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AI-problem Spaces and Search

The document discusses problem solving, problem spaces, and search techniques. It defines a problem as having goals, objects, and operations. A problem space encompasses all valid states that can be generated by applying operators to objects. Search refers to finding a solution in the problem space using techniques like depth-first and breadth-first search.

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12 views

AI-problem Spaces and Search

The document discusses problem solving, problem spaces, and search techniques. It defines a problem as having goals, objects, and operations. A problem space encompasses all valid states that can be generated by applying operators to objects. Search refers to finding a solution in the problem space using techniques like depth-first and breadth-first search.

Uploaded by

SAFA's Creation
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PROBLEMS, PROBLEM SPACES AND SEARCH

To solve the problem of building a system you should take the following steps:
1. Define the problem accurately including detailed specifications and what constitutes
a suitable solution.
2. Scrutinize the problem carefully, for some features may have a central affect on the
chosen method of solution.
3. Segregate and represent the background knowledge needed in the solution of the
problem.
4. Choose the best solving techniques for the problem to solve a solution.

Problem solving is a process of generating solutions from observed data.


" a ‘problem' is characterized by a set of goals,
" a set of objects, and
" a set of operations.
These could be ill-defined and may evolve during problem solving.
" A ‘problem space' is an abstract space.
A problem space encompasses all valid states that can be generated by the application
of any combination of operators on any combination of objects.
The problem space may contain one or more solutions. A solution is a combination of
operations and objects that achieve the goals.
" A ‘search' refers to the search for a solution in a problem space.
Search proceeds with different types of ‘search control strategies'.
The depth-first search and breadth-first search are the two common search strategies.

2.1 AI - General Problem Solving

Problem solving has been the key area of concern for Artificial Intelligence.

Problem solving is a process of generating solutions from observed or given data. It is


however not always possible to use direct methods (i.e. go directly from data to solution).
Instead, problem solving often needs to use indirect or modelbased methods.

General Problem Solver (GPS) was a computer program created in 1957 by Simon and
Newell to build a universal problem solver machine. GPS was based on Simon and Newell's
theoretical work on logic machines. GPS in principle can solve any formalized symbolic
problem, such as theorems proof and geometric problems and chess playing. GPS solved
many simple problems, such as the Towers of Hanoi, that could be sufficiently formalized,
but GPS could not solve any real-world problems.

To build a system to solve a particular problem, we need to:


· Define the problem precisely – find input situations as well as final situations for an
acceptable solution to the problem
· Analyze the problem – find few important features that may have impact on the
appropriateness of various possible techniques for solving the problem
· Isolate and represent task knowledge necessary to solve the problem
· Choose the best problem-solving technique(s) and apply to the particular problem
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Problem definitions
A problem is defined by its ‘elements' and their ‘relations'. To provide a formal description of
a problem, we need to do the following:

a. Define a state space that contains all the possible configurations of the relevant
objects, including some impossible ones.
b. Specify one or more states that describe possible situations, from which the problem-
solving process may start. These states are called initial states.
c. Specify one or more states that would be acceptable solution to the problem. These
states are called goal states.
Specify a set of rules that describe the actions (operators) available.

The problem can then be solved by using the rules, in combination with an appropriate
control strategy, to move through the problem space until a path from an initial state to a
goal state is found. This process is known as ‘search'. Thus:

· Search is fundamental to the problem-solving process.


· Search is a general mechanism that can be used when a more direct method is not
known.
· Search provides the framework into which more direct methods for solving subparts
of a problem can be embedded. A very large
number of AI problems are formulated as search problems.
· Problem space

A problem space is represented by a directed graph, where nodes represent search state and
paths
represent the operators applied to change the state.

To simplify search algorithms, it is often convenient to logically and programmatically


represent a problem space as a tree. A tree usually decreases the complexity of a search at a
cost. Here, the cost is due to duplicating some nodes on the tree that were linked numerous
times in the graph,
e.g. node B and node D.

A tree is a graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path. Alternatively,
any connected graph with no cycles is a tree.

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" Problem solving: The term, Problem Solving relates to analysis in AI. Problem solving may
be characterized as a systematic search through a range of possible actions to reach some
predefined goal or solution. Problem-solving methods are categorized as special purpose and
general purpose.

" A special-purpose method is tailor-made for a particular problem, often exploits very
specific features of the situation in which the problem is embedded.

" A general-purpose method is applicable to a wide variety of problems. One General-


purpose technique used in AI is ‘means-end analysis': a step-bystep, or incremental,
reduction of the difference between current state and final goal.

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