Cybersecurity and

Cryptography in
Fintech
Chapter 2: 1
Introduction to Number Theory
The Intended Learning
Outcomes:
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
▪ Understand the concept of divisibility and the division algorithm.

▪ Understand how to use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor.

▪ Present an overview of the concepts of modular arithmetic.

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3
Divisibility And The
Division Algorithm
Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ Divisibility:
▪ We say that a nonzero b divides a if a = mb for some m, where a, b, and m are integers.

▪ That is, b divides a if there is no remainder on division.

▪ The notation b|a is commonly used to mean b divides a.

▪ Also, if b|a, we say that b is a divisor of a.

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ Divisibility:
▪ We say that a nonzero b divides a if a = mb for some m, where a, b, and m are integers.

▪ That is, b divides a if there is no remainder on division.

▪ The notation b|a is commonly used to mean b divides a.

▪ Also, if b|a, we say that b is a divisor of a.

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ Divisibility:
▪ Properties of divisibility for integers are as follows:

• If a|1, then a = ±1.

• If a|b and b|a, then a = ±b.

• Any b≠0 divides 0.

• If a|b and b|c, then a|c. (e.g., if 11|66 and 66|198 then 11|198).

• If b|g and b|h, then b|(mg + nh) for arbitrary integers m and n.

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ Divisibility:
▪ Properties of divisibility for integers are as follows:

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ The Division Algorithm:
▪ Given any positive integer n and any nonnegative integer a, if we divide a by n, we get an

integer quotient q and an integer remainder r that obey the following relationship:

a = qn + r , where 0 # r , n; and q=Ãa/nÕ

▪ The remainder r is often referred to as a residue.

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ The Division Algorithm:

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Divisibility And The Division
Algorithm
▪ The Division Algorithm:

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11
THE EUCLIDEAN
ALGORITHM
THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Euclidean algorithm is a simple procedure for determining the greatest common

divisor (GCD) of two positive integers.

▪ First, we need a simple definition:

Two integers are relatively prime if and only if their only common positive
integer factor is 1.

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Greatest Common Divisor:
▪ We will use the notation gcd(a, b) to mean the greatest common divisor of a and b.

▪ The greatest common divisor of a and b is the largest integer that divides both a and b.

▪ We also define gcd(0, 0) = 0.

▪ An equivalent definition is gcd(a, b) = max[k, such that k|a and k|b].

▪ Because we require that the greatest common divisor be positive. In general,

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Greatest Common Divisor:
▪ Also, because all nonzero integers divide 0, we have gcd(a, 0) = |a|.

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Finding the Greatest Common Divisor:

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Finding the Greatest Common Divisor:

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Finding the Greatest Common Divisor:

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THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
▪ Finding the Greatest Common Divisor:

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MODULAR
ARITHMETIC
MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Modulus:
▪ If a is an integer and n is a positive integer, we define a mod n to be the remainder when a

is divided by n.

▪ The integer n is called the modulus.

▪ Thus, for any integer a, we can rewrite the Division Algorithm as follows:

a = qn + r 0 # r , n; q = Ãa/nÕ;

a = Ãa/nÕ * n + (a mod n)

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Modulus:
▪ Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, if (a mod n) = (b mod n).

▪ This is written as a … b (mod n).

▪ Note that if a … 0 (mod n), then n|a.

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Congruences:
▪ a … b (mod n) if n|(a - b).

▪ a … b (mod n) implies b … a (mod n).

▪ a … b (mod n) and b … c (mod n) imply a … c (mod n).

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Modular Arithmetic Operations:
▪ Modular arithmetic exhibits the following properties:

1. [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n = (a + b) mod n

2. [(a mod n) - (b mod n)] mod n = (a - b) mod n

3. [(a mod n) * (b mod n)] mod n = (a * b) mod n

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Modular Arithmetic Operations:
▪ Exponentiation is performed by repeated multiplication, as in ordinary arithmetic.

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:
▪ Define the set Zn as the set of nonnegative integers less than n:

Zn = {0, 1, … , (n - 1)}

▪ Let's assume that n is 8.

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:
▪ The previous table values represent the set of residues, or residue classes (mod n). To be

more precise, each integer in Zn represents a residue class.

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:
▪ if (a + b) … (a + c) (mod n) then b … c (mod n).

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:
▪ if (a * b) … (a * c)(mod n) then b … c(mod n) if a is relatively prime to n.

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Properties of Modular Arithmetic:

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MODULAR ARITHMETIC
▪ Euclidean Algorithm Revisited:
▪ The Euclidean algorithm can be based on the following theorem:

For any integers a, b, with a $ b $ 0, we can repetitively apply the following formula:

gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a mod b)

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Summary
Summary
▪ We have covered the following:
▪ The concept of divisibility and the division algorithm.

▪ How to use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor.

▪ An overview of the concepts of modular arithmetic.

▪ I recommend reading Appendix 2A to get a better knowledge about “The meaning

of mod.”

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