where a, b, c are numbers true

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prove: Show that a conjecture or radical expression: A combination of
statement is true using deductive one or more radical terms that may
reasoning involve numbers and/or variables (e.g.,
proportion: An equation of two 2 5 + 3 10 or b 8 – 2 b 8 + b)
1 x
equivalent ratios (e.g., = ) radius (plural is radii): A line segment
2 50 that joins the centre of a circle to any
pyramid: A polyhedron with a polygon point on its circumference; also the
for a base; the other faces are triangles length of the line segment
that meet at a single vertex (the apex) random: A number that has been
Pythagorean theorem: The square of chosen randomly has been selected
the length of the hypotenuse of a right without any particular pattern or rule
triangle (the longest side) is equal to the range: The difference between the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the extremes (minimum and maximum)
other two sides: a2 + b2 = c2 of a set of data
c rate of commission: See percent
a commission
rational number: A number that can
b be expressed as the quotient of two
a
Q integers,
b
, where b  0
Q1, Q2, Q3: Values used to create reflection: A transformation of a shape
a box plot See box and whisker plot that produces a mirror image of the
quadratic function or relation: shape with respect to a line called the
A relation between two variables that can reflection line (in 2-D) or a plane called
be represented by the quadratic equation the plane of symmetry (in 3-D); also
y = ax2 + bx + c. The graph of a called a flip
quadratic relation is a parabola reflection of a quadratic function:
quadratic equation: An equation that A negative dilatation See dilatation of
represents a quadratic function when a quadratic function
the function has a specific value. The reflection line: See reflection
quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c can
reflectional symmetry: Also called
be used to solve a quadratic equation in
mirror, line, or plane symmetry
the form ax2 + bx + c = d.
See symmetry
quarterly: Four times a year, or every
regular polygon: A polygon with all
three months
sides and all angles congruent (e.g., a
quartile: 1. One of three points (Q1 or regular pentagon has all five side lengths
lower quartile, Q2 or median, and Q3 or equal and all five angles equal)
upper quartile) that divide a set of data
relation: A property that connects two
into four equal parts 2. One of four
sets of numbers or two variables.
groups of a set of data that each contain
A relation can be expressed
an equal number of data values See
mathematically as a table of values,
box and whisker plot
a graph, or an equation.
R rhombus: A parallelogram with all sides
radical: The root of a number written congruent. A square is a special
rhombus that has interior right angles.
using a radical or root sign (e.g., 5
right skewed: See skewed distribution
is a radical that means the square root of
right triangle: A triangle with one right
5, 3 10 is a radical that means the cube angle
root of 10)
rigidity: The inherent ability of a shape
to maintain its shape when pushed

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rise: The vertical distance between two scientific notation: A way of writing
points used with run to calculate slope a number as a decimal greater than or
See slope equal to 1 and less than 10, multiplied by
roots of a quadratic equation: See a power of 10 (e.g., 70,120 is written as
4
zeros 7.012 × 10 )
rotation: A transformation in which each Number • 1
point in a shape moves about a fixed
point (the centre of rotation) through
the angle of rotation 7.012 × 104
rotational symmetry: Sometimes called
Power of 10
turn symmetry. A shape has turn
symmetry when it is turned or rotated second-degree polynomial: A
around a fixed point called the centre of polynomial for which the sum of powers
rotation (in 2-D) or a line called the axis of at least one variable is 2 for at least
of symmetry (in 3-D) and it looks the one of the terms (e.g., –3x2 – 2x + 5, 6y2,
same more than once during one and 3xy + 5x are all second-degree
complete rotation polynomials)
row matrix: A matrix with only one row second differences: See finite
and any number of columns differences
run: The horizontal distance between selling price: The price for which
two points used with rise to calculate an item is sold, taking into account any
slope See slope discounts that might apply
semi-annually: Twice a year, or every
S six months
sample space: All possible outcomes in share: Partial ownership and investment
an experiment or probability situation in a company, sometimes called stock.
(e.g., the sample space for rolling a die People who buy shares or stocks in a
contains six possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, company are called shareholders. The
4, 5, and 6) company uses the money invested to
scalar: A magnitude or amount not support the business.
associated with any direction. When significant figures: The number of
a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, every digits in a number that are considered to
element in the matrix is multiplied by play a role in determining the precision of
the scalar. a measurement (e.g.,
scale factor: If two triangles are similar, 20 cm has one significant figure,
corresponding side lengths relate by the 22 cm has two significant figures, and
same ratio, or scale factor 202 m has three significant figures);
sometimes called significant digits
scalene triangle: A triangle with no
congruent sides similar: Identical in shape, but not
necessarily the same size. The symbol
scatter plot: A graph of isolated points
for similarity is ~ (tilde), as in ¨ABC ~
on a coordinate grid. The graph can be
¨DEF. All congruent shapes are similar
used to try to determine a relationship
but not all similar shapes are congruent.
between the two variables that are being
graphed.

These rectangles are similar

similar triangles: Triangles in which
the pairs of corresponding sides are
proportional

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similarity: The property shared by slope and y-intercept form: The
geometric shapes that are identical in equation of a straight line written as
shape but not necessarily the same size y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the
simple interest: Interest charged on line and b is the y-intercept; sometimes
a loan (or earned on an investment) for expressed as y = mx + c
which the interest is always calculated as solution: The values of variables that
a percentage of the original principal, or make an equation or inequality true
original amount borrowed (or invested) (e.g., in the equation 5n + 4 = 39, the
simplify a radical: Express a radical in solution is n = 7 because 5(7) + 4 = 39)
an equivalent form such that the least solution to a quadratic equation: See
possible value is left under the radical zeros
sign (as a mixed radical) or the root sign solution of a system of linear
is gone altogether (as a whole number) equations: The values of the variables
(e.g., 300 can be simplified to 10 3 that make all equations in the system
and 100 can be simplified to 10) true; when all the equations in the
system are graphed, the solution is
skewed distribution: The intervals that the intersection point of the graphs
have the greatest frequency are near
speed: The rate at which a moving
one end of the histogram
object changes position with time (e.g.,
a sprinter who runs 100 m in 10 s has an
average speed of 100 m/10 s or 10 m/s)
sphere: A 3-D shape in which every
point on the surface is the same distance
from a single point, the centre
square: 1. A rectangle with equal sides
Right, or positively skewed 2. To multiply a number or an expression
by itself
square matrix: A matrix with the same
number of rows as columns (e.g., a
3-by-3 matrix is a square matrix)
square number: A whole number that
is a perfect square of another whole
Left or negatively skewed number (e.g., 1 is the square of 1, 4 is
slope: A measure of the steepness of the square of 2, 9 is the square of 3, and
a line, expressed as the rise (vertical so on)
distance) divided by the run (horizontal square root: A number that multiplies
distance) between any two points on by itself to result in another number (e.g.,
the line the square roots of 49 are 7 (7 × 7 = 49)
and –7 (–7 × (–7) = 49)); in symbols,
49 = 7; the positive square root is
called the principal square root
3 rise
slope is standard form (of a linear relation):
2
The equation of a straight line when
written as Ax + By = C; sometimes
written as ax + by = c or ax + by + c = 0
run standard form of a quadratic relation:
A degree 2 polynomial with one, two, or
three terms (e.g., 2x2 + 4x + 1, x2 + x – 2,
or 3x2)

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stem and leaf plot: An organization of transformation: Changing a shape
numerical data into intervals based on according to a rule. Transformations
place values (e.g., the circled leaf in include translations, rotations,
this stem-and-leaf plot represents the reflections, and dilatations.
number 258) translation: A transformation of a shape
in which each point moves the same
distance and in the same direction; also
called a slide
translation of a quadratic function:
A vertical translation of a function
transforms every point in the function's
graph according to the mapping
stock: See share (x, y) ĺ (x, y + v). If v > 1, the parabola
supplementary angles: Two angles moves up and if v < 1, the parabola
whose sum is 180º moves down. A horizontal translation
transforms every point using the
surface area: The sum of the areas mapping (x, y) ĺ (x + h). If h > 1, the
of all the faces and curved surfaces of parabola moves to the right and if h < 1,
a 3-D shape; sometimes referred to as the parabola moves to the left.
total surface area
translation rule: A rule that determines
symmetry: 1. Mirror or reflectional or describes the effect of a
symmetry: when a 2-D shape is folded or transformation on any shape
reflected across a line (the reflection
line), the two sides of the shape match trapezium: See trapezoid
2. Plane symmetry: when two halves of trapezoid: A quadrilateral in which one
a 3-D shape are reflections of each other pair of opposite sides are parallel
in the plane of symmetry 3. Turn or
rotational symmetry: when a 2-D or
3-D shape resembles the original shape
more than once in a full turn
An isosceles trapezoid
system of linear equations: A set of
two or more equations that represent trend: A pattern of general direction or
linear relations between the same two movement, often for a variable that is
variables measured against time; represented by
the line or curve of best fit in a scatter
T plot
table of values: An arrangement of trigonometric or trig ratios: See Trig
numerical values in a chart or table that Table and References on page 380
represents a relationship between two trigonometric identities: See Trig Table
variables and References on page 380
term: Part of a numerical or algebraic trinomial: A polynomial with three terms
expression, separated by addition or (e.g., 4x – 7y + 2z and 5x2 + 2x – 3 are
subtraction signs (e.g., 4x – 7y + 2z trinomials)
has three terms) turn symmetry: See rotational
theorem: Something that has been symmetry
proven by deductive reasoning to always two-dimensional shape: A shape
be true that lies in one plane and has only two
three-dimensional shape: A shape that dimensions; also called 2-D (e.g., a
occupies space in three dimensions; also triangle is a 2-D shape)
called 3-D (e.g., a triangle-based prism is
a 3-D shape)

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U
U-shaped distribution: A distribution
that peaks at both ends of the range and
sometimes is described as bimodal;
Y
its frequency polygon creates yield percentage: The ratio, as a
a U-shaped curve percentage, of the money received in
dividends (from an investment in shares)
to the money invested; also called
percentage return

X, Y, and Z
uniform distribution: A distribution x-intercept: See intercept
where each bin has a similar frequency; y-intercept: See intercept
its frequency polygon resembles a zero product rule: If a product of factors
straight line that has very little slope is zero, then at least one of the factors
must be zero (e.g., for a quadratic
equation, if (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0, then ax
+ b = 0 or cx + d = 0)
zeros of a quadratic equation: Possible
values of x when the quadratic function
upper quartile: Also referred to as Q3 f(x) = 0; also called the solutions or roots.
See box and whisker plot When the function is graphed as a
parabola, the zeros are the x-intercepts
V (if the parabola crosses the x-axis). It is
possible for there to be two, one, or no
variable: A letter or symbol, such as a, solutions to a quadratic equation.
b, x, or n, that represents a number (e.g.,
in the formula for the area of a rectangle,
A = l × w, the variables A, l, and w
represent the area, length, and width of
the rectangle); in an experiment, you
measure, control, or manipulate
variables
vectors: Arrows that show movement in
terms of direction and distance; used
with bearings as a set of directions
verify: Use inductive reasoning to show
that a conjecture is true
vertex form (of a quadratic relation):
A degree 2 polynomial that can be
written as the numerical multiple of the
square of a linear term with an
2
x-coefficient of 1 (e.g., (x – 2) + 3,
2 2
(x – 1) – 1, and 3(x – 2) )
vertex of a parabola: The point where a
parabola intersects its axis of symmetry;
the maximum or minimum point
vertex of a network: A point in a
network where two or more edges meet
volume: The amount of space occupied
by an object

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 ANSWERS
UNIT 1 MATRICES AND NETWORKS pp. 1–38

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need p. 1

1. a) 2 b) –6 c) –7 d) –24

2. a) –4 b) –2 c) 13 d) –12

3. a) –4 b) –12 c) 40 d) 72

4. a) 2.1 b) 0.5 c) 2 d) 40

5. a) 0.21 b) 36 c) 10.08 d) 18

1.1.1 Introducing Matrices p. 4

1. A 5. b) A 5-by-1 matrix could show the same
information in 1 column with 5 rows instead
2. Sample response of 1 row with 5 columns.
1 2 0  1 2
a) 3 0 b) 0 c) 3 0 6. a) the number of items (ghos and kiras)
each woman made
1 1  1 1 0
b) the total number of ghos or kiras that were
made by all three women
3. a) 9-by-2
b) The only information needed is the plan 7. It is a parallelogram.
number (column 1) and the year (column 2).
8.
4. Sample response: 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 5 2 3
F1 F2 C1 C2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0
F1 1 1 1 0 
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
F2 1 1 0 0  

C1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1
 
C2 0 0 1 1 9. The numbers in a multiplication table are
in a 10-by-10 square array.
5. a) 1-by-5

1.1.2 Adding and Subtracting Matrices pp. 6–7

1. A 15.2 12.9 10.6
3. a) 11.9 12.4 11.6
 13  13.3  9.9 9.3 7.5 
5 1.2 5.9  7.7  12
2. a)   b)  c)  3.9 1.4 
0 2 1.1  6.5 2  The numbers tell how much
 8.8 8.5  higher the higher average
temperature was in each place
for each month.

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1.1.2 Adding and Subtracting Matrices [Cont'd] pp. 6–7
  15.2  12.9  10.6  11 3 12 3
3. b)  11.9  12.4  11.6 8. d)  2 7  e)  4 8 
  9.9  9.3  7.5   4 1   1 2
The numbers tell how much the temperature
f) You get the same final matrix because the
went down in each place for each month.
order does not matter when you add numbers
or matrices.
3 3 2 2
4.  
1 5 4 1 9. Sample response:
5 1 2 0
5. a) Sample response: a) A =  ,
3 1 0 0
3 1 0 2 4 0 1 2  1 3 
A=   , B = 0 2 4  9  1  10 5
1 0 B= 
 4
3 1 2 5 1  ;
 14 4 28
b) Sample response:
 8 0  12 1 
3 0  2 3 1 A= 
 2
,
A–B=   8 8 15
3  1  2 4 1
c) Sample response: 4 0 4 4
B=  
 3 0 2  3  1 9 5 13  2
B–A=  
 3 1 2  4  1 5 1 2 0
b) A =  ,
d) The signs for the corresponding elements 3 1 0 0
are opposite; the opposite of a – b is b – a,  9 1  5 10
B= 
4 
e.g., 6 – 4 = 2 but 4 – 6 = –2. ;
 14 4  28
0 1 0 0  4 1 8  5
3 10 6 7 A= 
6.    ,B=  
1 20 3 7  2 1 1 0  15 4  27 4 

10. Sample response:

0 0 0 0 
7. A =   If you have two matrices showing the number
0 0 0 0  of tourists from five different countries in two
different years, you could subtract them to
8. Sample response: find the change in the number of visitors from
1 0  10 3  1 0 each country over the two years.
a) A = 2 1 , B =  0 2 , C =  2 5
  11. To add or subtract matrices, you add or
3 1   2 1   6 0
subtract elements that are in the same position
11 3 12 3 in both matrices, so you need the matrices to
b)  2 3 c)  4 8  be the same size.
 5 2  1 2

1.1.3 Multiplying a Matrix by a Scalar pp. 9–10

 2 4.8 0.72 2.4  6 15 
 16 10 3  1. c) 
3 
d)  
 2   2.1 0.36  1.2  2.7
6 1.2 6 10 
1. a) 
3 
b)  3 
 2. 4  2 4 1  4 2  2  7
 6 20 3  2. a)  20 1  4 b)  5 3  2
 12 14 
   5 1 21   5 8  2

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  4 2  2 4 1 8  4.  2.94 5.15 0.74 0.44
 22 0  4  16  3 4 
2. c)   d)  
 4  2 26   7  7  11 5. 16,454 100,748 75,949 37,847 

3. a) There are 4 columns in the matrix of 16,800 10,2864 77,544 38,642 

coordinates so I know there are 4 vertices,
and any shape with 4 vertices is a 6. a) 5
quadrilateral.  4 6 8 

b)  20  18 16 
b)
 38 16  14
1  3 14
c) Sample response: ×  
4  5 8 

2 1.5 1.5 2.5 7. Sample r esponse:

c)   To find the total cost of phone use each day
1.5 2 2.5 2  for each person, you would multiply each
d) The new shape is smaller and similar. number of minutes by the rate per minute.

8. You multiply every element in the matrix

by the scalar, so it does not matter how many
elements there are or how they are arranged.

1.1.4 Multiplying Matrices p. 14

1. a) A × B, B × C, B × D, C × D, D × A, D × 3. a) Sample response:
B
4 2 6 10 1 6
b) A × B =  ;B×C= 2
6 7 10  4 5
2 2
5 6
B×D=  ; C × D = 3 2
12  2
2 2
2 0 2 1 3
D × A = 6 0 ; D × B = 6 3 9 

5 15 15 10 10 5 
6 2 0 8 2 B= 
5 5 15 15 10 10
b) Sample response:
2. a) Sample response:  1 0  5 15 15 10 10 5
4-by-1 × 1-by-2, or 4-by-3 × 3-by-2, or  0  1 × 5 5 15 15 10 10
4-by-anything × anything-by-2 as long as both   
“anythings” are the same.  5  15  15  10  10  5 
= 
b) The number of columns in the first matrix  5  5  15  15  10  10
has to match the number of rows in the
second, and there must be 4 columns in the
first matrix and 2 rows in the second matrix
for the product matrix to be 4-by-2.

Reprint 2023 315

1.1.4 Multiplying Matrices [Cont'd] p. 14
3. c) Sample response: 6. b) Sample response:
4 1 0 3 2 16
No;   × 2 4 = 2 10
2 1    
0 3 4 1 6 3
but   × 2 1 = 16 6
 2 4    

 2
7. a) 1
0
b) A × B; A would be first so the number of
columns in the first matrix, 3, matches the
number of rows in the second matrix, 3.
d) It turned, or rotated, a half turn about the
origin. 8. a) Sample response:
10 
If you had a number of prices in ngultrums to
4. 50 100 500 × 20 = 5500;
exchange for U.S. dollars, you would
multiply a matrix with the prices by a scalar,
 6  the exchange rate.
Nu 5500 in notes b) Sample response:
If you were trying to figure out several
2 3 1 0 2 3 students’ final grades, you could multiply a
5. a)   ×   =  5 1 matrix with their marks for each part of their
 5 1 0 1    final grade by a matrix with the percent
b) You get the same matrix you started with. weighting for each part.
6. a) You cannot multiply a 3-by-2 matrix by a 9. a) 3-by-4
1-by-3 matrix since the number of columns in b) Multiply the numbers in the 2nd row of
the first matrix does not match the number of the first matrix by the matching numbers in
rows in the second one, but you can multiply a the 3rd column of the second matrix and add
1-by-3 matrix by a the products.
3-by-2 matrix.

CONNECTIONS: The Seven Bridges of Konigsberg p. 16

1. It is not possible.

2. No; because there are 4 odd vertices and you need to have two odd vertices, so you enter on
one of them and exit on the other.

1.2.2 Describing a Network With a Matrix p. 22

A B C D A B C D A B C D E
0 0 0 1 1
0 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
2 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 
1. a)  b)  c) 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1  
    1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0


Reprint 2023 316

2. Sample response: 5. [Cont'd]
a)

b) c)

6. Sample responses:
d) - You can put your vertices in different
locations.
- Wherever you have a curved line, you can
make a straight line or vice versa.
3. There are no loops. - You can use two uni-directional arrows
instead of one bi-directional path.
4. a) Sample response:
7. Sample response:

b)
C I P S H T 8. a) by the number of rows or columns
C 0 0 1 0 0 0 b) by numbers other than 0 where the row
I 0 
1 1 0 0 0 and column names are the same (along the

P 0 0 0 0 0 0 principal diagonal)
  c) wherever there is a 0 in both entries, from
S 1 1 1 0 0 0
A to B and from B to A, where the row for
H 0 0 0 1 0 1 one vertex intersects the column for the
 
T 0 1 0 0 0 0 other
d) the total of the numbers in the row for
5. Sample response: that vertex
e) the total of the numbers in the column for
that vertex

9. Sample response:
If there are many 0s, the graph is not as
complicated as when there are many 1s
and 2s. But if it was all 1s, it wouldn’t be too
complicated.

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1.2.3 Solving Network Problems pp. 26–27
1. a) 6. c) Sample response:
• 1 from A to A (A-C-A); 1 from A to B (A-
C-B); 1 from A to C (A-B-C)
• 1 from B to A (B-C-A); 1 from B to B
(B-C-B); 0 from B to C 0 1 0
• 0 from C to A; 1 from C to B (C-A-B);  
The adjacency matrix is 1 1 1 and if you
2 from C to C (C-A-C or C-B-C) 
b) Create an adjacency matrix for the 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
     
digraph, 0 0 1, and square it, 1 1 0. square it, you get 1 3 1 with no zeroes.
  1
1 1 0
 
0 1 2
 1 1 

2. a) Sample response: 7. a) When a ball is passed amongst the

A B players, it is like a network — the people are
the vertices and the edges are the paths of the
ball.
b) It would tell about passes from each player
b) C to each other player (or passes from a player
• 1 from A to A (ABA); 1 from A to B to him or herself) that went through another
(ABB); 1 from A to C (ABC) person.
• 1 from B to A (BBA); 2 from B to B (BBB,
BAB); 2 from B to C (BBC, BAC) 8. The element in the 2nd row, 4th column
• 0 from C to anywhere tells the number of one-stopover trips from B
to D. It is 0 because there cannot be any one-
0 1 1 1 stopover trips from B to D — the only place
6. a)   b)  ; that B can get to is D and that happens with no
1 1 1 2
stopovers.
There are no zeroes since there is always a
way to get from a vertex to itself or to
another vertex with one stopover:

from A to A through B (ABA),
from B to B through A (BAB),
from A to B through B (ABB),
from B to A through B (BBA).

UNIT 1 Revision pp. 28–29

1. Sample response: 3 2 0 3
 2  1  5  6  
3. b) 2 3 2 4
 
0  2  3 
 0 1 2 2 0
 1 2 3 4  c) A and B
1 0 0 3 1 0 0 3
2. Sample responses: to describe:    
d) 2 1 8 2 or 2 1 8 2;
networks or paths, prices of many different 
items, an ecosystem, a set of student grades, 1 2 0 0
 
1 2 0 0 

coordinates of a shape on a grid you can subtract A – B or B – A

3. a) A and B; they have the same dimensions

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 0 15 9  8. 2 (first matrix), 1 (second matrix),
4. a) b)   5 (product matrix)
6 12  3
9. a) The number of rows in B is the same as
the number of columns in A, so you can
multiply A × B. The number of rows in A
is the same as the number of columns in B,
so you can multiply B × A.
b) 3-by-anything × the same anything-by-2,
e.g., a 3-by-5 matrix × 5-by-2 matrix
c)
10. a) B b) A × C

11. Start at left and end at right, or

start at right and end at left.

 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
12. a) 0 0 1 2 b)  1 0 1 1 0 
   
0 0 0 0   0 1 0 1 1
   
d) It 0 2 1 0  0 0 0 0 0 
 1 0 1 0 1
became bigger but it's similar.

5. 3 × 4 13. Sample response:

10 2
 
6. a) 2 4 

7 4 

b) They describe how much the numbers
changed during the year; a negative element 0 1 0 0
means the numbers went up and a positive  
14. a) 
element means they went down. 1 0 1 1
c) Yes, the matrices are the same size. 0 1 0 1
 
d) There is no real meaning to the total 0 1 1 0
number of students in both months. b) There is 1 one-stopover path (ABC)
and 1 two-stopover path (ABDC).
0 1 2
  3 5 
7. a) A  B = 2 2 6; B  A =   15. Some vertices are not connected, e.g.,
 1
 1 A to C, and A to F, so those teams have not
4 2 0

played each other yet.
b) The product matrices have different
dimensions.

UNIT 2 COMMERCIAL MATH AND NUMBER pp. 31–63

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need p. 31

1. a) 13 cm b) 52 cm; ratio of perimeters = ratio of corresponding sides,
5  12  13 13
so = and x = 52 cm
120 x

2. 40 × 40 = 40, but (2 10 )(2 10 ) = 4 × 10 = 40, so 2 10 must also be 40 .

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Getting Started — Skills You Will Need [Cont'd] p. 31
3. Nu 2100; 5. Because of the power law of exponents, x6
0.07 × Nu 6000 × 5 years = Nu 2100 = (x2)3, which makes it a perfect cube and x6 =
(x3)2, which makes it a perfect square.
4. a) 160 b) 62.5 c) Equal; both are 10

2.1.1 Purchasing Decisions p. 35

1. a) Nu 20 b) 20% 8. a) The percentage markup resulting from a
markup of Nu 100 cannot be determined
2. No. Jigme’s calculation is incorrect. unless the cost price is known. Likewise, the
The discount percent is actually 20%, amount of markup resulting from a 7%
not 25%, because the percent discount is markup cannot be determined unless the cost
based on the marked price of Nu 140 not on price is known. Therefore, you cannot
the discounted selling price of Nu 112. compare them.
b) Sample response:
3. Option A; Option A results in a price of If the cost price was Nu 100:
480 × 1.20 = Nu 576. Option B results in a Nu 100 vs. Nu 7.
price of 700 × 0.85 = Nu 595. c) Sample response:
If the cost price was Nu 10,000:
4. 100%; Sample response: Nu 100 vs. Nu 700.
A cost price of Nu 30 would increase to a
selling price of Nu 60 with a markup of 100%. 9. Sample response:
A 50% discount on Nu 60 would reduce the If the same discount amount, e.g., Nu 100,
price to the original cost, Nu 30. were offered on an expensive item, e.g.,
Nu 10,000, and an inexpensive item, e.g., Nu
5. a) Nu 3100.00 b) Nu 133,333.34 1000, it would make a significant difference
to the selling price of the inexpensive item,
6. If a cost price is increased by more than making it attractive to buyers, but it would
100%, the markup is more than the cost price. probably not affect the price of the expensive
This is a reasonable sales practice to allow the item significantly enough to make it attractive
seller to make a profit. If a marked price is to buyers. If the same percent discount were
reduced by a discount of more than 100%, the offered on both items, the selling price of
discount is more than the marked price, which both items would be affected proportionally
would mean that the seller pays the buyer. and there would be an equal incentive to buy
This does not make sense. both items. The same idea applies to markup
and commission.
7. Sample response: A 10% commission on a
sale of a Nu 3000 item would result in
Nu 300 commission, which is less than a fixed
commission of Nu 500 per item.

2.1.2 Compound Interest p. 42

1. 6.25% 5. a) Nu 9816.67 b) Nu 9631.20

2. a) Nu 624.36 b) Nu 649.71 6. a) Nu 15,970.88 b) Nu 10,970.88

3. a) Nu 624.00 b) Nu 648.00 7. 15% (compounded quarterly)

The simple interest pays less than the compound
interest. 8. 12.68%

4. a) Nu 1141.43 b) Nu 1112.40 c) Nu 1080

Reprint 2023 320

9. a) I: Nu 27,327.08; Nu 60,879.73; Nu 148,253.63
II: Nu 27,250.00; Nu 59,184.09; Nu 140,110.27
III: Nu 27,250.00; Nu 47,500.00; Nu 70,000.00
b) Vertical axis is 1000s of ngultrums

c) Sample response:
The simple interest graph is linear so the investment grows at a constant rate.
Both compound interest graphs are exponential, which means the investments grow faster
and faster over time. The graph of interest compounded quarterly curves a bit more sharply
than the graph of interest compounded annually.

10. Sample response:

Compound interest calculates interest on interest already earned so it increases faster and
faster over time, which is an exponential relationship. Simple interest calculates the same
amount of interest each time since the interest is always based on the original principal, so
the growth is constant and therefore the relationship is linear.

CONNECTIONS: The Rule of 72 p. 43

1. It appears to work.

2. Yes; Sample response:

I would expect it to at least double because the number of years to double if it were
compounded annually would be about 72 ÷ 12 = 6 years, so the number of years to double if it
were compounded monthly would have to be less than 6 years, because more frequent
compounding results in more interest.

3. About 70 months

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2.1.3 Dividends and Stocks p. 46
1. A. Nu 22,000 B. Nu 40,000 C. Nu 42,500 8. Sample response: If a company
earns more profit, it can afford to pay
2. A. 772 shares B. 212 shares C. 100 shares a higher dividend rate. A company
might also pay a higher dividend to
3. a) A. Nu 3300 B. Nu 16,500 C. Nu 33,000 try to attract more investors.
b) A. 20% B. 27.5% C. 25.88%
c) B; The discount to buy it was greatest, so it resulted 9. a) The yield rate for stock
in a higher yield percentage because the dividend rate investments has the potential to be
was the same for each stock. much higher than the interest you
would earn in a bank account.
4. a) Nu 2500 b) 58.82% b) Money in a savings account in a
bank is more secure than money
5. a) 19.8% b) Nu 250c) Nu 5500 invested in stocks.

6. Nu 2160 7. Nu 6250

2.1.4 Using Commercial Math p. 51

1. Option 3 is best and Option 2 is worst. 5. b) Sample response:
An elderly person or a very ill person
2. 4.1% may choose to collect the lump sum prize
because they might not live another
3. a) 7.73% (rounding would give 7.72% but 8.3 years. Or, someone who needs the money
the guarantee would not be met) right away might choose the lump sum.
b) Sample response:
Yes; since Nu 100 increases by Nu 25 to Nu 6. Nu 25,000,000
125 in three years, it will increase by even
more than Nu 25 in the next three years due 7. Nu 211,111.11 (or 2.11111 Lakhs)
to compounding. Therefore,
the increase over six years would be more 8. a) 14.29% b) Nu 5625.35
than 50%.
9. Sample response:
4. a) 8% b) 16% The option with a payment of Nu 12,000 at
the end of the year has a lower interest rate.
5. a) Sample response: Because both options require payment of
Nu 10,000 monthly as I expect to live for Nu 12,000 in total, the plan with the later
more than 8.3 years. payment is charging the lower interest rate.

2.2.2 Simplifying Radicals p. 55

1. a) 4 3 b) 10 10 4. 920 because 13 5 is the same as
3
c) 2 4 d) 110 13 2  5 , which is 169  5 , or 845 .
Since 845 < 920, 845 is less than 920
 , 4 7 , 6 3
2. 9 2 , 11, 3 13 
5. a) Sample response: 4
3. a) 18  3 2 ; 45  3 5 b) 6; 3

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5. b) This is impossible because, for 3 n 8. The diagonal in the top left square is
to be a whole number, n must have three 2 units long and the full diagonal is 3 times as
identical factors. But n is an entire long, or 3 2 . Using the Pythagorean theorem,
radical only if no pair of identical factors the full diagonal is
can be found. 32  32 = 18 , so 3 2 = 18 .
c) Sample response: 27
9. a) Sample response:
6. a) No; Sample response: 4 n is a whole Factor n to include as many pairs of identical
number only if n is a fourth power (a × a factors as possible. For each identical pair under
× a × a), but any fourth power is a perfect the square root symbol, create a term outside the
square (a2 × a2). E.g., square root symbol equal to the square root of the
product of the identical factors;
4
16 = 4
2  2  2  2 = 2 and
56 = 2  2  2  7
16 = 2  2  2  2 = 4  4 = 4
= 2  2 × 2  7
b) Yes; Sample response:
4
9 = 1.732... and 9 = 3 = 4 × 2  7 = 2 14
If no terms are left inside the root symbol, the
7. a) None because the 113 part is not a square root symbol is removed, e.g.,
perfect square. 324 = 9  9  2  2
b) Any non-negative multiple of 3 such as
0, 3, 6, 9, ... since the cube root would be = 9  9 × 2  2 = 9 × 2 = 18
32  11  53m, where m is b) Sample response:
1 The term outside the radical must be moved inside
of the multiple of 3. The cube root
3 the radical. This is done by multiplying the value
1 inside by the square of the term outside; m n
means raising each power to its value
3 = m  m × n
1
( of the multiple of 3 is an integer). = m  m  n or m2  n .
3

2.2.3 Operations With Radicals pp. 60–61

1. a) 6 3 b) ( x  7 ) x 7. a) 6 + 4 is the greatest.
c) 10 k d) 2 11  55  11 b) The expression with the numbers that were
closest together was the greatest.
c) 11  8 is greatest because 11 and 8 are
2. a) 6 b) 2x 4 5 c) 2 21
closest together.
d) 11  8
3 2 10
3. a) 2 b) c) 3x 2 d)
2 3 3 11 3 11 13
8. a) b) × c)
11 11 11 13
4. a) 12 5 − 6 55 − 4 11 − 22 3
b) 135x = ×1
11

5. Sample response: 9. Look for ways to simplify terms and

combine like terms, keeping in mind that
a) 7 b) 4 5 c) 3 14 d) 6 or 8
20 = 2 5 and x3 = x x .

6. a) m  5 b) p  6 c) k 19 d) s 128

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UNIT 2 Revision pp. 62–63
1. a) Nu 160 b) 25%
c) The item listed at Nu 300 with a 25% discount 12. A and B.
costs less. • A simplifies to 0.
• In B, all terms in the numerator
2. a) Nu 1575 b) Nu 1575 simplify to something of the form
c) No; the compounded rate is better because the n 2 , and because the denominator
interest from the first year will earn additional
interest above the basic Nu 75 in the second year. is 2 the expression will have a
value of n.
3. 10.93% p.a. compounded monthly • I did not choose C because,
although 49 and 64 are perfect
4. a) Simple: 4.42%; Compounded annually: 4.07% squares, 108 is not, so the product
b) Simple: 4.52%; Compounded annually: 3.80% will not simplify to an integer.
c) Simple: 5.68%; Compounded annually: 4.60%
d) Simple: 4.71%; Compounded annually: 3.94% 13. a) 3 3 b) 10 3
3
5. a) 347 shares b) Nu 5899 c) 23.61% c) 5 2 d) 30

6. a) 158.82% b) Nu 3400
14. a) 9 2  7
7. a) 63.64%
b) I would choose Option 3; b) 10 6  4 3  3 2  15
Option 2, 8% of 70,000, is Nu 5,600, and
Option 3, 3.5% of 180,000 is Nu 6,300. 1
c) 2 d) 1 e) 3x 2
Both options exceed Option 1. 3
8. 14% p.a. compounded quarterly 15) Sample response:
21 2007 6 is both a perfect square and a
9. Nu 182,560.01 10.
50 perfect cube (since its power is divisible
11. 15% compounded semi-annually; it would be by both 2 and 3). Therefore, their roots
equivalent to an annual interest rate of 15.56%
instead of an annual rate of 15.79% in the first  20076 and 3 20076 are both 
year. integers. However, 6
2007
is a perfect
cube (as its power is divisible by 3), but
not a perfect square (as its power is not
divisible by 2). Therefore, it’s a cube
root is not an integer.
16. a) k = 4 b) p = 3 c) n = 28
d) m = 15

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UNIT 3 LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS pp. 65–102
Getting Started — Skills You Will Need pp. 65–66r.
1. a) b) Pattern A is linear because the
20 number of squares increases by two for
 Pattern A each figure and since this is a constant
Pattern B increase, the relationship is linear.
Pattern C
Pattern B appears to be quadratic
Number of squares

15 because the plotted points form the right

half of a parabola. For the three plotted
points, the first differences are not
constant but the second differences are
constant.
10
Pattern C is exponential because the
plotted points form a curve with a steep
increase. The number of squares in each
figure is three times the number in the
5 previous figure so neither first nor
second differences are constant but the
ratios of first differences are constant.

0 2 1 3
Figure number
2. a = 76, b = 68, c = 64 6. b) 3x – y = –6

3. y
a) b) c) d)
slope 2 3 –3 0.75
–
4
y-intercept 3 –2 2 –1.65

4. a) b)
x

c) 6x – 2y = –3
5. y
x
2x + 3y = 6

y=– x+1

7
7. a) x =  b) a = 4
5

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6. a) 4x + 3y = 12 1
8. a) a < –3 b) x < 2
2
y
9. 2

10. a) 200 + 2m b) 60s

c) 1000n d) 0.04n

3.1.1 Linear Functions p. 71

1. a) Not a function; (3, 2) and (3, 4) have the 2. a) Function; each student has only one age.
same x-coordinate, but different y- b) Usually not a function; there would likely
coordinates. be more than one student in the class with
b) Function; no ordered pairs have the same identical numbers of siblings.
x-coordinate and different y-coordinates.
c) Not a function; except for (0, 0), there are
two ordered pairs with different y-coordinates
for each x-coordinate.
3. a) b) f(n) = n 5. a) Sample response:
3 4 5
x f(x) = x2 – 1

–1 0
0 –1
1 0
2 3
4. a) Sample response: 3 8
x f(x) = 4x – 3
–1 –7
0 –3 b) A vertical line will cross the graph in only
1 1 one place.
2 5
b) For each x-value, there is only one 6. Yes; for each value in the first column,
y-value. there is only one possible value in the second
column.
c) Sample responses:
You could draw a graph and extend it to 7. a) For each value in the first column, there
see that the line has one y-value for each is only one value in the second column.
x-value. b) There are no ordered pairs that have
OR different y-coordinates for the same
You can be sure it continues this way, x-coordinate. This means that if you draw a
since each next value of y is exactly vertical line, it will hit the graph at only one
4 greater than the previous one. place no matter where you draw it.

Reprint 2023 326

3.1.2 Applications of Linear Functions pp. 76–77
4  2t 4  5m 5. a) 30r + 20s = 51, where r is the number of
1. a) f(t) = b) f(m) = hours at 30 km/h and s is the number of hours
5 2
at 20 km/h
2. a) 20t + 50f = 2000, or any variation of it, 51 20s
b) f(s) = c) 0.9 h or 54 min
e.g., 20t = 2000 – 50f, where t represents the 30
number of Nu 20 notes and f the number of
Nu 50 notes 6. a) Sample response:
2000  50 f 200  5 f (1976, 45) and (2002, 60)
b) f(f) = =
20 2
15 15
b) e = a – 1095, or f(a) = a – 1095,
3. a) f(l) = 5l + 91 b) 24 26 26
c) f(s) = (s – 91) ÷ 5 where a represents the year and e represents
life expectancy
4. a) I = 0.042o + 0.045n, where c) 64.6
I represents total interest d) 41.5; the actual plotted value is just a bit
o represents the money invested at 4.2% more than 40 so it is very close
n represents the money invested at 4.5%
I  0.042o 7. a) F =
9
C + 32 b) C =
5
(F – 32)
b) f(o) = 9
0.045 5
8. a) Deki: f(t) = 8t; Thinley: f(t) = 7t + 12 9. No; If y = mx + b, there is one y-value for
b) Deki: 72 m; Thinley: 75 m each x-value. That's why it's a function. But
c) Deki; I solved the equations 8t = 100 for yb
Deki and 7t + 12 = 100 for Thinley to get the that also means that x = . As long as m
m
time it would take each to finish the course. is not 0, there is only one x-value for each y-
For Deki, t was 12.5 s and for Thinley, t was value, so this is also a function. If m = 0, the
12.57 s. original line was horizontal and x did not
d) Because where you are on the course appear in the equation, so you won't be able
depends on how much time has passed. to write x in terms of y.

3.1.3 Graphs of Linear Inequalities pp. 82–83

1. a) No b) Yes c) No 3. a) Both have dashed boundary lines
and the lines are the same; the first one
2. a) Below; Sample response: has shading on one side of the line and
I tested (0, 0). Since 0 < 0 + 6, then (0, 0) belongs the second has it on the other side.
in the shaded region and it is below the boundary
line. 3. b) Both have the same boundary line
and are shaded below the line; the first
one has a solid line and the second has a
dashed line.
4. a) 4. b)

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4. c) 4. d)

5 4 6. a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 300 (or any variation)

5. a) 𝑦 < − 𝑥 + 2 b) 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 − 4
2 3
where x and y represent the amount he
5 earned at each job.
c) < → ≤; 𝑦 ≤ − 𝑥 + 2
2
b)
4
d) ≤ → ≥; 𝑦 ≥ 3 𝑥 − 4

7. a) A b) D 8. If you choose any x-value, there are

c) Sample response: multiple y-values that go with it.
It could only be A or D since the line had to be
solid. I tested the point (0, 0) and found that it 9. Sample response:
should not be in the shaded region, so it had to be • Graph 2x – 4y = 10 using the two
A. intercepts (5, 0) and (0, –2.5).
d) Sample response: • Draw a dashed line because the
It had to be the region opposite to my answer in inequality sign is <.
part a) and the line had to be dashed. • Test (0, 0) to see if it belongs in the
shaded area. Since 2(0) – 4(0) < 10, it
does.
• Shade the side of the line that contains
(0, 0).

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3.2.1 Solving Algebraically — The Comparison Strategy pp. 89–90
1. a) The number of minutes when both plans 5. 16 practice balls and 4 official balls
cost the same;
If Plan A is C = 1200 + 1.6m and Plan B is C 6. 60.2 L
= 1400 + 1.4m, where m is the number of 7. 20 at Nu 4 and 40 at Nu 9
minutes and C is the total cost, then
1200 + 1.6m = 1400 + 1.4m because C = C. 8. a) (5, 13) b) (2, 2) c) (–1, 3)
If you solve 1200 + 1.6m = 1440 + 1.4m
for m, you get the number of minutes for 9. a) AC: y = 2x – 2; BD: y = –2x + 10
which both plans cost the same. b) (3, 4)
b) 1000 min; 1200 + 1.6m = 1440 + 1.4m →
0.2m = 200 → m = 1000 10. Wind speed: 40 km/h;
c) Plan A for 600 min; Plan B for 1200 min Plane’s speed with no wind: 280 km/h
11. a) (2, 2) b) (–1, 4) c) (6, 12)
2. a) (–1, –9) b) (–2, –7) c) (1.2, 0.8)
12. So you can compare the expressions
3. 41 and 7 involving the other variable and then solve
for that variable.
4. 38 and 57

3.2.2 Solving Algebraically — The Substitution Strategy p. 94

1. a) x = 1; y = 3 b) x = –2; y = –1 5. a) x = 60, y = 60 b) x = 40, y = 50
1 1 2 3
c) x = ; y= d) x = ; y=
2 2 3 4 6. a) x = 4; y = 6 b) x = 12; y = –8
c) x = 2.5; y = 3.1 d) x = –1.7; y = 2.3
2. a) l = d + 5 b) l + d = 29
c) Lhamo is 17 years oldand Devika is 12 7. The comparison strategy requires that the

years old. same term be isolated in each equation so
that the remaining parts of the equations can
3. a) (–1, –2) b) (5, –2) be compared. The substitution strategy
1 1 2 5 requires that only one term be isolated in one
c)  ,  d)  ,  equation so that it can be substituted into the
2 2 3 6
other equation.
4. 150, 62

3.2.3 Solving Algebraically — The Elimination Strategy pp. 97–98

1. a) x = –1; y = 2 2. a) a + b = 2500, where a is the amount invested at 4% and
b) x = 1; y = 1 b is the amount invested at 5%.
c) x = 3; y = –5 b) 0.04a + 0.05b = 115, where a is the amount at 4% and b is
d) x = –2; y = –4 the amount at 5%.
c) Nu 1000 at 4% and Nu 1500 at 5%.
3. a) 500t + 375c = 125,000 for the amount 7. a) (10, 12) b) (–16, 8) c) (–12, –18)
of steel and 250t + 150c = 55,000 for the
amount of aluminium, where c represents the 8. The company can make 1200 batches of
number of cars and t represents the number light purple dye and 3600 batches of deep
of trucks. purple dye.
b) 100 trucks and 200 cars 9. Sample response:
4. 16 correct a) 2x + 3y = 10 and 4x – 3y = 50; You can add
them and eliminate the 3y right away.
5. a) a = 100, b = 150
b) a = –1, b = 2

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c) a = 1200, b = 3000 b) y = 2x + 5 and x + y = 15; The expression
for y (2x + 5) is right there for you to substitute
6. She can make two batches of deluxe grade into x + y = 15.
and two batches of fine grade c) 2y = 8x + 8 and 2y = 4x + 15; You can
compare two equivalent expressions for 2y.

CONNECTIONS: Matrix Solution of a Linear System p. 99

8 5  x  8 x  5 y   2  9 5 9  x 
1.   ×   =   so 3. b)   ×   ×  
3 2  y  3 x  2 y   1 5  1 2  y 
8 x  5 y  11 1 0  x   x 
  =  ; =   ×   =   and
3 x  2 y   4  0 1   y   y 
The top elements in each matrix are equal so  2  9  7    4 
8x + 5y = 11 and the bottom elements in each   ×   =  
matrix are equal so 3x + 2y = 4.   1 5   2  3 
c) x = –4 and y = 3
 2  5 8 5  x 
2. a)   ×   ×    4 7   x   3
 3 8  3 2  y  4. a)   ×   =  
 5 9   y   4
1 0  x   x 
=   ×   =   and  9  7
0 1   y   y  b)  
 2  5 11  2   5 4 
  ×   =    9  7 4 7   x 
 3 8   4   1 c)   ×   ×  
 x  2   5 4  5 9   y 
b)   =   ; The top elements in each 1 0  x   x 
 y   1 =   ×   =   and
matrix are equal so x = 2 and the bottom 0 1   y   y 
elements in each matrix are equal so y = –1.  9  7 3  1
  ×   =  ,
5 9   x  7    5 4   4  1 
3. a)   ×   =   or so x = –1 and y = 1.
1 2   y   2
1 2  x  2
  ×   =  
5 9  y  7

UNIT 3 Revision pp. 101–102

1. A; there is only one y-value for 2. a) No; for any x-value there is only one y-value, 3.
each x-value in A, but there are two b) Yes; for x = 3, there are multiple y-values.
y-values for some x-values in B.
3. a) Sample response: b) To get the related y-value for each x-value, multiply x by
x f(x) 3 and then subtract the result from 10. For every different
1 7 x-value you will get a different y-value.
2 4
3 1
4 –2
5 –5
4. a) f(y) = (180 – y) ÷ 2 b) f(x) = 180 – 2x
c) You could decide on the x-value first, so the value of y would depend on x.
Or, you could decide on a y-value first so the value of x would depend on y.
d) f(20) = 180 – 40 = 140

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5.a) c = 0.3d + 3 or f(d) = 0.3d + 3 b)

6. y = 1.5x – 4

7. f(x) = x + 1

8. Sample response: a)

b) y = 1.3x

Reprint 2023 331

 9. a) b) c)

10. a) y > 4x – 8 b) y ≤ 4x – 5
11. a) 3y < 2x + 4 will have a dashed line because < means values along the line are not included.
3y ≤ 2x + 4 will have a solid line because the ≤ sign means the values along the line are included.
Otherwise they are the same.
b) The dashed line for
4y + 2x < 10 will be 2 units higher than the dashed line for 4y + 2x < 8 because the
y-intercept is 10, not 8. Otherwise they are the same.
12. a) Shifted (translated) 4 units to the left.
b) Shifted (translated) 4 units to the right.
c) Slope is 4 times as steep and y-intercept is lower.
d) Slope is 4 times as steep but in the opposite direction and the y-intercept is higher.
13. a) (5, 22) b) (1, 2.5) c) (4, 6) d) (2, 17)

14. 21 items 2
17. a) x = 5 and y = 7
3
15. 39 cm × 21 cm and
78 cm × 7 cm b) y = 4 and x = 2
c) x = 3 and y = 0.5
1
16. a) x = 2 and y = 4
3 18. Sample response:
b) y = 4 and x = –2 If you do not need an exact answer and you have
c) x = 5 and y = 5 grid paper available.

UNIT 4 MEASUREMENT pp. 103–126

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need pp. 103
1. a) 8.4 cm2; 27.4 cm2 3. b)
b) 328 m3; 295.2 m2 F
c) 301.6 cm3; 301.6 cm2 23 mm
d) 33.3 cm3; 66.6 cm2 110º
e) 113.1 cm3; 113.1 cm2 E D
f) 56.5 cm3; 94.2 cm2 7.8 cm
c)
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2. a) 3.2 cm b) 1700 g L
c) 0.270 L d) 20,000 cm2 97°
e) 7 cm3 f) 4300 cm3
g) 8200 mm
K 53°
C J
3. a) C 84 mm
9 cm 6 cm 4. a) 10π cm; 31.4 cm; 25π cm, 78.5 cm2
b) 6.4π cm, 20.1 cm; 10.24π cm, 32.2 cm2
B A
B 12 cm A 5. a) 40° b) 66°

6. a) 3.01 cm b) 5.13 cm

4.1.1 Precision and Accuracy p. 111

1. a) 4 b) 4 c) 4 d) 3 e) 1 6. a) No; 65 km might have been reported to the
f) 1 g) 1 h) 3 i) 4 j) 1 nearest whole kilometre and 70 km to the nearest
10 km. That means the 65 km could have
2.a) 0.8 b) 4700 c) 3.2 actually been 65.4 km and the 70 km could have
been 65.1 km, making the distance from Paro to
3. Sample response: Thimphu longer than from Wangdi Phodrang to
a) 116 mm and 121 mm (anything between Thimphu.
115 mm and 125 mm is acceptable)
b) Novin's measurement is given with more
b) 7281 mL and 7312 mL (anything between
precision, but that does not mean Novin’s
7250 mL and 7350 mL is acceptable)
measurement is accurate. It could be that one or
both measurements come from an inaccurate
4. a) Sample response: 0.200
source.
b) Yes; Sample response: 50,300
c) Sample response: 0.000002
7. Sample response:
d) Greatest is 9,000,000; least is 0.000001
a) Drakpa tells you that her red bucket has a
capacity of 10 L. Pema tells you that her blue
5. Sample response:
bucket has a capacity of 9.6 L. Drapka’s red
The calculator is about 15 cm long. This
bucket appears to hold more.
measurement is not very precise. Trying to be
more precise by measuring to the nearest b) The red bucket may actually have a capacity
millimetre would be impossible because of the of 9.51 L but Drakpa rounded
rounded corners and because the calculator is to 10 L. The blue bucket could have had
longer in the middle than along the sides, so a capacity of 9.64 L but was rounded to
one measurement to describe its length is not 9.6 L. Thus the red bucket could be smaller than
possible. The accuracy of any reported value the blue bucket. A conclusion cannot be
will depend on the viewer’s perspective in determined from the given measures.
reading the ruler.

CONNECTIONS: Precision Instruments p. 112

1. Sample response:
• A millimetre ruler is very precise. It measures length.
• The knobs on the stove that control the heat are less precise. They measure heat.
• The cups my mother uses to measure food are probably not very precise; they measure volume.

4.2.2 2-D Efficiency p. 120

1. The hexagon's area is greater. 5. a regular heptagon (7-sided
polygon) with each side 3 m
2. Sample response:

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The regular hexagon has a greater area because it is more 6. a) 580 cm
circle-like. b) About 66 cm
4 cm
6 cm 7. a) 29.3 cm, 29.3 cm, 41.4 cm
b) It makes the two leg dimensions as
close to each other as possible in
length so the shape is the most like a
circle
10 cm
8. No; If they have the same area,
then the regular polygon with more
sides has a shorter perimeter.
OR
No; If they have the same perimeter,
then the regular polygon with more
sides has a larger area.
3. Sample response:
a) 12 m × 9.0 m and 10 m × 10.8 m 9. Sample response:
b) I knew I needed a more square-like rectangle so a) You only have a certain amount of
I tried different lengths and widths that were close in size fencing, but you want to enclose a
and had a product of 108. large area.
4. Sample response: b) You do not want to require as
a) A rectangle measuring 9 cm × 3 cm and much material to fence a garden, so
a parallelogram of length 10 cm and slant height 2 cm you want to minimize the perimeter
b) I knew I needed a less square-like shape so I tried of the garden.
different lengths and widths that were farther apart in size
but added to 12.

4.2.3 3-D Efficiency p. 124

1. a) 79.6 cm b) 62.9 cm 3. Barrel c) because all have the same volume
c) 50.9 cm d) 42.1 cm and c) has the least surface area.
2. I predict barrel c) because its dimensions 4. A base of about 8.8 cm × 8.8 cm and
(height and radius) are closest to being equal, a height of about 12.4 cm.
making it the most sphere-like.
The surface areas are 5. a) 6.5 cm b) 4.0 cm
a) 12,516.1 cm2 b) 12,073.1 cm2 c) 2.3 cm d) 1.0 cm
c) 11,922.3 cm2 d) 12,026.0 cm2
6. Prism b).Because its height is the same as its width, 9. Nu 237
which makes it the most sphere-like. The volumes are
a) 59 cm3 b) 64 cm3 c) 58 cm3 d) 36 cm3 10. a) 3217 cm3; 1206 cm2
b) 1053 cm2
7. a) 2714 cm2 b) 15 cm c) 22.6% greater c) Sphere
d) Sample response:
8. a) 21 cm The surface area of the sphere was
b) Sample response: smaller and the volumes were the same.
The volume of the cube will be smaller than the
volume of the cylinder and sphere. 11. If the volume of two shapes is the
same, the lower the value of the ratio, the
c) The cylinder volume is 10,857 cm3 and the sphere more efficient the shape.
volume is 13,306 cm3. The cube volume A lower ratio means that less surface
is 9528 cm3, which is less than the others. area is required for the same volume.

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 CONNECTIONS: Animal Shapes and Sizes p. 125
1.
Radius (cm) 20.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 0.5
2
Surface area (cm ) 5026.5 1256.6 314.2 50.3 12.6 3.1
Volume (cm3) 33,510.3 4188.8 523.6 33.5 4.2 0.5
Surface area ÷ volume
0.15 0.30 0.60 1.50 3.00 6.2
(SA : V ratio)
2.
Edge length (cm) 20.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 0.5
Surface area (cm2) 2400 600 150 24 6.0 1.5
Volume (cm3) 8000 1000 125 8.0 1.0 0.13
Surface area ÷ volume
0.300 0.600 1.2 3.0 6.0 12
(SA : V ratio)

UNIT 4 Revision p. 126

1. a) 2 b) 4 c) 3 7. The middle shape; it is most like a circle.
2. Sample responses: 8. a) 28 cm2 b) 36 cm2
a) 20.4 b) 12,000,000 c) 0.02134 c) The square has more sides, so it is more like a
circle and therefore has more area for the same
3. No. Dawa's mass was given with only perimeter.
one significant figure. This means that even if d) Sample response:
Dawa measured his mass accurately, Circle with circumference 24 cm
he could be as light as 65 kg (the margin of
error for 70 kg is 65 kg to 75 kg), so 9. 3164.06 m2
Nima cannot be sure he is lighter.
10. a) 9.0 cm b) 6.5 cm c) 4.7 cm d) 3.2 cm
4. a) 70 cm
4. b) Sample response: 11. Cylinder b) because the height is closest to
727 mm (any value from 725 mm to the diameter, and so that cylinder is the most like
734 mm would be acceptable) a sphere. The volumes are
a) 175.9 cm3 b) 183.8 cm3
3
5. a) Sample responses: c) 180.5 cm d) 158.8 cm3
Due to precision, the 20 cm measure could be
actually as much as 5 cm off the actual 12. a) 1.15 m3 b) 1.05 m sides
measure. It is unlikely that the actual measure c) Cube; the less sphere-like, the greater surface
is precise. area for the same volume
d) Cube is 6.62 m2, sphere is 5.31 m2
b) 502.5 cm2 c) 862.5 cm2
6. The shape on the right since it is most like
a circle.

UNIT 5 NON-LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS pp. 127–164

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need pp. 127–128

1. A; Sample response: It's a parabola. 5. a) (3x + 1)(2x – 3) b) 6x2 – 7x – 3
2. a) –7 b) –9x – 6 c) 3x + 4 d) 3x + 8 6. a) x2 + 7x + 12 b) 6x2 + 13x + 6
2 c) x2 – 9x + 20 d) –6x2 + 13x + 5
3. a) x = 4 b) x = 2 c) x = –
7
4. a) (2, 3) b) (4, –2) c) (4, –3) d) (1, –3) 7. a) y + 3 if y ≠ 0 b) x + 5 if x ≠ –2

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5.1.1 Forms of Quadratic Functions p. 134
1. A, B, and E 6. a)
y
2. a)
x f(x) x
g(x)
– 1 1
2
– 4 4
1
0 9 9
1 16 16
2 25 25

b) The functions produce the same output value

for at least three values of x, so they are
equivalent. 6. b) Sample response: (–1, –32)

3. a) Sample response: 7. a) Vertical axis is Area (m2)

If x = 0, g(0) = –12, but h(0) = –9.
b) f(x) = 3x2 + 6x – 9;
h(x) = 3x2 + 6x – 9

4. a) See graph at y
right.

b) Sample
response: x
(–1, –5); minimum

c) Sample Width (m)

response: 7. b) The coordinates of the vertex represent
The x-intercepts are the greatest area and the width that relates to
about 0.25 and – this area.
2.25 and the y-
c) 25 m by 25 m; if the area is 625 m2 at a
intercept is about –
width of 25 m, then the length has to be 25 m
2.
because l = 50 – w.
5. All three graphs look like this:
8. a) i) 20 + x ii) 50 – x
b) s(x) = (20 + x)(50 – x)
c)

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8. d) about Nu 35; about Nu 1225

9. I can create two different parabolas that go through two points, for example, the parabolas
y = 2x2 – x +1 and
y = 3x2 – 5x + 1
both go through (0, 1) and (2, 3), but if I add the point (–1, 4), only y = 2x2 – x + 1 works.

5.1.2 Graphs of Quadratic Functions in Factored Form p. 138

1. a) 1. c) v)
y
Zeros y-intercept
i) –2, 3 –6 x
ii) 5, –5 –25
iii) –1.5, –0.5 6
iv) 2, –2 –12
v) –1, –2 –4

b) i) (0.5, –6.25) ii) (0, –25) iii) (–1, –2)

iv) (0, –12) v) (–1.5, 0.5)
c) i) ii) y
x
y

2. a) 2(x – 1)(x + 6)
= 2(x2 + 5x – 6)
= 2x2 + 10x – 12
b) When the function is in factored
x form, Mindu can determine the zeros
easily in order to find the coordinates
of the x-intercepts,
the vertex, and the y-intercept.
c)
x

iii) iv)
y

x 3. a) i) 800 + 40n
ii) 30 – n
b) f(n) = (800 + 40n)(30 – n)
c) Nu 1000

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5.1.2 Graphs of Quadratic Functions in Factored Form [Cont'd] p. 138
3. d)

5. Nu 150
4. a) a(w) = w(210 – 3w)
b) 35 m; the vertex of the graph is at about (35, 3600) 6. The vertex is on the axis of
The answer is symmetry. The axis of
reasonable. symmetry is halfway between
the x-intercepts and is
perpendicular to the x-axis.
Any point on the axis of
symmetry will have an
x-coordinate that is halfway
between the x-coordinates of
the x-intercepts, which is the
same as the mean of the zeros.

5.1.4 Relating Graphs of Quadratic Functions p. 147

1. a) i) (0, 4) ii) (8, 0) iii) (3, –2) iv) (–1, –1) v) (1, 1) vi) (2, 2)

b) i) Up; not dilatated ii) Up; not dilatated

iii) Up; not dilatated iv) Down; dilatated by a factor of –2
1 1
v) Up; dilatated by a factor of vi) Down; dilatated by a factor of –
5 5
c) i)

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1. c) ii)

iii)

iv)
y

v)

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5.1.4 Relating Graphs of Quadratic Functions [Cont'd] p. 147
1. c) vi)

1 2 4. b) The word vertical applies to vertical axis

2. a) y = (x – 4)2 b) y = – x (the y-coordinate of each point),
2
1 so when the y-coordinate of each point
c) y = (x + 4)2 – 3 d) y = (x – 4)2 on a parabola is multiplied by a factor of 2
4
e) y = –5(x – 4)2 f) y = –3(x – 4)2 + 6 while the x-coordinate stays the same, the
parabola is stretched vertically.
3. y = –2(x + 2)2 – 1
5. It is a good name because the vertex is easy
4. a) When the dilatation factor is, for to figure out when it is in the form
example, –1, the y-coordinate of every point f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k; the vertex is (h, k). E.g.,
on the parabola is multiplied by –1 because the vertex of y = –3(x – 4)2 + 6 is
(x, y)  (x, –1 × y). The x-coordinate stays (4, 6).
the same but the y-coordinate becomes its
opposite so every point is reflected across the
x-axis, resulting in a parabola that is a
refection of the original parabola.

CONNECTIONS: Parabolas and Paper Folding p. 148

1. The vertex is halfway between the Focus and the line.

2.
- The distance between the Focus and the line influences the width of the parabola.
- If the focus point and the line are the same distance from the x-axis, the parabola's vertex is at
the origin. Otherwise, the vertex is above or below the x-axis.
- If the Focus is not on the y-axis, the vertex will not have an x-coordinate of 0.

5.2.1 Factoring Quadratic Expressions p. 156

1. a) x2 + 3x + 2 2. a) b) c) (x – 1)(x + 2)
b)

c) (x + 1)(x + 2)

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3. a) 2x(2x + 3) b) (x – 3)(x + 1) 7. c) x2 – 12x + 36 = (x – 6)2
c) (x + 3)(x + 1) d) (x + 3)(x – 3) d) x2 + 14x + 49 = (x + 7)2
e) (3x + 1)(3x – 1) f) (x + 1)(3x + 2)
8. a) (x + 3)(x + 5) b) (x – 6)(x – 1)
4. a) (x + 3)(x + 4) = x2 + 7x + 12 c) (x + 4)(x – 3) d) (x + 2)(x – 8)
b) (x + 9)(x – 9) = x2 – 81 e) (x – 4)2 f) (x + 8)(x – 8)
c) (1x + 2)(5x – 1) = 5x2 + 9x – 2
d) (2x + 3)(3x – 2) = 6x2 + 5x – 6 9. a) (2x – 3)2 b) (2x + 3)(x – 2)
c) (3x + 1)(x – 4) d) (5x – 1)(2x + 1)
5. a) (x + 11)(x – 11) b) (x + 20)(x – 20) e) (3x – 2)(x – 3) f) (7x + 10)(7x – 10)
c) (5x + 1)(5x – 1) d) (6x + 5)(6x – 5)
10. Sample response:
6. a) 6x(2x + 3) Similar: If you think of factoring using the
b) 5x(3x – 5) area model, you are still finding the side
c) ax(x + 1) lengths of a rectangle with a particular area
that you know.
7. a) (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9 Different: You have to juggle more pieces of
b) (x + 6)2 = x2 + 12x + 36 information to figure out the factors of a
quadratic compared to factors of a number.

5.2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring p. 161

5 1 6. 7 cm by 13 cm 7. 6 cm
1. a) 4, 2 b) –3, 9 c) ,
2 3
4 9
8. 17 m by 34 m
d) , e) 0, 10 f) –2, 2
5 2 9. 8 m
2. a) –3, –5 b) 11, –10 c) 0, –3 10. 5 m, 12 m, and 13 m
d) 6, –6 e) 10 f) –2
11. 11 and 13, or –11 and –13
5 1 1 1
3. a) 5, b) , c) –3, d) 2, –1
2 4 2 2 12. 10 s and 30 s; at 10 s the rocket is on the
way up and at 20 s it is on the way down.
4. a) –1, 7 b) 5, 2 c) 3, 4 d) 5, –5
13. Sample response:
5. a) x2 + (x + 1)2 = 221 Some situations involve areas of rectangles,
b) x = 10 and –11 relationships of sides of a right triangle and
c) Two pairs are possible, 10 and 11 and relationships involving squares of numbers.
–10 and –11. The roots are the lesser number
in each pair.

UNIT 5 Revision pp. 163–164

1. a) C and D
b) The graph is a parabola, so the functions
are quadratic; The graphs are identical, so
the functions are equivalent.
c) Sample responses:
I could substitute three values of x into each
function and see if I get the same results each
time (I only need three points on each to be the x
same to be sure they are equivalent since they're
quadratic functions).

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UNIT 5 Revision [Cont'd] pp. 163–164
2. a) i) ii)
y
y

b) Sample response: i) Minimum: about –3.9; x-intercepts: –4.6 and 1.6

ii) Minimum: about 0.8; no x-intercepts

3. For negative values of x, each term is positive (because –x would be positive and 4x2 is never
negative) so the sum is positive and not 0. I think 4x2 will outweigh –x for all positive values
except maybe for very small values, so I only checked small positive values. I checked x = 1
and 2 and the values were positive. I am sure f(x) will always be positive, because for small
positive values, the +8 will outweigh anything else.
s
4. a) s = (50 + 10n)(45 – 2n),
where s is total sales and n is the
number of Nu 10 price increases
b) See graph at right.
c) The best price to charge is Nu 140.
The vertex shows you the maximum
value (maximum sales) of the
function (Nu 3780) and the number
of Nu 10 increases (9) over the
original price of Nu 50 at that level
of sales. Using those values:
Nu 50 + 9 × Nu 10 = Nu 140

5. a) i) 4, – 3 ii) 6, 2
iii) 2.5, –1 iv) 0.5, –2.5
v) 0.6 , –5

b) i) (0.5, –12.25) ii) (4, –12)

iii) (0.75, –18.375) iv) (–1, –2.25)
v) (–2.2, –23.52)
n

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5. c. i) ii) x iii)
x
x

iv)

v)
x

6. h > –4; the x-intercepts are 4 and h; The

x-coordinate of the vertex is at (4 + h) ÷ 2, which is
only positive if 4 + h is positive, so h > –4.

7. a) i) (Vertical) translation down 30 units

ii) (Horizontal) translation left 30 unit
iii) Reflection in x-axis, (vertical) stretch by 2, and
then (vertical) translation down 30 units
iv) (Horizontal) translation right 2 units and then
(vertical) stretch by 3 (or reversed)
v) (Horizontal) translation left 30 units and then
(vertical) translation down 7 units (or reversed)
vi) Reflection in the x-axis, (vertical) compression
by 10, and then (vertical) translation up 8 units

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UNIT 5 Revision [Cont'd] pp. 163–164
7. b) i) (0, –30) ii) (–30, 0) 10. a)
iii) (0, –30) iv) (2, 0
v) (–30, –7) vi) (0, 8)

c) i) (x, y) → (x, y – 30)

ii) (x, y) → (x – 30, y)
iii) (x, y) → (x, –2y – 30)
iv) (x, y) → (x + 2, 3y)
v) (x, y) → (x – 30, y – 7)
x
vi) (x, y) → (x, –0.1y + 8)

8. a) f(x) = (x – 4)2 + 3 b)
b) f(x) = 0.5x2 + 6
c) f(x) = –3(x + 3)2
d) f(x) = (x + 8)2 + 2
e) f(x) = 3(x + 8)2 + 2

9. a) y = 3(x – 2)2
b) y = 2(x + 3)2
c) y = x2 – x – 2

10. c)

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 10. d) 13. a) x2 + 10x + 25 = (x + 5)2
b) (3x – 4)2 = 9x2 – 24x + 16

1
14. a) x = 2,
2
3 1
b) x = , –
2 3
c) x = –2, 5

15. a) x2 – 11x + 24 = 0
b) x2 + 9x + 14 = 0

c) 20x2 – 31x + 12 = 0
d) 25x2 – 45x + 18 = 0
11. a)
16. 3.39 m
2x(3x
– 4)b) (3x + 6)(x + 2)
17. 17 and 18 or –17 and –18
c) (x
+ 4)(x + 2) d) (x + 1)(x – 3)
18. a) x = 2, – 2
e) (2x – 1)(x + 1) f) (3x – 1)(2x + 1)
8 4
b) x = ,–
12. a) 4(2x + 1)(2x – 1) b) 4x(4 – 3x) 3 3
c) (5x + 3)2 d) (x + 11)(x – 8) 5 7
c) x = , –
3 3

UNIT 6 DATA, STATISTICS, AND PROBABILITY pp. 165–226

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need pp. 165–166

1. a) Household Chores Performed 2. Mean 59.4, median 58.9,
by Thailand’s Elderly modes 66.0 and 53.5

Male Female
3. Maximum Temperatures
Stems Leaves
18 .7
19 .4 .6 .7
20
21 .1 .2
22 .9
Percent

23 .1 .5 .5
24 .8 .9
25 .0 .1 .4
26 .6 .7 .8
27 .1 .2
28 .4
FP CH S/M WD W/I 29 .1
HG Chores 30 .0 .3

b) Sample response:
Females perform the majority of household
chores, with the exception of gardening.

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Getting Started — Skills You Will Need [Cont'd] pp. 165–166
4. a) and c) Life Expectancy vs. Per Capita Income c) The correlation is positive
because it slopes up and weak
because many of the points are far
from the line.
Life expectancy (years)

d) Sample response:
A positive correlation make sense
because if you have more money,
it means you are better able to
afford better health care and a
healthy diet, so life expectancy
increases. However, because there
are other factors that affect life
expectancy, the correlation is not
very strong.
Per capita income (U.S. $)

b) and c) Life Expectancy vs. Number of People c) The correlation is negative

Per Motor Vehicle because it slopes down. It is weak
because many of the points are far
from the line.
Life expectancy (years)

d) Sample response:
A negative correlation make sense
because the more people per
vehicle in a country, the less
affluent are its people, and less
money means they are less able to
afford better health care and a
healthy diet, so life expectancy
decreases. However, because there
Number of people per motor vehicle are other factors that affect life
expectancy, the correlation is not
very strong.

5. First graph: discrete; one variable, countries

Second graph: continuous; two variables, independent variable is initial speed and dependent
variable is skid length

6.1.1 Histograms and Stem and Leaf Plots pp. 175–176

1. a) T b) F c) F d) T e) T f) F

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6.1.1 Histograms and Stem and Leaf Plots [Cont'd] pp. 175–176
2. a) Number of Biscuits Per Tin 3. a) [Cont'd]
Stems Leaves Times for the 100-m Sprint
9 69
10 7 8 8

Frequency
11 7 9 9
22333567778
12 9
13 2 2 3 4 5 7 7
14 2 3 4 5
15 0 0 1 4
16 Time (s)
17 b) Sample response:
18 8 The majority of students (18 out of 34)
ran the race in a time between 13.5 s and 15.0
b) Number of Biscuits Per Tin s. Nobody ran faster than 11.5 s or slower
than 15.5 s.

4.
Frequency

Group 2 Group 1
99 89 1 50 63 68
83
99 90 77 76 56 2 46 87 98
55
89 85 24 24 10 3 55 55 76
12 4 22 78
5 05 99
Biscuits per tin
5. a) 37 b) 11 c) 26
c) The manager would want to make sure each d) 29 km/h e) 96 km/h
tin contained about the same number of
biscuits. Both graphs show that only about 6. Yes; Even though there are more data
half (19 out of 36) of the tins contained values on the male side (the plot shows data
between 120 and 140 biscuits. There were 9 for 11 males and 7 females), the data values
tins with more than 120 and are clustered at the higher end for the females
8 tins with fewer. The manager would use this but not for the males. If you look
data to support efforts to change the way the at the total number of hours for each group —
tins are filled. males at 240 h and females at 243 h — you
notice that the females in this group watched
3. a) Sample response: more TV in a week.
Time (s) Frequency
11.5–12.0 1 7. a) i) Sample response:
12.0–12.5 2 Most heights are between 155 and 165 cm.
12.5–13.0 3 There are 30 students in the class. The range
13.0–13.5 3 is less than 30 cm.
13.5–14.0 9 ii) Sample response:
14.0–14.4 8 There are usually between 100 and
14.5–15.0 5 130 passengers on the train in a six-week
15.0–15.5 3 period. There are never more than 151 or
fewer than 95. The mode is 129.

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6.1.1 Histograms and Stem and Leaf Plots [Cont'd] pp. 175–176
7. b) i) Intervals of 5 are appropriate because 8. c) Same: They both use intervals of 1
they are easy to work with; six intervals are so the frequencies for each interval are
appropriate since there are data values in each the same. This results in the same shape,
interval but not too many. There are differences even though the stem and leaf plot is
in the frequencies of the intervals. turned sideways.
ii) Place value intervals of 10 are appropriate Different: The stem and leaf plot shows
because the data values range from 95 to 151. every piece of data, whereas the
The only other reasonable choice is intervals of histogram does not.
100, and that would mean only 2 intervals,
which would not be enough. 9. a) Three age intervals occur most
frequently: 1–10, 21–30, and 41–50
8. a) Lifespans of Cats (in years) b) Two age intervals occur most
Stems Leaves frequently: 10–19 and 30–39
9 .6 c) The conclusions are different because
10 .4 the graphs use different intervals:
- If there were a lot of 10-year-olds,
11 .5 .8
Yuden’s first bar would be tall, but
12 .8 .8 .8 .9 .9 .9 Maya's second bar would be tall.
.0 .1 .1 .2 .2 .3 .3 .4 .5 .5 .6 .6 .6 .8 - If there were a lot of 30-year-olds,
13 .9 Yuden’s third bar would be tall, but
14 .1 .4 .5 .6 .8 Maya's fourth bar would be tall.
- It looks like there were a number of
Lifespans of Cats 10-year-olds and 30-year-olds in the
group and that is why the graphs look
different.
Frequency

10. Organizing the data into equal

intervals, or bins, reduces a set of data
from a number of single values to a
smaller and more manageable number of
intervals. Then all you have to do is
compare the frequencies of the various
intervals to see how the data values are
distributed.
Lifespan (years)

b) The stem and leaf plot; It shows every piece

of data and they are arranged in increasing size
so it is fairly easy to count from the least or
greatest number to find the one in the middle.

6.1.3 Histograms and Box and Whisker Plots pp. 184–185

1. a) minimum: 4 ppm
Q1: 29 ppm
Q2 (median): 48.5 ppm
Q3: 80 pp,
maximum: 141 ppm

b) See answer to part d).

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1. c) Sample response: 2. b) Minimum is 4, Q1 is 8,
Daily CO Measures Q2 or Median is 11, Q3 is 18,
CO emissions Frequency Maximum is 30
(ppm) d) Sample response:
0 – 15 2 - The box of the box plot is above the
15 – 30 7 two highest bars in the histogram. The
30 – 45 10 box plot shows that 50% of the data
45 – 60 7 values are found between 8 and 18
60 – 75 3 but the histogram shows that 14 out of
75 – 90 4 17 (82%) of the data values are
90 – 105 3 between 0 and 20.
105 – 120 1 - The box plot makes it easy to see
120 – 135 2 that, even though the histogram
shows that most of the data values are
135 – 150 1
between 0 and 20, 50% of them are
d) CO Emissions
actually between 8 and 18.
- The box plot also shows the median,
11. Because it is above the histogram,
it shows where the median occurs in
the histogram.
Frequency

3. a) 34%
b) Between 10% and 43%
c) Sample response:
There are 2 types of breakfast cereal.
One type has brands that are low in
sugar and the other type has brands
that are high in sugar. This explains
the two tall bars, one at each end of
CO emissions (ppm) the graph.
d) Sample response:
Box plot: median CO emission is about 48.5 ppm and 4. a) Monthly Sales Comparison
50% of the emission data values are between about 29 Meto
ppm and about 80 ppm
24
Histogram: the majority of CO emissions ( or
40
60%) fall between 15 ppm and 59.9 ppm Rajesh
2. a) and c) Number of Times Running Club
Members Met in October

Monthly sales (number of items)

b) Rajesh seems to be the better

Frequency

salesman because of his significantly

higher median. The range is similar for
both though Rajesh’s sales are
consistently above the corresponding
sales for Meto.

Number of times each member attended

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6.1.3 Histograms and Box and Whisker Plots [Cont'd] pp. 184–185
5. a) Lower quartile = 25.95
Median = 28.79
Upper quartile = 33.94
Minimum = 10
Maximum = 44

b) Time Canadian Students Spent Watching TV c) Histogram: the majority of the

175
students ( or about 80%)
220
watch TV between 25 h and 40 h
each week
Box plot: median time is about
Frequency

29 h/week and half the students

watch between 26 h and 34 h
each week

Time (h)

6. a) Dema is top plot and b) Dema is top histogram and Lemo is bottom histogram
Lemo is bottom plot
Frequency

Scores Scores

c)
- From the box plot, you can tell that Dema has a higher median number of points.
- From both graphs, you can tell that Lemo is capable of scoring more points than Dema (above
28) but also fewer points because Lemo has a greater range with a minimum that is below
Dema's and a maximum that is above Dema’s.

- Conclusion: Dema is the stronger player overall because of the higher median score and more
consistent results.

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7. a) Group 1 is top plot, Group 2 is bottom plot 7. b) Yes; Group 1 had a
lower median score and
lower maximum and
minimum scores, indicating
that they did not do as well
as the Group 2 students.
Group 1's wider range also
indicates less consistent
results.

Exam Scores

8. a) Minimum is about 1775, maximum is about 1974,

median is about 1831, lower quartile is about 1795, and upper 8. b) Maybe, but only if the
quartile is about 1878. estimated values used for
this box plot were the same
as the actual values. For
example, if no state joined
in 1974, the whisker would
be different.
1780 1820 1860 1900 1940 1980

9. Count the total number of data values and divide by 4; call

it d. Keep a running total of the frequencies starting at the Interval Frequency
lowest interval and stop once you have reached (or passed) d.
Suppose this happened in the interval with the star (see table
to the right). Calculate the total number of data values in the
intervals before that interval and call it x.
Call the frequency of the interval with a star y. Subtract
x from d. Divide d by y. Multiply that fraction by the size of
the interval and add it to the lowest value in the interval.

*
For example, if there were 40 data values, you would look for y
the 10th value (so d = 10). If there were 7 data values in the
first two intervals and 5 data values in the next interval, x
would be 7 and you would calculate 10 – 7 = 3 to find y.
3
Multiply by the size of the interval and add it to the low
5
value in the interval column for that row.

10. The box plot shows the median and how the data values are clustered around the median,
where 50% of the data values lie. It also shows the location of the extreme values. You
cannot directly determine these exact values from a histogram.

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6.1.4 Data Distribution pp. 192–194
1. a) Normal b) Positively or 3. a) Mean: 19.1 cm, median: 19.35 cm,
right skewed modes: 18.7 cm and 19.5 cm
b) Sample response:
Tree Diameters

c) Negatively or left skewed d) Uniform

Frequency
e) Positively or right skewed f) U-shaped

Tree diameter (cm)

c) It is almost a normal distribution; it has an

almost symmetrical mound shape.
2. Sample responses: d) Some trees may be smaller due to disease,
a) or their poorer location with respect to
sunlight, moisture, and soil.

4. a) It is close to a normal distribution.

Sample response:
b) Tree Heights
Frequency

c)

d)

Height (cm)
e) b) 38.8 cm; the median height will be close
to the mean height since this is close to a
normal distribution.

f) 5. a) Mean: 5.48, median: 5.46,

modes: 5.29 and 5.34
The mean and median are very close to each
other but the modes differ. Both modes are
lower than the mean and median.

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 5. b) Sample response: 5. c) It is close to a normal distribution.
Density of the Earth Relative to Water

Frequency

Density

6. a) The Granny Smith sample is close to being 7. a) The 323 has the most consistent
a normal distribution because the distribution is ratings; shown by the short whiskers and
symmetrical and the median is in the centre of narrow box
the box. b) Mirage; The median is close to the
b) The Red Delicious sample is left skewed centre of the box and the whiskers are
because most of the values are large and the about the same length.
median is to the right of the centre of the box. c) Tracer and Festiva; There are long
c) The McIntosh sample is right skewed because whiskers on the right with very small
most of the values are small and the median is to ones on the left.
the left of the centre of the box. The right d) The data set clearly shows that the car
whisker is longer. the consumers were most satisfied with
d) Granny Smith: A lot of apples are close to the was the Civic because it had the highest
median mass while a few are heavier and a few median, minimum, and maximum
more are light. values.
Red Delicious: There are a lot of heavier apples
in the sample, with a few very heavy ones and
no really light ones.
McIntosh: There a lot of lighter apples in the
sample, with no very heavy ones and some very
light ones.

8. Sample response:
a) Goldfish Length
8. b) It is close to a normal distribution.
c) 210 to 220 mm: Unlikely; The data set
shows that only 7 out of 36 (less than
20%) of the goldfish in the pond were
within this range.
220 to 230 mm: Likely; The data set
Frequency

shows that 19 out of 36 (more than 50%)

of the goldfish in the pond are within
this range.

Length (mm)

9. Table A is close to a normal distribution because the middle two intervals have the
greatest frequencies and the frequencies of the intervals on either side decrease.
Table B is right skewed because the first three bins have the greatest frequencies.

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CONNECTIONS: Normal Distribution and Sample Size p. 194
1. a) The data will vary from class to class. 2. c) Both histograms are similar because
b) The frequency table created will depend they show the heights of students. The scale
on the data collected and the bin width used on both axes and the units used will be the
to organize the data. The histogram and same. The range of data will be much greater
frequency polygons will vary from student to for the data set of the entire school. This data
student unless the class uses a common table set will also contain many more numbers. Its
to represent the data set. histogram should be close to a normal
c) The shape depends on the results of parts distribution. The class data set contains fewer
a) and b). It may be skewed, numbers and its range will be much smaller.
bi-modal, or some other shape. Its shape should look different than the data
displayed for the entire school. This does not
2. a) Data will vary from school to school mean that the class data will not be
b) The frequency table created will depend symmetrical; it could be, but it's less likely.
on the data collected and the bin width used
to organize the data.

6.2.1 Correlation and Lines of Best Fit pp. 203–204

1. a) I) Negative; data values are clustered 2. a) Negatively correlated; as you go up in
around a line that goes from the upper left to altitude, the air temperature decreases.
the lower right. b) Not correlated
II) Positive; data values are clustered around a c) Positively correlated; as the outside
line that goes from the lower left to the upper temperature increases and people get hot,
right. there is a greater need for cold drinks so sales
III) No correlation; data values are not would increase.
clustered around a line; they are scattered in d) Not correlated
all directions. e) Perfectly negatively correlated; as you read
IV) Negative; data values are clustered through a book, the number of pages you have
around a line that goes from the upper left to read increases and the number of pages you
the lower right. have not yet read decreases.
b) I) r is about –1 II) r is about 1
III) r is about 0 IV) r is about –0.5
Chirps per second vs. Temperature
3. a) The independent variable is b) Chirp Rate vs. Temperature
temperature and the dependent 35
variable is chirps per second. I
30
suspect this because the table of
values lists the independent 25
Chirps per s

variable in the left column and

20
the dependent variable in the
right column. Also, the number 15
of chirps a cricket makes depends
10
on the temperature. This means
that the chirp rate must be the 5
dependent variable.
0
0 5 10 15 20
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (oC)
A line of best fit is appropriate since the data values are continuous and show a linear
relationship — the points are in a reasonably linear pattern.
c) About 0.5; weak positive and linear

Reprint 2023 354

3. d) About 11 times/s; I drew a line through the dots 3. e) I am not very confident in
and extended it beyond 10ºC. Then I used the line to this prediction. Crickets might
predict the chirp rate for 10ºC. stop chirping altogether when
Chirp Rate vs. Temperature the temperature drops below,
35
for example, 14oC. I do not
30 have enough data to know for
Weekly attendance

25
sure.
20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Temperature (ºC)

4. a) Weekly Attendance at Movies

2500
A line of best fit is not
appropriate since the data
2000
values are discrete, although
they do follow a linear pattern.
There are no data values for
Chirps per s

1500
dates in between those plotted.
1000
b) r is close to –1; the data
values are closely scattered
500
about a line that falls from left
to right.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Numbernumber
Week of Weeks

c) It will close around the 11th week

Weekly Attendance at Movies
2500

2000
Weekly attendance

1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number
Week of Weeks
number

Answers
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6.2.1 Correlation and Lines of Best Fit [Cont'd] pp. 203–204
5. a) Winning Distances, Women's Olympic Long Jump
8
A line of best fit is not
7 appropriate as the Olympics
are held every four years;
6 the data values are discrete.
b) r is close to 1; the data
5 values are closely clustered
Distance (m)

4
around a line that rises from
left to right.
3 c) About 5.5 m
d) Since 1976, the distance
2 has been up and down.
1

0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

6. a) Female Stride Rate

3.6
It is a linear relationship.
3.5
b) A line of best fit is
appropriate since the data
3.4
values are continuous and
the points fall along a line.
Stride rate

3.3 c) No; Humans cannot run

at a speed of 50 km/h as it is
3.2 physically impossible.

3.1

3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Speed (miles/h)

7. a) Figure A: r is close to 1; Figure B: r is close to 0.5

b) Both show positive correlations but the correlation in A is stronger. Its points are
closely scattered along a line rising from left to right. The points in B are more scattered
about a line but still rising from left to right.

6.2.2 Non-Linear Data and Curves of Best Fit pp. 210–212

1. a) Exponential b) Linear c) Quadratic d) None of these

Answers
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356 Reprint 2022
 2. a) Cumulative AIDS Cases (millions) 2. b) It appears to be an exponential
14 curve but could be a wide quadratic
12 or cubic curve instead.
c) The number of AIDS cases is
Number of cases

10
increasing rapidly so an exponential
8
curve is a good model to use.
6 d) About 25 million; My prediction
4 makes sense because the number of
2
AIDS cases is increasing rapidly so a
jump from 12.5 to 25 million from
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
1996 and 2000 is not surprising.

3. a) About 19.2 cm 3. d) From the curve of best fit, the

b) Fairly confident based on the trend in the table. diameter of a 32-year-old tree should
c) Sample response: be about 16 cm. I am more confident
Tree Diameter vs. Age in this prediction than in my first
25
prediction since this one is based on
the graph that takes all the data
20 values into account and not just the
values that fall between 30 years and
Diameter (cm)

15 33 years.

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Age (years)

4. World's Population Over Time 4. a) About 0.5 billion 0.3

6 b) About 0.8 billion 0.7
c) About 5.5 billion 7.0
5
Population (billions)

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

5. a) b)
Points Segments
2 1
3 3
4 6
5 10
6 15

Reprint 2023 357

Answers 357 Reprint 2022
6.2.2 Non-Linear Data and Curves of Best Fit pp. 210–212
5. c) Segments vs. Number of Points 5. d) The data set is nonlinear; the
16 points lie on a curve, not a line.
14 e) 21 segments; I saw that the
pattern in the segments column
Number of segments

12
was +2, +3, +4, +5, so the next
10 number had to be 15 + 6 = 21.
8

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of points

6. a) 8 by 8 array of dots; 10 by 10 array of dots 6. c) Nonlinear; the points lie on a

n 1 2 3 4 5 curve, not on a line.
Sn 4 16 36 64 100 d) 3600;
Sn is the square of double n,
b) Sn vs. n so if n is 30, then
120 Sn is (2 × 30)2 = 602 = 3600

100

80
n
Sn

60
S

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. a) Check to see if the data values are clustered closely around a line.
b) Check to see if the data values are closely clustered in a parabolic form or around a
portion of a parabola that either increases from left to right or decreases from left to right.
c) Check to see if the dependent variable increases or decreases rapidly as the independent
variable increases. Data values should be closely clustered around an exponential curve.

CONNECTIONS: Data Collection by Census p. 212

1. A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population
(not necessarily a human population). It can be contrasted with sampling, in which
information is obtained only from a subset of a population. It is a method used for
accumulating statistical data, and it is vital to democracy (voting). Sets of census data are
commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning purposes.

Answers
Reprint 2023 358
358 Reprint 2022
• Data sets were collected by Teachers, RNR Extension workers, Health workers, NFE
instructors, and students of Sherbets College, NIE, NRTI, RBIT, RIM
• Data sets were collected about population characteristics, migration, health, education, labour
and employment, and household and housing characteristics.
• The government wants to know this information so that it can adjust its programs. The
records also form the basis for taxation.

2. One of the earliest documented censuses taken was in the year 500–499 BC by the military
of the Persian Empire for the purpose of issuing land grants and taxation. Many countries
conduct a census at either 5- or 10-year intervals

6.3.1 Dependent and Independent Events p. 217

2 1 4. Pair A are dependent since the probability
1. a) b) of rolling a number that would result in a sum
11 10
c) They are different. In part a), you had of 5 or more on the second roll, if a 2 is rolled
11 cards to draw from and two were B. 4 2
first, is or .
In part b), you had ten cards in the bag and 6 3
only one was a B. If a 2 is not rolled, the probability of rolling a
d) The events are dependent in part b) number that would result in a total of 5 or
because the probability of drawing the 26 13
more is or .
letter B the second time was affected by what 30 15
happened in the first draw. Pair B is independent because the probability
of rolling a number less than 5 on the second
3 2 1 4 2
2. a) b) or roll is or , no matter what happens on
7 6 3 6 3
3 3 1 the first roll.
c) d) or
7 6 2
5. Sample response:
3. a) The events are independent because the a) Drawing two red cards in a row from a
1 deck of playing cards if the first card is not
probability of a second spin of 4 is whether replaced. These are dependent events because
5
you get a 4 the first time or not. the probability of drawing
a second red card will be affected by what
b) The events are independent because the happens in the first draw.
probability of spinning an odd number the b) Drawing two red cards in a row from a
3 deck of playing cards if the first card is
second time is no matter what happens on
5 replaced. These are independent events
the first spin. because the probability of drawing a second
c) The events are dependent because red card will not be affected by what is drawn
Event B can happen but it becomes the first time.
impossible if Event A happens.
d) The events are dependent because the
probability of spinning a number that results
in a difference of 1 on the second spin
depends on the result of the first spin.
For example, a first spin of 2 gives two
possibilities with a difference of 1, whereas, a
first spin of 5 would not.

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6.3.2 Calculating Probabilities p. 222
29 27 19 3 1 1 1 1 1
1. a) i) ii) iii) iv) 4. c) i) =1× ii) = ×
40 40 40 40 4 4 4 2 2
29 27 19
b) Dependent; × ≠
40 40 40 5
5. About 0.42 (or )
12
2. a) Count the number of pairs that have two
odd numbers (in the left circle) and compare 6. a) By calculating:
that number to the total number of pairs. 1 1
b) Count the number of pairs that have a total P(rolling a 4 first and a total of 10) = ;
36 36
of 6 (in the right circle) and compare that 1 3
number to the total number of pairs. ≠ ×
6 12
c) Multiply the probabilities from parts a) Using reasoning:
and b) and compare that product to the ratio The events are dependent because, to get a
of the number of pairs that have both two odd total of 10, the first roll must be at least 4.

numbers and a total of 6 (in the intersection That means the result of the first roll affects
region of the two circles) to the total number the probability.
of pairs. b) By calculating:
5 5 25 5 5
16 10 3 P(red, then blue) = × ; ≠ ×
3. a) i) ii) iii) 10 9 90 10 10
50 50 50
Using reasoning:
16 10 3
b) Dependent; × ≠ The probability of selecting a blue marble
50 50 50
5
second would be if a red marble was first
1 1 1 9
4. a) i) ii) iii) 5
2 4 4 drawn and not replaced and if it was
1 1 1 10
b) Dependent; × ≠ replaced. Since the probability was affected,
2 4 4
this means the events are dependent.

UNIT 6 Revision pp. 223–226

1. Sample responses: 2. a) [Cont'd] Disadvantages: Interval size is
a) Examine the distribution of the masses limited to place value intervals.
of 100 dogs. b) Advantages: Shows how the data values
b) Compare the masses of 50 female and are distributed. You can select the interval
50 male dogs. size. It results in a simple image you can
c) Examine the distribution of the monthly examine to determine the distribution.
income of all the residents in a community.
Disadvantages: Does not show the actual data
d) Compare the distribution relative to the
values. Changing the interval size can lead to
median of the monthly income of all the
different shapes and conclusions.
residents in one community to that of
residents in another community. c) Advantages: It shows how the data values
are distributed. It is good for examining the
2. Sample responses: distribution of the data relative to the median
a) Advantages: Shows how the data values are and extremes. It can be easy to create
distributed. It is easy to group data into place depending on the data values.
value intervals and there is no scale to create. Disadvantages: It does not show the actual
It is easy to find the extremes, range, median, data values. It can be difficult to create
and mode since it shows all the data and the depending on the data values.
data values are ordered.

Reprint 2023 360

3. a) 4. b) Shipment 2; The median and extremes
Stem Leaves in the box plot are lower than for Shipment 1,
0 57 which means the oranges are generally
1 00135678 smaller. The box in the box plot is wider than
122455567 for Shipment 1, which means the oranges are
2 9 less uniform in size.
3 23667789
5. a)
4 58
b) Bean Plant Height Brand A
Frequency

Brand B

Brand C

Height (cm)
c) Normal distribution Lifespan (h)
d)
b) Brand A has the highest median lifespan.
50% of the time Brand A batteries last 90 h to
180 h whereas 50% of the time Brand B
batteries only last about 30 h to 100 h, and
50% of the time Brand C batteries only last
about 40 h to 95 h.

6. a) Math Exam Scores

Height (cm)
e) Sample response:
I prefer the stem and leaf plot because it is
Frequency

easy to construct and I do not have to choose

an interval size or create a scale.
If I want to find values such as the median or
extremes, I can use the plot without having to
go back to the original data.
Exam scores (%)
4. a) Shipment 1
b) Both graphs show that the data set is
skewed left, as the majority of the students
scored above 70%.
The box plot shows that the median mark was
Shipment 2 about 79% and half the class scored between
about 69% and 89%, but these are only
estimates.

Diameter (cm)

Reprint 2023 361

UNIT 6 Revision [Cont'd] pp. 223–226
7. SET I a) 9. f) I: r is close to –0.5 II: r is close to 1
III: r is close to 0 IV: r is close to –1

10. a) Relationship A:
very strong negative correlation; close to –1
b) Relationship B:
weak positive correlation; close to 0.5
b) Rises quickly then tails off to the right;
The distribution is right or positively skewed. 11. Sample responses:
c) Sample response: a) The relationship between the age of a child
Marks on a test where most students did not up to age 18 and his/her height.
perform well. b) The number of sips you take from a drink
and the volume of liquid remaining in the
SET II a) glass.
c) Shoe size and number of siblings.
Life Expectancy Male
12. a) Life Expectancy
Female
90
80
b) Relatively flat; It is close to a uniform 70
distribution.
Life Expectancy

60
Life expectancy

c) Sample response: 50
Heights of tomato plants grown inside a 40 ♦ Male
greenhouse under controlled conditions and 30 ■ Female
planted at the same time. 20
10
8. a) Sample response: 0
Age of Snow Leopards 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

b) Strong positive correlation

c) Close to 1 for both data sets
d) Yes; Both sets of data are continuous and
Frequency

have a linear trend.

e) Males: about 81 years;
Females: about 91 years
Age (months) 13. a) 4 row by 8 column array;
5 row by 10 column array
b) Sample response:
Width (cm) Length (cm) Area (cm2)
Close to mound-shaped with a normal
1 2 2
distribution
2 4 8
c) Mean: about 35.37 months;
median: 35 months; mode: 37 months 3 6 18
d) Very likely, since 28 out of the 4 8 32
30 leopards were under 50 months old 5 10 50

9. a) IV b) I and IV c) III
d) I e) II

Reprint 2023 362

13. b) Length vs. Width 17. a) If the number selected has to
12 be both greater than 10 and even,
only 4 numbers in the sample space
10
of 19 meet these criteria (12, 14, 16,
8 4
and 18) so the probability is .
Length (cm)

19
6

4
> 10 Even
1
2 11 12 2 3
13 14 4 5
0 15 16 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
17 18 8 9
Width (cm) 19 10
Area vs. Width
60

50
9 9
b) P(even) = , P(> 10) = , so
40 19 19
Area (cm2)

9 9 81
30 P(even) × P(>10) = × =
19 19 361
20
4
10
The probability from part a) is
19
0 76 81
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
or , which is not equal to ,
361 361
Width (cm) so the events must be dependent.
c) A line of best fit is appropriate for length vs.
1
width because the data values are continuous and 18. ;
2
form a linear pattern. A curve of best fit is
You solve the equation
appropriate for area vs. width because the data
0.3 = 0.6 × P(second blue|first blue)
values are continuous and form a non- linear
pattern.
1
19. a)
3
14. Not replacing the item changes the number of
5
items in the bag and therefore changes the b)
probability for the next draw. 36
5 1 1
c) No, since × ≠ and
15. The events are dependent because the outcome 36 3 36
of the first roll affects the second roll. Novin has 1
is the probability of rolling 4, 2.
treated them as independent events and multiplied 36
the probabilities of the two events together to find
the probability of both events happening.

5 4 5 4
16. a) b) c) d)
14 14 14 14

Answers
Reprint 2023 363
363 Reprint 2022
UNIT 7 TRIGONOMETRY pp. 227–267

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need pp. 227–228

1. a) 7.5 b) 22.5 c) 2.333 d) 1.1 4. a) 10 cm
b) 4.36 cm
2. a) 60° b) 120°
5. a) 1140 mm2 or 11.4 cm2
3. a) 4.15 b) Sample response: b) 5.6 cm2

6. a and c, b and d; they are corresponding

4.9 angles on parallel lines
3

4.5

7.1.1 Using Similarity Properties to Solve Problems pp. 233–234

1. a) 3.6 units b) 3.5 units c) 15 cm 7. 24-32-40, 18-24-30, 10-24-26

2. 1.67 units 3. 43.2 m 8. 166.67 m

4. 5.35 units 5. 79.69 m 9. Since you know that the sides of similar
triangles are proportional, if you know the
6. 8.63 m dimensions of one triangle that might be
easier to measure, it can give you information
about the other triangle that is harder to
measure.

CONNECTIONS: Using a Clinometer p. 237

1. Both are right triangles and they share a common angle at D, so they are similar (AAA).

2. 6.3 m

7.1.3 The Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios p. 242

3 4 3. a) sin 35° = 0.574; cos 35° = 0.819;
1. a) sin A = = 0.60; cos A = = 0.80; tan 35° = 0.700
5 5
3 b) sin 55° = 0.819; cos 55° = 0.574;
tan A = = 0.75 tan 55° = 1.429
4
c) sin 12° = 0.208; cos 12° = 0.978;
 A = 8 = 0.47; 
b) sin cos A =
15
= 0.88; tan 12° = 0.213
17 17
d) sin 80° = 0.984; cos 80° = 0.174;
tan A = 8 = 0.53 tan 80° = 5.671
15
  4. a) 58.2° b) 76.1° c) 11.3°
2. a) sin A = 0.34; cos A = 0.94; tan A = 0.36
b) sin A = 0.98; cos A = 0.21; tan A = 4.72


Reprint 2023 364

5. Sample responses: 6. b) No; Sample response:
a) a right triangle with height of 1.4 units and sin 75° = 0.966 and cos 85° = 0.087, and
hypotenuse of 2 units 75° < 85°. But sin 75° = 0.966 and
b) a right triangle with a 60° angle cos 60° = 0.5 and 75° > 60°.
c) a right triangle with a base of 2 units and
a height of 4.8 units 7. The trig ratios work for all right
triangles with a particular pair of acute
6. a)  A >  B; Sample response: angles because all right triangles with those
This is because the values of the opposite sides angles are similar.
increase as the angle increases.

7.1.4 Trigonometric Identities p. 248

1. a) sec x = 1.152; csc x = 2.016; 8. a) True; if x < 45°, its opposite side is
cot x = 1.75 shorter relative to its adjacent side so the
b) sec x = 1.033; csc x = 4; cot x = 3.873 adjacent
cosine, , will be greater than the
hypotenuse
2. a) cos x = 0.6; tan x = 1.333; cot x = 0.75 opposite
sec x = 1.667; csc x = 1.25 sine,
hypotenuse
b) sin x = 0.917; tan x = 2.29; cot x = 0.436
sec x = 2.5; csc x = 1.091 b) False; if x < 45°, its opposite side is
c) sin x = 0.707; cos x = 0.707; cot x = 1.0 shorter relative to its adjacent side and the
sec x = 1.414; csc x = 1.414 adjacent
hypotenuse so the cosine, , will
d) sin x = 0.980; cos x = 0.2; tan x = 4.899 hypotenuse
cot x = 0.204; csc x = 1.021 be greater than the tangent.
c) True; sin x = (tan x)(cos x) because
3. a) 30° b) 35.5° c) 72.9°
opposite  adjacent
tan = and cos = , so
4. adjacent hypotenuse
h2 = 22 – 12 = 4 – 1 = 3,
2 opposite adjacent opposite
h so h = 3  = ,
adjacent hypotenuse hypotenuse
tan 60° = h ÷ 1 which is sin. 
1 = 3 ÷1 d) False; I tried it with x = 30° and it did not
= 3 work since cos 30° = 0.866, but

sin 30°  tan 30° = 0.5  0.577 = 0.289.
5. a) x is greater; if sec x > sec y, then
cos x < cos y which means x is a bigger angle 9. Sample responses:
b) y is greater; if csc x > csc y, then • The cotangent is the reciprocal of the
sin x < sin y and x < y tangent, so cot x = 2.
c) x is greater; if cot x < cot y, then 1 sin x 1
• If tan x is ,  , so
tan x > tan y and since the numerator is the 2 cos x 2
opposite side, x is the greater angle cos x = 2 sin x.
Since sin2x + cos2x = 1, then
6. a) 53° b) 48° c) 53° d) 37° e) 39° sin2x + 4 sin2x = 1.
Since 5 sin2 x = 1, sin x = 0.2 = 0.447.
7. Since sin 45° = 0.707, an angle with a sine of • That means cos x = 2(0.447) = 0.894.
0.7 must be close to 45°. • If sin x = 0.447, then csc x = 2.236.
• If cos x = 0.894, then sec x = 1.118.

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7.2.1 Calculating Side Lengths and Angles p. 254
1. a) z = 18°; y = 3.25; x = 10.51 7. b) 71.6°
b) y = 5.7°; z = 84.3°; x = 9.95 c) 71.6°, since the lines are parallel

2. 3.09 m 3. 65.2° 8. 18.4°

4. No. It would be closer to 8° when the base 9. a) Minimum 2.07 m, maximum 4 m

is 7. To find the base angle a, use b) Closer at 75°
1
tan a = ; a = 8.13 10. You only need one angle and one side
7
length. If you know one acute angle, you can
5. About 9.1° 6. 24.03 square units subtract it from 90° to find the other acute
angle. If you know one acute angle and one
7. a) side length, you can use sin or cos to find the
other side length. Then you can use the
Pythagorean theorem to find the third side
length.

OR

You only need two side lengths. You can use

the Pythagorean theorem to find the third
side. You could use arc sin, arc cos, or arc tan
to find the angles.

7.2.2 Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression p. 251

1. 31.9° 2. 12.1° 3. 45.1 m

4. 3.62 m 5. 20 m 6. 48.94 m

7. The angle of depression increases as you get closer to an object since the opposite side stays
the same and the adjacent side gets smaller. If the object were directly below (C in the
diagram), the angle of depression would be 90°.
Eye

C B A

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7.2.3 Areas of Polygons p. 258–259
1. 346.41 cm2 2. 26.57 square units 4. c) A circle is like a polygon with
many, many sides.
3. 769.42 cm2
5. A = (b1 + b2)(b1 tan X) ÷ 2 or
4. a) Asquare = 225 cm2 Apentagon = 247.75 cm2 (b1 + b2)(b2 tan Z) ÷ 2
Ahexagon = 259.81 cm2 Adecagon = 276.99 cm2
6. The lengths of two sides (a and b) and
b) The area gets bigger as more sides are added the angle between them, x, since the
even though the perimeter stays the same. 1
formula is A = ab sin x.
2

7.2.4 Vectors and Bearings p. 264

1. Sample responses  at a bearing of about 060°
4. a) 4.03 km
(values within 20° are reasonable): b) 2.2 km at a bearing of about 310°
a) 045° b) 330° c) 150° c) 4.3 km at a bearing of about 145°
d) 3.12 km at a bearing of 045°
2. Sample responses (distances may vary):
a) b) 5. 5 km at a bearing of about 082°
135°
225° 6. Sample response:
5 km at a bearing of 120° and another 5 km at
the same bearing;
12 km at a bearing of 120° and 2 km at a
c) d) bearing of 300°;
8.7 km at a bearing of 90° and 5 km at a
bearing of 180°
240°
315° 7. a) No; Both times the vector is the
hypotenuse of a triangle with legs of 4 and 2
3. a) i) 1 m at a bearing of 225° units and so the Pythagorean theorem would
ii) 0 m (no displacement) give the same value both times (about 4.5
iii) 1 m at a bearing of 050° km).
b) The directions were directly opposite each b) No; Both times the bearing is 153°
other.

CONNECTIONS: Relating Trigonometric Ratios to Circles p. 265

1 a) 0.64 cm b) 0.77 cm c) 0.84 cm ED EC
5. =
2. The values in question 1 are the sine, cosine, and EA EF
tangent of 40°. AC = cos 40°(question 2)
EF = AC (question 3) so EF = cos 40°
3. Using ASA,  CAE =  FEA, AE = AE, and EC = sin 40° (question 2)
 AEC =  FAE ED sin 40o
So = , but
4. Sample response: 1 cos 40o
 FEA = 40° because FE is parallel to AC sin 40o
 AEC = 50° since 180° – (90° – 40°) = tan 40°
cos 40o
 CED = 40° since 90° – 50° so ED = tan 40°
 EFA =  ECD = 90°;  FAE =  CDE = 90°
 AEF =  DEC = 40°
Using AAA, EFA is similar to ECD.

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 UNIT 7 Revision pp. 266–267
1. The pair in A are similar since the sides are 9. y = 3x + 1 y = 2x
in the same proportion (scale factor 1.4).

2. a) 1.8 units b) 6.67 units

8.1°
3. 12 m 4. 25 m

5. a) sin A = 0.467, cos A = 0.9,

tan A = 0.519;  A = 27°

b) sin A = 0.514, cos A = 0.857,

tan A = 0.60,  A = 31°

6. For part a, sec A < cot A < csc A

For part b, sec A < cot A < csc A
In both cases, the order is the same; because
the sizes are in reverse order to the sizes of the 10. 29° 11. 24.4° 12. 103.92 m
reciprocal primary ratios.
13. 12.05 m 14. 2472.73 cm2
7. a) 78.5° b) 11.5° c) 56.3° d) 5°
15. Sample responses
8. 4.97 m (values within 20° are reasonable):
a) 150° b) 65°

16. 7.8 km at a bearing of 140°

UNIT 8 GEOMETRY pp. 269–296

Getting Started — Skills You Will Need p. 269

1. a) Pentagon-based prism 2 c) N
b) Octagon-based pyramid 47º
c) Cone
d) Cylinder
12º
e) Sphere
L 8 cm M
2. a) C 3. a) Three corresponding sides the same in
6.3 cm both triangles (SSS), two corresponding sides
and the angle between them the same in both
triangles (SAS), or two corresponding angles
24º
and one corresponding side the same in both
A 7.5 cm B
triangles (ASA).
b) Q b) Sample response:
knowing VZ = VX would show congruence
using SAS; or
4.7 cm 6.6 cm knowing  Y =  W would show
congruence using ASA; or
knowing  Z =  X would show
R congruence using AAS.
P 7.5 cm

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8.1.1 2-D and 3-D Reflectional Symmetry p. 274
1. Four 5. Sample response:

2. a) Three b) Five

c) Six d) Eight

6. No. Scalene triangles do not have any,

3. a) Four b) Six c) Seven d) Nine isosceles triangles have only one, and
equilateral triangles have three. There are no
4. a) The number of lines of symmetry is other kinds of triangles.
same as number of sides. If the polygon has
an even number of sides, n, there are 7. a) Five b) Nine
n
lines connecting pairs of vertices and
2
n
lines connecting midpoints of sides to
2
n n
midpoints of opposite sides, and + = n.
2 2 8. Six planes of symmetry; Each plane passes
If the polygon has an odd number of sides, n, through an edge of the tetrahedron and the
there are n lines connecting vertices to the midpoint of of the opposite edge.
midpoints of the opposite sides.

Number of lines of symmetry = Number of

sides

Even Odd
9. a) A circle has an infinite number of lines
b) Each of these lines of symmetry results in a of symmetry.
plane of symmetry if it is extended. There is b) A cylinder has an infinite number of planes
also one more plane of symmetry that extends of symmetry on the base corresponding to the
from the lines of symmetry that cut the lateral infinite number of lines of symmetry in the
rectangular faces in half. circle base. It also has one more plane that
This means there is one more plane of cuts across the lateral curved surface
symmetry for a prism than the number of lines c) A cone has an infinite number of planes of
of symmetry in the regular polygon base. symmetry on the base corresponding to the
c) Each of these lines of symmetry results in a infinite number of lines of symmetry in the
plane of symmetry if it is extended so the circle base.
number of planes of symmetry for a pyramid
is the same as the number of lines of
symmetry in the regular polygon base.

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8.1.2 2-D and 3-D Rotational Symmetry p. 278
1. a) 3 b) 5 c) 6 d) 8 8. a) Four
b) Using the axis that passes through the
2. The order of turn symmetry is the same as centres of the bases, the order of turn
the number of sides. You can divide any symmetry is 3.
regular polygon with n sides into n congruent Using any of the other axes (each other axis
triangles. If you were to focus on one of the passes through the centre of a lateral face and
triangles while turning the polygon, that the midpoint of the opposite lateral edge), the
triangle would match each other triangle n order of turn symmetry is 2.
times.

3. No. Isosceles triangles and scalene triangles

have order 1 and equilateral triangles have
order 3. There are no other kinds of triangles.

4. Sample response: 9. a) Seven

b) Four axes of rotation (each passes through
a vertex and the centre of the opposite face)
of order 3

5. a) Opposite vertices, midpoints of edges to

midpoints of diagonally opposite edges, and
centres of faces to centres of opposite faces.
b) Thirteen

6. Order of 8 around an axis passing through

the centre of the base and the apex of the
pyramid Three axes of rotation of order 2 (each one
passes through the midpoint of an edge and
7. a) Seven the midpoint of the opposite edge) One is
b) Using the axis that passes through the shown below, but there are two others since
centres of the bases, the order of turn there are three pairs of opposite edges:
symmetry is 6.
Using any of the other axes (one passes
through the centres of opposite lateral faces
and the others pass through the midpoints of
opposite lateral edges), the order of turn
symmetry is 2.
10. Both have an infinite number of axes of
rotational symmetry:
- For a cylinder, visualize an axis passing
through the centres of the bases, and visualize
an infinite number of axes passing from any
point on the lateral surface at the "equator" to
a point on the opposite side.
- For a sphere, visualize an infinite number of
axes passing through the centre of the sphere
from any point on the surface to a point on
the opposite surface.

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8.1.3 Reasoning p. 283
1. a) Deductive b) Inductive 4. a) I used bases that were a rectangle (but
c) Inductive d) Deductive not a square) and a pentagon. The pyramid
with the rectangle base has 2 planes of
2. a) symmetry that come up from the two lines of
Number of sides in Number of planes symmetry on the base. The same is true for
the polygon base of symmetry the pentagonal base — there is one line of
3 4 symmetry and one plane that goes up from
4 5 that line.
5 6
6 7
b) Sample response:
The number of planes of symmetry of a
regular polygon-based prism is always one
more than the number of sides in the base.
c) I used the examples in the chart to come up
with the conjecture. b) I realized that if I cut horizontally across a
d) If a prism has an n-sided base, there are pyramid anywhere along the height, I would
n lines of symmetry in the base. If each line is not get a plane of symmetry since the bottom
extended into a plane of symmetry, there are n would be much wider than the top. So, I
planes of symmetry. In addition, there is one knew each of the planes had to go through
more plane that cuts through the "equator" of the top vertex and the base, cutting the base
the prism. into congruent mirror halves.
d) So, if there are n sides on the base of That means each plane cuts the base through
a regular polygon-based prism, there are one of the lines of symmetry.
n + 1 planes of symmetry. So, a pyramid always has the same number of
planes of symmetry as lines of symmetry on
3. a) I checked some prisms and pyramids and the base.
found that a pyramid always has one face 5) and 6. c) To be guided by teacher with
fewer than a prism with the same base. reference to Teachers’ Guide Book.(p. 290)
Number of Number of Number of 6. a) The sum is 360° each time.
sides in the faces of faces of b) My conjecture is that the sum of the
base prism pyramid exterior angles of any polygon is 360°.
3 5 4
4 6 5 7. There may not be any planes of symmetry
5 7 6 travelling through the bases because the
6 8 7 bases are not symmetrical, but any prism
b) For a prism, if the base has n sides, there always has a plane of symmetry through its
are n edges joining the vertices of the top base "equator."
with the vertices of the bottom base. This
results in n lateral rectangle faces along with
the two faces that are bases. So, the total
number of faces for a prism is n + 2.
For a pyramid, if the base has n edges, there
are n edges joining the vertices of the base to
the apex. This results in n lateral triangle faces 8. With deductive reasoning, you can be sure
along with the one face that is the base. So, the that it is true. With inductive reasoning, you
total number of faces for a pyramid is n + 1. must depend on examples, and there may
Since (n + 2) – (n + 1) = 1, a pyramid always always be a counterexample that you have
has one face fewer than a prism with the same not yet discovered.
base.

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8.2.2 Perpendiculars and Bisectors p. 288
1. NOTE: These are not actual size. 4. a) and b)
a) C The circumcentre and
incentre are the
4.3 cm same point.

.
65°
B 6.5 cm A 5. a)

F
b)
B
4.3 cm

90° A C
E 6.5 cm D

c)

b)
H
E
4.3 cm
115° B
K 6.5 cm J
A C
2. a) In the acute triangle, the circumcentre is D
inside the triangle. In the right triangle, the
circumcentre is on the hypotenuse. In the
obtuse triangle, the circumcentre is outside
the triangle.
b) Obtuse triangles
6. a) and b) Sample response:
c) Sample response:
I drew a circumcircle for three of the
I could verify it by induction, using many
vertices and it went through the fourth one
examples of different obtuse triangles.
for a square. When I tried with a non-
isosceles trapezoid, it did not work.
3. NOTE: These are not actual size.
a) N
8.1 cm
. b)
35° M P
81°
L 7.4 cm 5.3 cm I conclude that not all quadrilaterals have
circumcircles. One counterexample was
enough to prove that this is true.

Q 8.9 cm R

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7. There is no pattern. 9. a)
Sample response: AM is the perpendicular bisector of BC.
ABM  ACM because of SSS:
• CM = BM (M is the midpoint of CB
because AM bisects CB)
• CA = BA (triangle is isosceles)
• MA = MA (shared side length)
A

8. a) Construct perpendiculars from P to the

arms of the angle to make points A and B.
The angles at B are equal.

A C B
M
AM is the angle bisector of  A.
ABM  ACM because of SAS:
• MA = MA (shared side length)
B P
• CA = BA (triangle is isosceles)
•  MAC =  MAB (AM bisects  A)
C A

C M B
This proves that the line that is the
To prove that AP = CP: perpendicular bisector must also be the
AP CP angle bisector.
Since, sin  B= and sin  B =
BP BP
b) Equilateral triangles have this property
AP = BP × sin  B and CP = BP × sin  B. for all three angles and opposite side lengths
Therefore AP = CP. because the arms of the angle from each
B vertex are of equal length.
b)

A C

Since P is on the bisector of  A, it is as far

from AB as from AC. Since it is also on the
bisector of  B, it is as far from AB as from
BC. That means P is equally far from all
three sides, which makes it the incentre.

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8.2.3 Medians and Altitudes p. 292
1. Note: these shapes are not actual size and the third median is optional.
a) C b) F c) H

4.3 cm
4.3 cm 4.3 cm
65° 115°
B 6.5 cm A 90° D J
E 6.5 cm K 6.5 cm
2. No, it's impossible; the centroid is the intersection of the medians and medians are always
inside the triangle because they go from a vertex to the midpoint of its opposite side.

3. a) Sample response: 3. b) Sample response:

Using the altitude from P, Using the altitude from M,
A = bh ÷ 2 = (8.9)(4.4) ÷ 2 A = bh ÷ 2 = (6.1)(1.6) ÷ 2
= 19.58 cm2 = 4.88 cm2
≈ 19.6 cm2 ≈ 4.9 cm2
P
N
7.4 cm
5.3 cm 6.1 cm

4.4 cm
1.6 cm
R Q 4.1 cm L
8.9 cm M

4. a) Sample response: b) ABC's altitude is also the altitude of

A AMB and AMC.
c) AMB: A = bh ÷ 2 = (3)(3.6) ÷ 2 = 5.4 cm2
3.6 cm AMC: A = bh ÷ 2 = (3)(3.6) ÷ 2 = 5.4 cm2
The median divides the area of ABC in half.
d) The median of a triangle divided the area of
the triangle in half regardless of triangle's
dimensions.
C e) The median of a triangle divides the area of
any triangle in half. I used inductive reasoning
3 cm
M (through examples).
3 cm B
5. a) and b) Sample response:
I estimate that the incircle covers more
than half the triangle.
c) The area of the triangle is 7.6 cm2.
4.2 cm 4.2 cm The area of the circle is 4.5 cm2.
3.6 cm
Therefore, the circle covers 59% of the
triangle (4.5 ÷ 7.6 ≈ 0.6), so my estimate
was reasonable.
4.2 cm

Reprint 2023 374

d) Sample response: 7. d) The ratio for PQ to PS and for PR to PT
Area of triangle is 7.85 cm2 and area of is the same, approximately 3:1.
incircle is 3.04 cm2. The circle covers e) No matter what the dimensions of the right
approximately 39% of the area of the triangle were, the ratio for PQ to PS and for
triangle. PR to PT was always the same, approximately
3:1.

8. The two legs of the right triangle are also

two of the altitudes.

e) The percentage of the triangle's area

covered by the incircle depends on the type
of triangle. It can be more than half or less
than half.
9. Each median divides the area of the triangle
6. a), b), c) in half. Therefore, the location where all the
All four centres are in medians intersect has half the area on each
the same location in side, no matter which way you are dividing the
any equilateral triangle. triangle in half.

CONNECTIONS: Paper Folding Constructions p. 293

1. a) The circumcentre 2. d) Fold to find two altitudes of the triangle
(using the method described in
2. a) Fold the angle in half so the arms match part 2c)). The orthocentre will be the
and the fold goes through the vertex. The fold intersection of the two fold lines.
line is the angle bisector. e) Fold the triangle so that two vertices match.
b) Fold to find the angle bisectors of two of The fold line is the midpoint of the side that
the triangle's angles (using the method connects those vertices. Unfold and fold again
described in question 2a). The incentre will so that the new fold line travels through the
be the intersection of the two fold lines. midpoint of the side and the vertex opposite
c) Fold one side so the sides match and the to it. The new fold line is a median of the
fold also goes through the vertex opposite to triangle.
it. The fold line is an altitude of the triangle. f) Fold to find two medians of the triangle
(using the method described in part 2e). The
centroid will be the intersection of the two
fold lines.

UNIT 8 Revision p. 294

1. a) One b) Five 3. Sample response:
A square based prism that is not a cube.

4. a) No turn symmetry, so the order of turn

2. Sample response: symmetry is 1.
b) Turn symmetry of order 5 using the turn
centre that is at the intersection of the five
lines of symmetry.

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UNIT 8 Revision [Cont'd] p. 294
5. a) The order of turn symmetry is 5 using 10. If she put a diagonal on every face, the
the axis of turn symmetry that passes prism would be rigid because each face would
through the centre of the base and the apex be made up of triangles.
of the pyramid.
b) The order of turn symmetry is 5 using the 11. a)
axis of turn symmetry that passes through
the centres of the two bases of the prism.
The order of turn symmetry is 2 using any of
the five axes of turn symmetry that pass B
through the centre of one of the lateral faces
and the midpoint of the edge opposite to it. A D E C

6. a) Non-isosceles trapezoid

b) Scalene right
triangle-based prism
b)

7. a) A cone has an infinite number of

planes of symmetry, each of which passes B
through the centre of the base circle and the
apex of the cone.
b) A cone has an order of turn symmetry A C
that is infinite, around the only axis of
symmetry, which passes through the centre
of the base circle and the apex of the cone.

8. The number of edges of a pyramid is

double the number of sides on the base.
Number of sides Number of edges
12. a) and b) Q
on the base on the pyramid
3 6
4 8
5 10
6 12
P R
9. The order of turn symmetry is the same as
the number of sides in the equilateral
triangle. If you divide the triangle into three
congruent triangles, by drawing lines from
each vertex to the centre, and then turn the
equilateral triangle around the centre, each
small congruent triangles matches with the
original triangle 3 times in a full rotation.
This means the order of turn symmetry is 3,
which is the same as the number of sides.

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13. a) b) c)
- Construct two medians. The intersection is the centroid:
- Construct perpendicular bisectors of two sides to find their midpoints.
N
- Draw the medians by joining each midpoint to the opposite vertex.

L M
N
14. a) b)
9.4 cm
1.7 cm 1.9 cm

L
8.0 cm M

Using the altitude from M, A = bh ÷ 2 = (9.4)(1.7) ÷ 2 = 7.99 ≈ 8.0 cm2

Using the altitude from N, A = bh ÷ 2 = (8.0)(1.9) ÷ 2 = 7.6 cm2
b) The answers can be slightly different because of construction and measuring inaccuracies. If
you could construct and measure perfectly, the answers would be the same.
15. A median divides a triangle into two 16. Sample response:
triangles. Each of these has the same height. I could construct various kinds of isosceles
Each has a base that is half triangles, including acute, right, and obtuse
the base of the original triangle, so their triangles, and then construct the three centres of
bases are also equal. Base and height are the each to see if they are collinear. This is
only two measurements needed to find the inductive reasoning.
area of a triangle. Therefore, the two
triangles have equal area.

PHOTO CREDITS
INTRODUCTION Teacher's Guide UNIT 1 [Cont'd]
page xi page 10
Alexander Gitlits/shutterstock VisualField/shutterstock
J. Williams page 24
pages xi and xxii Brad Whitsitt/shutterstock
J. Williams page 27
Steve Adamson/shutterstock
INTRODUCTION Textbook Thomas Adamczyk/shutterstock
page ix
Alexander Gitlits/shutterstock UNIT 2
emigre/shutterstock page 35
J. Williams Nancy Hixson/shutterstock
page x J. Williams
J. Williams page 42
J. Williams
UNIT 1
pages 2, 29
J. Williams
page 8
Alexander Gitlits/shutterstock

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PHOTO CREDITS [Continued]
UNIT 3 UNIT 5
page 67 pages 129, 135
Mathieu Viennet/shutterstock Mircea Bezergheanu/shutterstock
Dino Ablakovic/shutterstock pages 134, 163
Kmitu/shutterstock J. Williams
page 72 page 138
Lori Sparkia/shutterstock D. Small
page 78
Vallentin Vassileff/shutterstock UNIT 6
page 85 page 177
J. Williams Mark Stout/shutterstock
page 86 page 178
Chad Koski/shutterstock clarence s lewis/shutterstock
page 87 pages 193, 194
Robert Balazik/shutterstock J. Williams
page 90 page 199
Simon Krzic/shutterstock emigre/shutterstock
Brad Whitsitt/shutterstock page 203
pages 91, 98, 102 Chin Sentock/shutterstock
J. Williams page 204
page 92 Vallentin Vassileff/shutterstock
Slobodan Djajic/shutterstock page 211
Kirsty Pargeter/shutterstock Willem Dijkstra/shutterstock
page 213
UNIT 4 ajt/shutterstock
page 105, 116, 122 page 221
J. Williams Pekka Jaakkola/shutterstock
page 108 page 223
Polina Lobanova/shutterstock Johnny Lye/shutterstock
pages 110, 111, 117 Nancy Hixson/shutterstock
D. Wagner page 224
page 112 Vova Pomortzeff/shutterstock
Bateleur/shutterstock page 226
Ljupco Smokovski/shutterstock Lori Sparkia/shutterstock
James Steidl/shutterstock
Eimantas/shutterstock UNIT 7
J. Williams pages 251, 253, 259, 267
J. Williams J. Williams
page 120
Stephen Aaron Rees/shutterstock UNIT 8
page 125 pages 270, 274, 279, 291, 295
Bateleur/shutterstock J. Williams
vera bogaerts/shutterstock page 281
Gustavo Miguel Machado da Rafa Irusta/shutterstock
Fernandes/shutterstock
David Pruter/shutterstock

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 MEASUREMENT REFERENCES
Measurement Abbreviations and Symbols
Time Capacity
second s millilitre mL
minute min litre L
hour h kilolitre kL
Length Volume
millimetre mm cubic centimetre cm3
centimetre cm cubic metre m3
metre m
kilometre km 1 cm3 = 1 mL
Mass Area
milligram mg square centimetre cm2
gram g square metre m2
kilogram kg hectare (10,000 m2) ha
ton(ne) t square kilometre km2

Metric Prefixes
milli centi deci unit deka hecto kilo
Prefix
× 0.001 × 0.01 × 0.1 1 × 10 × 100 × 1000
millimetre centimetre decimetre metre dekametre hectometre kilometre
Example
mm cm dm m dam hm km

Measurement Formulas
Perimeter (Polygons) Area (Polygons)
rectangle P = 2(l + w) rectangle A = lw
square P = 4s square A = s2
regular polygon P = ns (n is number of sides) parallelogram A = bh
1
triangle A= bh
2
Circumference Area (Non-Polygon)
circle C = ʌd or C = 2ʌr circle A = ʌr2
Volume (Polyhedra) Volume (Non-Polyhedra)
rectangular prism V = lwh cylinder V = ʌr2h
cube V = e3 (e is edge length of cube) cone V=
1 2
ʌr h
any prism V = Ah (A is area of base) 3
1 4 3
pyramid V= Ah (A is area of base) sphere V= ʌr
3 3
Surface Area (Polyhedra)
rectangular prism SA = 2(lw + wh + lh)
cube SA = 6s2 (s is side length of face)
any prism SA = 2A + hP (A is area of base, P is perimeter of base)
pyramid SA = A + Area of lateral faces (A is area of base)
Surface Area (Non-Polyhedra)
cylinder SA = 2ʌr2+ 2ʌrh
cone SA = ʌr2 + ʌrs (s is slant height of cone)
sphere SA = 4ʌr2

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 TRIG TABLE AND REFERENCES
You can use this table instead of your calculator to find the trigonometric ratios for
angles that are multiples of 5°. It can also be used to estimate the ratios for angles
between those listed.

Angle Sine Cosine Tangent

0° 0.000 1.000 0.000
5° 0.087 0.996 0.087
10° 0.174 0.985 0.176
15° 0.259 0.966 0.268
20° 0.342 0.940 0.364
25° 0.423 0.906 0.466
30° 0.500 0.866 0.577
35° 0.574 0.819 0.700
40° 0.643 0.766 0.839
45° 0.707 0.707 1.000
50° 0.766 0.643 1.192
55° 0.819 0.574 1.428
60° 0.866 0.500 1.732
65° 0.906 0.423 2.145
70° 0.940 0.342 2.747
75° 0.966 0.259 3.732
80° 0.985 0.174 5.671
85° 0.996 0.087 11.430
90° 1.000 0.000 ---

Trig Ratios and Identities

Hypotenuse
Angle y Adjacent

Opposite

opposite hypotenuse 1
sin y = csc y = or
hypotenuse opposite sin y
adjacent hypotenuse 1
cos y = sec y = or
hypotenuse adjacent cos y
opposite adjacent 1
tan y = cot y = or
adjacent opposite tan y

cos (90º – y) = sin y cos2 y + sin2 y = 1

sin (90º – y) = cos y

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380