Chemistry Lecture Material

Unit-I
Molecular Structures and Theories of bonding
for
B.Tech (CSE,IT,DS,CS) I year – I semester
R18 Regulation

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1. To impart the basic knowledge of atomic ,molecular and electronic modification which make student to
understand the technology based on them.
2. To acquire the knowledge of semiconductors, band structure of solids and crystal field theory of d-orbitals.

. COURSE OUTCOME:

1. The knowledge of atomic, molecular and electronic changes related to conductivity.

2. The required principles of CFT and band structure of solids and their application.
3. The knowledge of pi-molecular orbitals of benzene and butadiene.

Compiled by

1. Dr. V.Sunil kumar, Associate professor of Chemistry

2. Mr.B.Srinu, Assistant professor of Chemistry
3. Mrs. J.Krupa Rani, Assistant professor of Chemistry
4. Mrs. S.Neelima, Assistant professor of Chemistry
5. Mr. B.Jawaharlal, Assistant professor of Chemistry
6. Mr. N.Mahesh, Assistant professor of Chemistry

Department of Humanities and Sciences

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 UNIT - I
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND THEORIES OF BONDING
SHORT QUESTION AND ANSWERS:

1. Write the difference between atomic and molecular orbital?

Atomic orbital Molecular orbital

Atomic orbital is the region having the Molecular orbital is the region having the
highest probability of finding an electron in highest probability of finding an electron
an atom of a molecule
Atomic orbitals are inherent property of an
Molecular orbitals are formed by
atom.
combination of atomic orbitals that have
Formed by the electron cloud around the
nearly the same energy
Atom
The shape is determined by the shapes of
The shape is determined by the type of
atomic orbitals that make the molecule.
atomic orbital(s,p,d or f)
They have complex shapes
Monocentric as it is found around a single Polycentric as it is found around different
Reaction nuclei
Schrodinger equation is used Linear combination of atomic orbitals
(LCAO) is used

2. Define bonding and anti bonding molecular orbitals?

Bonding Molecular Orbitals

 When addition of wave function takes place, the type of molecular orbitals formed are
called Bonding Molecular orbitals and is represented by ΨMO = ΨA + ΨB.
 They have lower energy than atomic orbitals involved. It is similar to constructive
interference occurring in phase because of which electron probability density increases
resulting in formation of bonding orbital.
 Molecular orbital formed by addition of overlapping of two s orbitals . It is represented
by s.
Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals:

 When molecular orbital is formed by subtraction of wave function, the type of molecular
orbitals formed are called Antibonding Molecular Orbitals and is represented by ΨMO =
ΨA -ΨB.
 They have higher energy than atomic orbitals. It is similar to destructive interference
occurring out of phase resulting in formation of antibonding orbitals.
 Molecular Orbital formed by subtraction of overlapping of two s orbitals.
 It is represented by s* [(*) is used to represent antibonding molecular orbital) called
Sigma Antibonding.
3. Calculate the bond order for molecule N2,O2,F2?

Bond order:
It may be defined as the half of difference between the number of electrons present in the
bonding orbitals and the antibonding orbitals that is,
Bond order (B.O.) = (No. of electrons in BMO - No. of electrons in ABMO)/ 2
Bond order of N2:

Bond order = (10-4) = 3. (N=N) Triple bond is present in the molecule

In N2 molecule all the electrons are paired therefore it is diamagnetic.

Bond order of O2:

Bond order = (10-6) = 2. Double bond is present in the molecule.

Two unpaired electrons are present, so the molecule is paramagnetic.
Bond order of F2:

Bond Order = (8 - 6) = 1
In F-F there are no unpaired electrons, so the molecule is diamagnetic.

4. Write a short notes on molecular orbital theory?

Postulates of MOT are:

 Two atoms come together, interact and forms a bond. All the atomic orbitals on either
nuclei mix together to form a new orbital called molecular orbital.
 The molecular orbitals are formed by mixing of the atomic orbital’s of same energy
level and symmetry.
 After formation of molecular orbital, the atomic orbital’s lose their identity.
 Each and every electron in the molecular orbital belongs to all the nuclei of the molecules.
 Atoms have atomic orbitals with one nuclei and Molecules have molecular orbitals with n
nuclei. Thus, atoms are monocentric while molecules are polycentric.
 The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the atomic orbitals mixing.
 Molecular orbitals can be bonding, anti-bonding, and non-bonding orbitals.
 Bonding molecular orbitals are lower in energy than the corresponding anti-bonding
orbitals.

5. Write the sailent features of crystal-field theory ?

Salient features of crystal-field theory are:

1. The transition metal ion is surrounded by the ligands with lone pairs of electrons and the
complex is a combination of central ion surrounded by ligands.
2. All types of ligands are regarded as point charges.
3. The ionic ligands, like F-, Cl-, CN-, etc., are regarded as point charges, and the neutral
ligands, like H2O, NH3, etc., are regarded as point dipoles. If the ligand is neutral, the
negative end of this ligand dipole is oriented towards the metal atom.
4. The interactions between the metal ion and the ligand is purely electrostatic, i.e. the bond 100
percent ionic.
5. All the d orbitals on the metal atom have equal energy (degenerate orbitals).As the ligands
approach the central metal atom for complex formation, these orbitals lose their degeneracy and
split into orbitals of different energies depending upon the direction from which the ligands
approach the central metal atom.

6. Write a note on LCAO?

According to LCAO method ,the molecular orbital wave function Ψmo is formed by the linear
combination of the wave functions of the individual atomic orbitals ΨA and ΨB
1. Molecular orbital is formed by the addition of wave function of atomic orbitals.It can be
represented as
Ψ(mo) = ΨA + ΨB.
This molecular orbital is called Bonding molecular orbital.
2. Molecular orbital is formed by the subtraction of wave function of atomic orbitals. It can be
represented as

Ψ*(mo) = ΨA –ΨB
This molecular orbital is called Antibonding molecular orbital.
7. What is doping and dopant?
Doping:
The process by which impurity is adding in semiconductor to enhance their conductivity is called
doping.
Dopant:
A dopant also called a doping agent is a trace impurity element that is inserted into a
substance(in very low concentrations) to increase the electrical properties of the substances.

8. How the materials are classified based on Band theory or Fermi energy gap?
Based on the band theory materials are classified into three types
1. Conductors 2.Insulators 3.Semi-Conductor
The gap between the valence band and conduction band is called Fermi energy gap.
1. In conductor, the valence band and conduction band overlap,so there is no band gap.
2. In insulators there is large band gap between valence band and conduction band.
3.In semiconductor, there is a small band gap between valence band and conduction band.so the
electrons can promote from V.B to C.B with rise in temperature or by adding dopants.
9. How to predict the magnetic nature and magnetic momentum of molecules and metal
complexes ?
In MOED diagram,if all electrons are paired the molecule is diagmanetic. If single or unpaired
electrons are present in the molecule is paramagnetic.

Magnetic momentum = 𝑛(𝑛 + 2)

 LONG QUESTION AND ANSWERS:
1. Explain the molecular orbital energy level diagrams of F 2, N2 and O2?

Nitrogen Molecule N2:

Nitrogen molecule is formed by two nitrogen
Atomic number of nitrogen is: 7
Electronic configuration of nitrogen is -1S2 2S2 2P3
In N2 molecule total electrons are -7+7=14
According to molecular orbital approach, the electronic configuration of N2 is-
σ 1s2, σ *1s2, σ 2s2, σ *2s2, [π 2px2 = π 2py2], σ 2pz2 [π *2px= π *2py], σ*2pz

Bond order of N2:

Bond order = ½(Nb-Na)

Bond order = (10-4) = 3. (N=N) Triple bond is present in the molecule

In N2 molecule all the electrons are paired therefore it is diamagnetic.

Oxygen Molecule O2 :

The atomic number of oxygen is 8

The electronic configuration of oxygen is 1S2 2S2 2P4

According to molecular orbital approach, the electronic configuration of O 2 is-

σ1s2, σ *1s2, σ 2s2, σ *2s2, σ 2pz2, [π2px2 = π2py2], [π*2px1= π*2py1], σ *2pz

Bond order of O2:

Bond order = ½(Nb-Na)

Bond order = (10-6) = 2. Double bond is present in the molecule.

Two unpaired electrons are present, so the molecule is paramagnetic.
Flourine Molecule F2:

The atomic number of fluorine is 9

The electronic configuration of fluorine is is 1S2 2S2 2P5

According to molecular orbital approach, the electronic configuration of F 2 is-

σ1s2, σ *1s2, σ 2s2, σ *2s2, σ 2pz2, [π2px2 = π2py2], [π*2px1= π*2py1], σ *2pz1

Bond order of F2:

Bond Order = (8 - 6) = 1
In F-F there are no unpaired electrons, so the molecule is diamagnetic.
2. Draw and explain the Pi molecular orbitals of Butadiene ?

Molecular Orbitals of 1,3-Butadiene

 1,3-Butadiene contains two double bonds that are conjugated.
 It is "built" from 4 sp2 hybridsed C atoms, each contributing a p atomic orbital containing
1 electron.
 An alternative way to consider "building" the π molecular orbitals is by combining
the π molecular orbitals of two ethene molecules.
 This requires that we make an in-phase and an out-of-phase combination for both
the π and π* of ethene.
 Either way, we end up with the same set of 4 π molecular orbitals.

 Notice how the number of nodes and the number of anti-bonding interactions increases as
you go up the diagram above.

3. Draw and explain the Pi molecular orbitals of Benzene?

Benzene:
Benzene has a planar hexagonal structure in which all the six carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized.
Four valency electrons of each carbon atom, three forms covalent bonds with two carbon atoms
and one hydrogen atoms.
The remaining cyclic six p-orbitals(one on each carbon)overlap to generate six molecular
orbitals, three bonding and three antibonding.
The Molecular Orbitals of Benzene

The wave equation of benzene is

ᴪ = ᴪ 1C1+ ᴪ2 C + ᴪ 3C3+ ᴪ4C4+ ᴪ5 C 5 + ᴪ6 C6

2

Where ᴪ 1 to ᴪ 6 are the wave functions of six Pz –orbitals. C1 to C6 are their respective coefficients.
4. Explain the crystal field splitting of transition metal ion d-orbitals in octahedral
complexes?

Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes:

The octahedral arrangement of six ligands surrounding the central metal ion is as shown in the
figure.
 Fig: Splitting of d-orbitals in an octahedral complex
 In octahedral complexes, six ligands are approach the central metal atom along the x,y,z
axis, as a result the axial orbitals (dx 2-dy 2, dz 2 ) show greater repulsion than non axial
orbitals (dxy, dyz, dzx).
 The degenerate d-orbitals splits into two degenerate sets, one set consists of lower energy
and more stable dxy, dyz & dzx orbitals. (t2g orbitals)
 And the other ,less stable higher energy dz 2 and dx 2-dy 2 orbitals (eg orbitals)
 This splitting of degenerate orbitals under the influence of ligands is termed as crystal
field splitting and the energy separation between them is denoted by Δ o.
 The energy of t2g orbitals is decresded by2/5 Δo or 0.4 Δo. or 4 Dq and the energy of eg
orbitals rises by3/5 Δo or 0.6 Δo or 6 Dq. Above the hypothetical degenarate d- orbitals

5. Explain the Crystal Field Splitting Tetrahedral Complexes?

 The tetrahedral arrangement of four ligands surrounding the metal ions is as shown in the
figure.

 In tetrahedral complex, the four ligand occupy alternate corners of a cube and the metal
ion is placed in the centre.
 Here the d-orbitals are not pointed directly towards the ligands.The non axial orbitals
( dxy, dyz & dzx) are closer to ligands than dz 2 and dx 2-dy 2 (axial orbitals).
 Therefore the energy of t2g orbitals is raised and eg orbitals is lowered from centre.
The crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complex is represented by Δ t (t= tetrahedral)
 The energy of t2g orbitals is incresed by2/5 Δt or 0.4 Δt. and the energy of eg orbitals
decresed by3/5 Δt or 0.6 Δt .

 Δt = 4/9 Δo or Δt = 0.45 Δo

Square Planar Complexes

d-Orbital Splitting in Square Planar Coordination.

 In square planar complex two ligands on the z-axis of an octahedron are removed from
the complex, leaving only the ligands in the x-y plane. As the z-ligands move away, the
ligands in the square plane move a little closer to the metal.
 The orbital splitting diagram for square planar coordination can thus be derived from the
octahedral diagram.
  As ligands move away along the z-axis, d-orbitals with a z-component will fall in
energy.
 The dz2 orbital falls the most, as its electrons are concentrated in lobes along the z-axis.
 The dxz and dyz orbitals also drop in energy, but not as much.
 Conversely, the dx2-y2 and the dxy orbitals increase in energy. The splitting diagram for
square planar complexes is more complex than for octahedral and tetrahedral complexes,
and is shown below with the relative energies of each orbital.

6. What is the effect of doping on conductance?

Doping:

 Doping means the introduction of impurities into a semiconductor. Two of the most important
materials silicon can be doped with, are boron (3 valence electrons = 3-valent) and phosphorus (5
valence electrons = 5-valent).
 Other materials are aluminium, indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent).
 The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of
outer electrons define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-
type doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping.
 n-doping

 The 5-valent dopant has an outer electron more than the silicon atoms. Four outer electrons
combine with ever one silicon atom, while the fifth electron is free to move and serves as
charge carrier.
 This free electron requires much less energy to be lifted from the valence band into the
conduction band, than the electrons which cause the intrinsic conductivity of silicon. The
dopant, which emits an electron, is known as an electron donor (donare, lat. = to give).
 The dopants are positively charged by the loss of negative charge carriers and are built into
the lattice, only the negative electrons can move.
 Doped semimetals whose conductivity is based on free (negative) electrons are n-type or n-
doped. Due to the higher number of free electrons those are also named as majority charge
carriers, while free mobile holes are named as the minority charge carriers.
-doping with phosphorus







 Arsenic is used as an alternative to phosphorus, because its diffusion coefficient is lower.

This means that the dopant diffusion during subsequent processes is less than that of
phosphorus and thus the arsenic remains at the position where it was introduced into the
lattice originally.
p-doping:
 In contrast to the free electron due to doping with phosphorus, the 3-valent dopant effect
is exactly the opposite. The 3-valent dopants can catch an additional outer electron, thus leaving
a hole in the valence band of silicon atoms.
 Therefore the electrons in the valence band become mobile. The holes move in the
opposite direction to the movement of the electrons. The necessary energy to lift an electron into
the energy level of indium as a dopant, is only 1 % of the energy which is needed to raise a
valence electron of silicon into the conduction band.
 With the inclusion of an electron, the dopant is negatively charged, such dopants are
called acceptors (acceptare, lat. = to add). Again, the dopant is fixed in the crystal lattice, only
the positive charges can move.
 Due to positive holes these semiconductors are called p-conductive or p-doped. Analog
to n-doped semiconductors, the holes are the majority charge carriers, free electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
p-doping with boron


 Doped semiconductors are electrically neutral. The terms n- and p-type doped do only
refer to the majority charge carriers. Each positive or negative charge carrier belongs to a fixed
negative or positive charged dopant.
 N- and p-doped semiconductors behave approximately equal in relation to the current
flow. With increasing amount of dopants, the number of charge carriers increases in the
semiconductor crystal.
 it requires only a very small amount of dopants. Weakly doped silicon crystals contain
only 1 impurity per 1,000,000,000 silicon atoms, high doped semiconductors for example
contain 1 foreign atom per 1,000 silicon atoms.
 Electronic band structure in doped semiconductors
 By the introduction of a dopant with five outer electrons, in n-doped semiconductors
there is an electron in the crystal which is not bound and therefore can be moved with relatively
little energy into the conduction band.
 Thus in n-doped semiconductors the donator energy level is close to the conduction band
edge, the band gap to overcome is very small.
 Analog, through introduction of a 3-valent dopant in a semiconductor, a hole is available,
which may be already occupied at low-energy by an electron from the valence band of the
silicon. For p-doped semiconductors the acceptor energy level is close the valence band.

 Band model of doped semiconductors

 p-n junction

7. Explain how the atomic orbitals combine to form bonding and antibonding molecular
orbitals?or LCAO

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

 As per this method the formation of orbitals is because of Linear Combination (addition
or subtraction) of atomic orbitals which combine to form molecule. Consider two atoms
A and B which have atomic orbitals described by the wave functions ΨA and ΨB .
 If electron cloud of these two atoms overlap, then the wave function for the molecule can
be obtained by a linear combination of the atomic orbitals ΨA and ΨB i.e. by subtraction
or addition of wave functions of atomic orbitals
ΨMO= ΨA + ΨB
The above equation forms two molecular orbitals
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE:
Bonding Molecular Orbitals:
 When addition of wave function takes place, the type of molecular orbitals formed are
called Bonding Molecular orbitals and is represented by Ψ MO = ΨA + ΨB.

 They have lower energy than atomic orbitals involved. It is similar to constructive
interference occurring in phase because of which electron probability density increases
resulting in formation of bonding orbital.

 Molecular orbital formed by addition of overlapping of two s orbitals shown in Figure 1.

It is represented by s.
Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals
 When molecular orbital is formed by subtraction of wave function, the type of molecular
orbitals formed are called Antibonding Molecular Orbitals and is represented by ΨMO =
ΨA -ΨB.
 They have higher energy than atomic orbitals. It is similar to destructive interference
occurring out of phase resulting in formation of antibonding orbitals. Molecular Orbital
formed by subtraction of overlapping of two s orbitals are shown in figure no. 2.
 It is represented by s* [(*) is used to represent antibonding molecular orbital) called Sigma
Antibonding.
 Therefore, Combination of two atomic orbitals results in formation of two molecular
orbitals, bonding molecular orbital (BMO) whereas other is anti-bonding molecular orbital
(ABMO). BMO has lower energy and hence greater stability than ABMO.
 First BMO are filled then ABMO starts filling because BMO has lower energy than that of
ABMO.
 Formation of molecular orbitals occurs by the combination of atomic orbitals of
proportional symmetry and comparable energy. Therefore, a molecular orbital is polycentric
and atomic orbital is monocentric. Number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the
number of atomic orbitals.

Relative Energies of Molecular Orbitals

Bonding Molecular Orbitals (BMO) - Energy of Bonding Molecular Orbitals is less than that
of Anti Bonding Molecular Orbitals because the attraction of both the nuclei for both the electron
(of the combining atom) is increased.
ENGINEERING CCODE: MLRD)
Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals (ABMO) - Energy of Anti Bonding Molecular Orbitals is
higher than Bonding Molecular Orbitals because the electrons move away from the nuclei and
are in repulsive state.
The Energies of Bonding Molecular Orbitals and Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals are shown in
Fig 2 :

8. Explain the formation of bands in solids?

  According to the MOT molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic
orbitals.
 The numbers of molecular orbitals formed are equal to the number of atomic orbitals
taking part in molecular orbital formation.
Example: Formation of crystal of lithium(Li)-metal

In order to understand the band theory of solids, let us imagine the construction of crystal
lithium metal by adding Li atoms like Li2, Li3------------Lin

Explanation:

The electronic configuration of Li atom is 1s2,2s1,2p0

The 2s atomic orbital overlap in Li2 to form two molecular orbitals.

In Li3 the 3s atomic orbital overlap to form three molecular orbitals.

Similarly in Lin the n-s atomic orbitals overlap to form a band of n closely space MO

Formation of various bands in solids:

Example:

Formation of various bands, can be explained with the example of lithium crystal.

1s Band:

This is called non-conduction band.It is formed by the combination of completely filled orbitals.

2s Band:
This is called valency band as it is half filled. The upper half of the this band is empty, while the
lower half is completely filled.Since the energy difference between these two halves is very
small,the electrons can move from lower half to lower half.

2p Band:

This is called vacant band or overlapping band. Since 2s and 2p energy levels are close to each
other, these two orbitals can overlap, so that the electrons 2s orbitals can move to 2p
orbitals.Thus it is also called conduction band.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. List out the Differences between Bonding and Anti-Bonding molecular orbitals.
2. Calculate the bond orders of Nitrogen,Flourine and Oxygen molecules
3. Give the crystal field stablisation energies of Octahedral,Tetrahedral and Square planar
complexes.
4. Why is Oxygen molecule paramagnetic while Nitrogen molecule in diamagnetic?
5. Define Spectrochemical series .
6. Which complexes are spin free complexes?
7. Explain why benzene is Aromatic in nature.
8. Define Huckel’s rule.
9. Draw the Pi molecular orbitals of benzene and Butadiene.
10. Write the increasing order of the splitting power of ligands.

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS:

1) Draw the molecular orbital energy level diagrams of N 2, O2, and F2.
2) Define bond order ,bond length and bond dissociation energy.
3) Give few examples of Dopants
4) Sketch the shapes of Molecular orbitals formed by the overlap of 2s and 2p orbitals.
5) What is the effect of doping on conductance?
6) Define Crystal Field Stabilisation energy.
7) What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a molecular orbital and why?
8) Write the Magnetic properties and Bond order of N2, O2 and F2
9) Represent the electronic configuration of molecular orbitals for N 2, O2 and F2
10) Draw the shapes of s, p and d orbitals
11) Give the differences between p type and n type semi conductors.
12) Why is Flourine molecule very stable.
13) How is a Nodal plane produced in molecular orbitals?
14) What is the relationship between bond order and Bond length.
15) Differentiate the properties of diamagnetic and paramagnetic molecules.
16) Define Magnetic moment.
17) Give examples of conductors ,semiconductors and insulators.
18) Sketch the diagrams of square planar, tetrahedral and octahedral complexes
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

01.Schrodinger's wave equation calculates one of the following. ( a )

a) the probability of finding an electron at various points in an atom b) momentum of an electron

c) radius of an electron d) velocity of an electron

02. An atomic orbital contains (a)

a) pairs of electrons b) single electron

c) three paired electrons d) two pairs of electrons

03.One of the following is a lowest energy bonding molecular orbital ( d )

a) sigma* b) pi*

c)n d) sigma

04.The node in the wave function of the molecular orbitals ( b )

a) helps to decrease kinetic energy b) helps to raise kinetic energy

c) helps to keep kinetic energy constant d) no effect on kinetic energy

05. The bond order for oxygen molecules ( b )

a) 3 b) 2
c) 0 d) 1

06. The bond dissociation of oxygen species is in the following order ( a )

a) O2* > 02 > 02-1 > 02-2 b) O2 > 02* > 02-1 > 02-2

c) 02-2 > 02 > O2* > 02-1 d) 02-1 > 02-2 > O2* > 02

07.The number of internuclear nodes between ψ2 energy level of ( c )

1,3-butadiene is

a) 2 b) 3

c) 1 d) zero

08.The two orbitals with equal energy and equal electron density at all six carbons in

benzene are ( b)

a) ψ2 ψ4 b) ψ2 ψ3

c) ψ1 ψ2 d) ψ1 ψ3

09.Based on the strength of metal – ligand bonds, one of the following Property of the complex changes
(a)

a) magnetic property & color b) only color

c) only magnetic property d) electromagnetic property

10.During the formation of an octahedral complex, the energy of t 2g set is directed by ( c )

a)0.6Eo b)1.0E o

c)0.4Eo d)0.656E o

11.If there is only one unpaired electron (n = 1) in a paramagnetic complex, the magnetic moment is
given by ( d )

a)2.83BM b)3.87BM

c)4.9BM d)1.73BM

12.The square planar complexes are ( c )

a) high spin electron b) medium spin electron

c) low spin electron d) no spin electron

13.If the fermi energy gap is more, the material becomes ( b )

a) semiconductor b) Insulator

c) conductor d) either conductor or semi-conductor

14.By introducing a trivalent impurity into silicon, one of the following type is produced ( a )

a) positive hole b) doping

c) insulator d) conductor

FILL IN THE BLANKS

01. The bonding between the central metal ion and its ligands arise purely
_______________.(electrostatic)

02.Paired electrons in a molecule do not exhibit__________.(magnetic properties)

03.____________is an example of elemental semiconduction.(Si or Ge or Ga)

04.Magnetic quantum number is otherwise known as_____________.(orientation quantum number)

05.The stability of benzene ring is due to__________of electrons.(delocalization)

06.The antibonding molecular orbitals of fluorine remain as_______________ in HF molecule(non

bonding)

07.The cyclic molecules in which delocalization actually leads to stabilization are

just__________.(aromatic)
08.The crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE) is denoted by
________Type equation here._______.(∆𝑜)

09.If the number of bonding electrons are less than the number of antibonding electrons, the molecules
becomes ------------------- (unstable)

10.In Greek the word atom means---------------------- (indivisible)