Introduction

Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or

problem using scientific methods.
According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry
to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon.
A research study design is formed to select a sample size and collect data after processing and
analyzing the collected data and the research findings presented in a research report.
Research: Definition
Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The word
research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up an
activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about
something.
Research is a process through which an individual or the researcher helps to search the
definite or useful information from the number of respondents to evaluate or solve the
problem-related questions.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation or technique.
In other words, some people say that research is a systematized effort to gain knowledge and
it is a process of collecting, evaluating, and interpreting information to answer questions.
The Research Process
The research process is the paradigm of research project. It is a journey being undertaken by
all the researchers in a zest to find answers to the research questions/ objectives. The journey
begins with the formulation of the research problem and ends with finding answers. The path
to finding answers to the research questions constitutes research methodology.
Defining the Research Problem
↓
Literature Review
↓
Formulating Hypothesis
↓
Develop the Research Plan
↓
Collect the Data/ Execution
↓
Analyse the Information
↓
 Finding the Conclusion
↓
Interpret and Report

1. Defining the Research Problem:

 This is the first step where the researcher identifies a subject area or topic that
they want to investigate.
 The first step in any research is to clearly define the research problem or
question that the study aims to address.
 This involves identifying gaps in existing knowledge, recognizing areas of
interest or concern, and formulating a clear and concise research objective.
 The research problem serves as the foundation upon which the entire study is
built, guiding the direction of the research and shaping the subsequent steps in
the process.
 The topic should be relevant, interesting, and have the potential to contribute
new knowledge to the field. It should answer the following question:-
a. What is to be researched?
b. Why is it to be researched?

2. Review of Literature:
 Once the topic is identified, the researcher conducts a comprehensive review of
existing literature related to the topic.
 This involves reading books, scholarly articles, conference papers, and other
relevant sources to understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps in the
literature, and formulate research questions.

3. Formulating Research Questions or Hypotheses:

 Based on the review of literature, the researcher formulates specific research
questions or hypotheses that they want to address in their study.
 These questions should be clear, focused, and aligned with the research objectives.
a. It is a tentative assumption
b. A statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research
c. Guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the
right track.
d. Affect the manner in which tests must be conducted, in the analysis of data
and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis.
4. Designing the Research Methodology/Plan:
 In this step, the researcher decides on the appropriate research methodology to
answer the research questions or test the hypotheses. The methodology may
involve qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches, depending on the
nature of the research questions and the data available.
 a. Qualitative Research Methods: If the research aims to explore subjective
experiences, attitudes, or behaviors, qualitative methods such as interviews,
focus groups, or content analysis may be used.
b. Quantitative Research Methods: If the research aims to quantify
relationships, patterns, or trends, quantitative methods such as surveys,
experiments, or statistical analysis may be employed.

5. Collect the Data/Execution:

 Researchers gather data according to their research plan. This could involve
surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, or archival research.
 This step involves gathering relevant information or data that is necessary to
address the research question or hypothesis. Depending on the nature of the study,
data collection methods can vary widely, including surveys, experiments,
observations, interviews, archival research, or the collection of forensic evidence
in the case of forensic science research.
 It's essential to ensure that the data collected is accurate, reliable, and
representative of the population or phenomenon being studied.
 Once the research plan has been developed, researchers can begin to collect the
necessary data to test their hypotheses and address the research problem. Data
collection methods may vary depending on the nature of the study and the
research questions being investigated.
 Common data collection techniques include surveys, experiments, interviews,
observations, and archival research.

6. Analyze the Information:

 Once data is collected, researchers analyze it using statistical techniques or
qualitative methods. This step helps draw meaningful conclusions.
 Once the data is collected, the next step is to analyze it systematically. Analysis
involves organizing, examining, and interpreting the data to identify patterns,
relationships, trends, or any other relevant information that can help answer the
research question or test the hypothesis.
 Depending on the research design and data collected, analysis techniques can
include statistical analysis, qualitative coding, thematic analysis, or other methods
appropriate to the data type and research objectives.

7. Finding the Conclusion:

 Based on the analysis of the data, researchers draw conclusions regarding the
research question or hypothesis.
 This involves synthesizing the findings from the data analysis and determining
what they indicate about the phenomenon under investigation.
 Conclusions should be logical, supported by evidence, and relevant to the research
objectives. It's important to acknowledge any limitations or uncertainties in the
findings and to avoid overgeneralizing beyond what the data can support.
  Researchers interpret the analyzed data to draw conclusions. They assess whether
the hypotheses are supported or rejected based on evidence.

8. Interpret and Report:

 The final step involves interpreting the conclusions in the context of existing
knowledge, theoretical frameworks, and practical implications.
 Researchers often discuss the significance of their findings, consider their
implications for theory or practice, and suggest avenues for future research.
 Reporting involves communicating the research process, findings, and
interpretations in a clear, organized, and transparent manner. This typically
includes writing a research report or paper following the conventions of academic
or scientific writing, including an introduction, methods section, results section,
discussion section, and conclusion.

Identifying/ Formulating the Research Problem

Identification and formulation of a research problem is the first step of the research process. It
is the most challenging and difficult phase of the research process.
A research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem that a
researcher wants to solve.
In other words, research problem is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher
presents and justifies in a research study.
A research question must be straightforward, to the point and focused.
Example
Incorrect Research Problem: What are the effects of social media on people?
Correct Research Problem: What are the effect of using Facebook everyday have on
teenagers in Mumbai?
A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the
research process, from setting objectives to selecting the research methodology.
It becomes clear and makes the topic more precise after the researcher has undertaken an in-
depth literature review. The more specific and clarity in defining and understanding the
length, width and depth of the problem, easier it becomes for the researcher to move forward
in the pursuit of carrying the research.
The selection of the problem of research is to be linked with the following:
What is the purpose of the study?
How much is already known?
Is additional information necessary?
How is it to be measured?
How to collect data?
Is time/money adequate for the research?
Steps :-
1) Identify the broad research area
The researcher begins research by identifying a broad research area based on his/her interest,
specialty, profession, expertise, and knowledge.
For example, a researcher studying about Fingerprints. These are the broader areas that can
be further subdivided into various research topics to figure out marketing strategies
2) Divide the broad area into sub-areas
After the researcher chooses a broad area to study, he/she need to narrow down to a specific
topic that is manageable and researchable.
To do this, break down the broad area into sub-areas and choose a specific topic.
For example, if your broad area is fingerpints
Fingerprints can be further divided into the following subcategories:
Arches
Loops
Whorls
3) Choose a sub-area
It is not possible to study all the sub-areas due to time and money constraints
Thus, theresearcher needs to choose one sub-area of interest and one that is manageable and
feasible for him/her.
The area selected must have some research significance and must be significant to the
researcher's research knowledge.
Eg. A researcher selects a sub-area is Whorls.
4) Formulate research question/problem
After a specific sub-area is chosen, researcher needs to formulate research question/problem
seems important for the research study.
Many question/problem that may arise but narrow down and choose the most important and
impactful question/problem.
Eg.
5) Set research objectives
After research question/problem is framed, researcher must draw a plan about the objectives
of the research that he/she need to explore.
The objectives of the research study help to identify the research question/problem.
They include terms like to examine, to investigate, to explore, and to find out.
Example of Research Objectives:-
To investigate factors affecting skin from using cosmetics provided by Lakme on XYZ
population
LITERATURE REVIEW
Reviewing the available literature is one of the essential preliminary tasks while undertaking
a research study. It helps the researcher in developing clarity about the research under study.
It has the following functions:
 It provides a theoretical background to the study.
 It brings forth the relationship between what the researcher proposes to study and what has
already been studied earlier by the other researchers.
 The researcher can identify the existing gaps in the available literature and come up with
how research findings will contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the discipline of
study.
 It also helps to contextualise research findings.
 However, the primary motive of doing review of literature is 'not to reinvent the wheel',
which means that the researcher avoids carrying out research on the same topic which has
already been covered by some other researcher, thereby preventing wastage of scarce time,
energy and money resources.
 Thus the final outcome of undertaking a review of literature is to bring clarity and
focus to the research problem, improve research methodology, broaden the knowledge
base in the research and to contextualise research findings.
 After the researcher has identified the gaps and decided about the methodology to be
adopted one must discuss the topic with experts and be ready to redesign the research
problem.
 It is the ability of the researcher to put his/her research ideas on the right track then
only he/she will be able to bring clarity to the research and will be in a position to
develop relevant questions to be answered in the course of the study.
 The greater clarity in identifying the research problem at this point will set the stage
for developing research questions to be answered in the course of the study.
Characteristics of Literature Review
Identifying gaps in knowledge: A literature review helps to identify gaps in the existing
knowledge and research on a specific topic or research question. By analyzing and
synthesizing the literature, you can identify areas where further research is needed and where
new insights can be gained.
Establishing the significance of your research: A literature review helps to establish the
significance of your own research by placing it in the context of existing research. By
demonstrating the relevance of your research to the existing literature, you can establish its
importance and value.
Informing research design and methodology: A literature review helps to inform research
design and methodology by identifying the most appropriate research methods, techniques,
and instruments. By reviewing the literature, you can identify the strengths and limitations of
different research methods and techniques, and select the most appropriate ones for your own
research.
Supporting arguments and claims: A literature review provides evidence to support
arguments and claims made in academic writing. By citing and analyzing the literature, you
can provide a solid foundation for your own arguments and claims.
Identifying potential collaborators and mentors: A literature review can help identify
potential collaborators and mentors by identifying researchers and practitioners who are
working on related topics or using similar methods. By building relationships with these
individuals, you can gain valuable insights and support for your own research and practice.
Keeping up-to-date with the latest research: A literature review helps to keep you up-to-
date with the latest research on a specific topic or research question. By regularly reviewing
the literature, you can stay informed about the latest findings and developments in your field.

Types of Literature Survey:-

PRIMARY SOURCE
A primary source is an original document or material that presents firsthand information or
data about a topic, event, or phenomenon. These sources are typically created by individuals
who directly experienced or witnessed the subject matter. Examples of primary sources
include:
1. Original research studies and experiments
2. Diaries and personal journals
3. Letters and correspondence
4. Interviews and oral histories
5. Speeches and public addresses
6. Official documents (such as government records, court transcripts, and legal
contracts)
7. Artifacts and objects from a specific time period

SECONDARY SOURCE
A secondary source, on the other hand, is a document or material that interprets, analyzes, or
discusses information derived from primary sources. Secondary sources are created by
individuals who did not directly experience or witness the subject matter but instead provide
commentary, analysis, or interpretation of primary sources. Examples of secondary sources
include:
1. Review articles and scholarly literature reviews
2. Textbooks and academic books
3. Biographies and historical analyses
4. Documentary films and television programs
5. Newspaper and magazine articles (that interpret events rather than reporting them
firsthand)
 6. Commentaries and critiques

Sampling
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of data from a larger population or dataset
in order to analyze or make inferences about the whole population.
In other words, sampling involves taking a representative sample of data from a larger group
or dataset in order to gain insights or draw conclusions about the entire group.
The sampling technique is the method you employ while choosing a sample from a
population.

Sampling Methods
Sampling methods refer to the techniques used to select a subset of individuals or units from
a larger population for the purpose of conducting statistical analysis or research.

Sampling is an essential part of the Research because it allows researchers to draw

conclusions about a population without having to collect data from every member of that
population, which can be time-consuming, expensive, or even impossible.

Types of Sampling :-
There are two significant types of sampling techniques which are then divided into sub-types:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
Let’s go through both, along with their sub-types.
Probability Sampling Techniques
Using a set of predetermined criteria and a random selection of population members, a
researcher uses the sampling technique known as probability sampling. With this
selection criteria, each member has an equal chance of being included in the sample. This
type of sampling is based on the principles of random selection, and it involves selecting
samples in a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included
in the sample. Probability sampling is commonly used in scientific research and statistical
analysis, as it provides a representative sample that can be generalized to the larger
population. Random sampling is another name for it. It has four sub-divisions:

Simple Random Sampling Technique:

Every person in the population has an equal probability of getting chosen in a simple
random sampling. The entire population should be part of your sampling frame. The Simple
Random Sampling method is one of the top probability sampling approaches that aid in time
and resource conservation. It is a reliable way to gather information.
In this method, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the
sample. This can be done using a random number generator or by drawing names out of a hat,
for example.
Eg :- A company has decided to give a bonus to 10 of its employees. These employees will
be selected randomly through any method from the whole company.
Randomly collecting soil samples from different locations within a crime scene to analyze for
traces of substances like gunshot residue or blood.

Systematic Sampling: In this method, the population is first divided into a list or sequence,
and then every nth member is selected for the sample. For example, if every 10th person is
selected from a list of 100 people, the sample would include 10 people.

Stratified Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into subgroups or strata
based on certain characteristics, and then a random sample is taken from each stratum. This
is often used to ensure that the sample is representative of the population as a whole.
A researcher divides the population into subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic of
interest (e.g. age or income) and then randomly selects participants from each subgroup.

Eg Dividing a population of fingerprints into strata based on characteristics such as age,

gender, or ethnicity, then randomly selecting samples from each stratum to ensure
representation of diverse groups.

Cluster Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and
then a random sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members of the selected clusters are
included in the sample.

Eg Selecting specific geographic regions (clusters) and collecting nails as forensic evidence
from multiple regions to understand regional variations in crime patterns.

Non-probability Sampling
This type of sampling does not rely on random selection, and it involves selecting samples in
a way that does not give every member of the population an equal chance of being included
in the sample. Non-probability sampling is often used in qualitative research, where the aim
is not to generalize findings to a larger population, but to gain an in-depth understanding of a
particular phenomenon or group. Non-probability sampling methods can be quicker and more
cost-effective than probability sampling methods, but they may also be subject to bias and
may not be representative of the larger population

Types of Non-probability Sampling:

Convenience Sampling: In this method, participants are chosen based on their availability or
willingness to participate. This method is easy and convenient but may not be representative
of the population.
A researcher selects participants who are conveniently available, such as students in a
particular class or visitors to a shopping mall.

Purposive/Judgemental Sampling: In this method, participants are selected based on

specific criteria, such as their expertise or knowledge on a particular topic. This method is
often used in qualitative research, but may not be representative of the population.
A researcher selects participants who meet specific criteria, such as individuals who have
been diagnosed with a particular medical condition.

Snowball Sampling: In this method, participants are recruited through referrals from other
participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach, but may not be
representative of the population. A researcher selects participants who are referred to them by
other participants, such as friends or acquaintances.

Quota Sampling: Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined

number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics,
determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what
or who makes up your sample.
Population vs. sample

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

Sampling unit
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target population

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors,
including the size and variability of the population and your research design.