Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Important formulas:
𝑥 𝑛+1
1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 (for 𝑛 ≠ −1)
𝑛+1
1
2. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑐
3. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
4. ∫ sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑚 cos 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
5. ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
6. ∫ cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 sin 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
7. ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
8. ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
9. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
10. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
11. ∫ 𝑥 2+𝑎2 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
12. ∫ √𝑎2 = sin−1 (𝑎)
−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
13. ∫ √𝑥 2 = ln|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
−𝑎 2

Different forms of Integrals:

1 1 𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
(i) ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥 (iii) ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥 (iv) ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
1. Integrate - ∫ 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥+7

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥+7 = 2∫ 2
5 2 √31
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥− ) +( )
=∫ 5 7
4 4
5
2(𝑥 2− 𝑥+ ) 1 1 𝑥−
1
2 2
𝑑𝑥 =2× √31
× tan−1 ( √314 ) + 𝑐
= 2∫ 5 25 7 25 4 4
(𝑥 2−2 𝑥+ )+ −
4 16 2 16 2 4𝑥−5
1 𝑑𝑥 = × tan−1 ( ) + 𝑐 (Ans.)
= 2∫ 5 25 56−25 √31 √31
(𝑥 2−2 𝑥+ )+
4 16 16
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 5 25 31
2 (𝑥 2−2 𝑥+ )+
4 16 16

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Exercise: (i) ∫ 5𝑥 2+2𝑥+3 (ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 (iii) ∫ 4𝑥 2+4𝑥+5
𝑑𝑥
2. Integrate - ∫ √5𝑥 2
+12𝑥+3
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Solution:
𝑑𝑥
∫ √5𝑥 2 +12𝑥+3

𝑑𝑥
=∫ 12 3
√5(𝑥 2+ 𝑥+ )
5 5
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
√5 6 36 36 3
√(𝑥 2+2 𝑥+ )− +
5 25 25 5
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 2
√5 √(𝑥+6) −36−15
5 25
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 2
√5 √(𝑥+6) −21
5 25
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ 2
√5 √(𝑥+6) −21
5 25
2
1 6 6 2 √21
= ln |(𝑥 + 5) + √(𝑥 + 5) − ( ) |+𝑐
√5 5

(Ans)

Exercise:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ √𝑥 2−7𝑥+12 (ii) ∫ √2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1

(2𝑥+7)𝑑𝑥
3. Integrate - ∫ 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1

Solution:

(2𝑥+7)𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 First find the derivative of denominator.
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

𝑑
(2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) = 4𝑥 − 2
1 𝑑𝑥
[2(4𝑥−2)+8] 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ Now use it to express the numerator
2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1
1 4𝑥−2 8 term.
= 2 ∫ 2𝑥 2−2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑥 2−2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 ……..(1) Let 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑧
Differentiating both sides,
We find, ⇒ 4𝑥 − 2 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧
1 4𝑥−2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 2𝑥 2−2𝑥+1 ⇒ (4𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
= log(2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐 4𝑥−2
∫ 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
8
∫ 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
8
=∫ 𝑧 = log 𝑧 + 𝑐 = log(2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 +
=∫ 1 1 𝑑𝑥
2(𝑥 2−2∙ 𝑥+ )
2 2
1) + 𝑐
1 8
= 2∫ 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2−2∙ 𝑥+ )− +
2 4 4 2
𝑑𝑥
= 4∫ 1 2 1
(𝑥− ) +
2 4
𝑑𝑥
=4 ∫ 1 2 1 2
(𝑥− ) +( )
2 2
1
1 𝑥−
−1
=4× 1 tan 1
2

2 2
= 8 tan−1 (2𝑥 − 1) + 𝑐

Thus equation (1) gives us,

(2𝑥+7)𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 = log(2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) +
8 tan−1 (2𝑥 − 1) + 𝑐 (Ans.)

Exercise:
3𝑥+5 7𝑥−9
(i) ∫ 5𝑥 2 −12𝑥−3 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ 𝑥 2−2𝑥+35 𝑑𝑥

(𝑥+1)
4. Integrate ∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
(𝑥+1)
∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 First find the derivative of
1 8 denominator.
− (−10𝑥+8)+1+ 𝑑
=∫ 10
√4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2
10
𝑑𝑥 (4 + 8𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 ) = −10𝑥 + 8
𝑑𝑥
1
− (−10𝑥+8)+
18
Now use it to express the numerator
=∫ 10
√4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2
10
dx term.
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

18
1 −10𝑥+8 Let 4 + 8𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 = 𝑧
=− 10 ∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 …..(1) 10
Differentiating both sides,
We find, ⇒ −10𝑥 + 8 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧

1 −10𝑥+8 ⇒ (−10𝑥 + 8)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧

− 10 ∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 1
=∫ = 2 ∫ 2√𝑧 =√𝑧 + 𝑐
√𝑧
= − 10 ∫ = − 10 ∫ 2√𝑧 =− 5 √𝑧 + 𝑐
√𝑧
1
= − 5 √4 + 8𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑐

Again,
18
10
∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
9

= ∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 5

=∫ 5
8 4
𝑑𝑥
√−5(𝑥 2− 𝑥− )
5 5
9 𝑑𝑥
= 5√5 ∫ 4 4 2 16 4
−(𝑥 2−2× 𝑥+( ) − − )
5 5 25 5
9 𝑑𝑥
=5√5 ∫ 4 2 16+20
−((𝑥− ) − )
5 25
9 𝑑𝑥
=5√5 ∫ 4 2 36
−((𝑥− ) − )
5 25
9 𝑑𝑥
=5√5 ∫ 36 4 2
−(𝑥− )
25 5
9 𝑑𝑥
=5√5 ∫ 6 2 4 2
( ) −(𝑥− )
5 5
4
9 (𝑥− )
=5√5 sin−1 6
5
+c
5
9 5𝑥−4
= 5√5 sin−1 +c
6

Thus equation (1) gives us,

(𝑥+1)
∫ √4+8𝑥−5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1 9 5𝑥−4
= − 5 √4 + 8𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 + 5√5 sin−1 +𝑐
6
(Ans.)

Exercise:
(2𝑥+1)
(i) ∫ √4𝑥 2 −5𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Special types trigonometric integrals-

𝑑𝑥
1. Integrate ∫ 5+4 cos 𝑥
Let,
Solution: 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 tan 2 = 𝑧
∫ 5+4 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒ sec 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
5(sin2 +cos2 ) +4 cos 2( ) 2 2
2 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒ sec 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑧
5(sin2 +cos2 ) +4(cos2 −sin2 )
2 2 2 2
𝑑𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 𝑥
9 cos2 +sin2
2 2
1
𝑥
cos2
=∫ 2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
9+tan2
2
𝑥
sec2
2
=∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
9+tan2
2
2𝑑𝑧
= ∫ 32 +𝑧 2
2 𝑧
= 3 tan−1 (3) + 𝑐
2 1 𝑥
= 3 tan−1 (3 tan 2) + 𝑐

Exercise:
2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ (1−2 sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ 3−2 cos 𝑥 (iv) ∫ 1−cos 𝑥+sin 𝑥

Integration with partial fraction

There is no rule for integrating a fraction as is for differentiation. Partial fractions (PF) are used
𝑃(𝑥)
to integrate rational functions, 𝑄(𝑥) where both 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials in 𝑥 without
having no common factors between them but 𝑄(𝑥) can be factorized into linear and quadratic
factors, repeated and non-repeated. This fraction is called proper if the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less
than that of 𝑄(𝑥), otherwise improper.
6.1 The Rules for Partial Fractions
Before performing PF, the given fraction should be made proper by actual division if it is
improper. A proper fraction can be decomposed into PF according to the following table.
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Nature of factors in Form of PF corresponding Example

𝑄(𝑥) to each factor of 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑥
(i) Non-repeated linear (i) 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝐴
∫ (𝑥+5)(𝑥+4) 𝑑𝑥
factor, (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
⇒ (𝑥+5)(𝑥+4) = + 𝑥+4
𝑥+5

(ii) Repeated linear (ii) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

𝑟 𝐴 𝑥2
∫ (𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥
𝑟
factor, (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
𝐴
1
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) + 𝑥2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
⇒ (𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+2) = 𝑥+1 + (𝑥+1)2 + 𝑥+2
𝐴2 𝑛𝐴
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2
. . + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑛

(iii) Non-repeated 𝐴𝑥+𝐵

(iii) 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
1
∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2−𝑥+1) 𝑑𝑥
quadratic factor, 𝑎𝑥 2 +
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
⇒ (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2−𝑥+1) = + 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
𝑥+1

(iv) Repeated quadratic 𝐴 𝑥+ 𝐵

(iv) ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (𝑎𝑥 2𝑟+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
𝑟 1
∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2−𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑟
factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )𝑛
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
⇒ (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2−𝑥+1)2 = + 𝑥 2−𝑥+1 +
𝑥+1
𝐶𝑥+𝐷
+
(𝑥 2−𝑥+1)2

𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1
(i) ∫ 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −6𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2+ 𝑥−6) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2 + 𝑥−1
= ∫ 𝑥(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
≡ + (𝑥+3) + (𝑥−2) … … … . (1) (Using 6.1 (i))
𝑥(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) 𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶𝑥(𝑥 + 3) … … … (2) (Multiplying both

side by 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2))
1
Taking as 𝑥 = 2, (2)⇒ 5 = 10 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 2
1
Taking as 𝑥 = −3, (2)⇒ 5 = 15 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 3
1
Taking as 𝑥 = 0, (2)⇒ −1 = −6𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 6
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

1 1 1
𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1
∴ Identity (1) becomes 𝑥(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) ≡ 6
+ 3
+ 2
𝑥 (𝑥+3) (𝑥−2)

𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1 1 1 1
⇒ ≡ + 3(𝑥+3) + 2(𝑥−2)
𝑥(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) 6𝑥

𝑥 2+ 𝑥−1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑥(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (6𝑥 + 3(𝑥+3) + 2(𝑥−2)) 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
= ∫ 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 3(𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2(𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥

1 1 1
= 6 log 𝑥 + log(𝑥 + 3) + log(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶 (Ans.)
3 2

𝑥3
(ii) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥3
Breaking (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) into partial fractions,

𝑥3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 + 𝑥−3 ………. (1)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)

When both sides of multiplied by (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3),

𝑥 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) ……………..(2)
Now to determine values of A,B and C, we may take 𝑥 = 1,2,3 respectively,
When 𝑥 = 1, (2) becomes,
1
1 = 2𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2

When 𝑥 = 2, (2) becomes,

1
1 = −2𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −
2

When 𝑥 = 3, (2) becomes,

1
1 = 2𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 2

Thus, Substituting the values of A, B and C, (1) seems to be,

1 1 1
𝑥3 2 2
−
2
= + 𝑥−2 +
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) 𝑥−1 𝑥−3

1 1 1
𝑥3 −
So, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫( + + 2 2 2
) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= 2 ∫ 𝑥−1 − 2 ∫ 𝑥−2 + 2 ∫ 𝑥−3
1 1 1
=2 log(𝑥 − 1) − 2 log(𝑥 − 2) + 2 log(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑐 (Ans.)

𝑥 2𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ (𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+2)

𝑥2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+2)
≡ (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥+1)2 + (𝑥+2) … … … … (1) (Using 6.1 (i), 6.1(ii))

⇒ 𝑥 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶 (𝑥 + 1)2 … … … … (2) (Multiplying both side by

(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 2))
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Taking as 𝑥 = −1, (2)⇒ 1 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 1

Taking as 𝑥 = −2, (2)⇒ 4 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 4

Substituting the values of 𝐵 & 𝐶 in e identity (2) we get,

𝑥 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 1(𝑥 + 2) + 4(𝑥 + 1)2

⇒ 𝑥 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2) + 𝑥 + 2 + 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
⇒ 𝑥 2 ≡ (𝐴 + 4)𝑥 2 + (3𝐴 + 9)𝑥 + (2𝐴 + 6) … … … … … (3)

Equating the coefficients of identity (3),

𝐴 + 4 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴 = −3
𝑥2 −3 1 4
So, (1) ⇒ (𝑥+1)2(𝑥+2) = (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥+1)2 + (𝑥+2)

𝑥 2𝑑𝑥 −3 1 4
∫ (𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+2) = ∫ {(𝑥+1) + (𝑥+1)2 + (𝑥+2)} 𝑑𝑥

−3 1 4
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+1) (𝑥+2)

1
= −3 log(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑥+1 + 4 log(𝑥 + 2) + 𝑐 (Ans.)

𝑥
(iii) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+ 4) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+ 4)
≡ + (𝑥 2+ 4) … … … … … … (1)
(𝑥−1)

⇒ 𝑥 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(𝑥 − 1) … … … … … (2)

1
Taking as 𝑥 = 1, (2)⇒ 1 = 𝐴(12 + 4) ⇒ 𝐴 = 5

Substituting value of 𝐴 in identity (2) we get,

1
𝑥 ≡ 5 (𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(𝑥 − 1)
1 4
⇒𝑥≡ 𝑥2 + + 𝐵𝑥 2 − 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶
5 5

1 4
⇒ 𝑥 ≡ (𝐵 + 5) 𝑥 2 + (𝐶 − 𝐵)𝑥 + (5 − 𝐶) … … … (3)

Equating coefficients of identity (3)

1 1
𝐵 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵 = −5
1 4
𝐶−𝐵 =1⇒ 𝐶 =1+𝐵 ⇒𝐶 =1−5= 5
 Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

1 1 4
So, 𝐴 = , 𝐵 = − 5 , 𝐶 = 5 Substituting these values at (1)
5
1 4
𝑥 1 − 𝑥+
5 5
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+ 4)
≡ +
5(𝑥−1) (𝑥 2+ 4)

𝑥−4
𝑥 1 5
⇒ (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+ 4) ≡ −
5(𝑥−1) (𝑥 2+ 4)

𝑥 1 𝑥−4 1 𝑥 4
⇒ (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2+ 4) ≡ − 5(𝑥 2+ 4) = 5(𝑥−1) − 5(𝑥 2+ 4) +
5(𝑥−1) 5(𝑥 2+ 4)

𝑥 1 𝑥 4 𝑥 1 2𝑥
So, ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ {5(𝑥−1) − 5(𝑥 2+ 4) + } 𝑑𝑥∫ 𝑥2+ 22 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑥2 + 22 𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 + 22 = 𝑧
5(𝑥 2+ 4)

1 1 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
= 5 log(𝑥 − 1) − ∫ 𝑥 2 + 22 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 + 22 =2 ∫ 𝑧
5 5
1 1
1 1 𝑥 4 1 𝑥 = 2 log 𝑧 + 𝐶 = 2 log(𝑥 2 + 22 ) + 𝐶
= log(𝑥 − 1) − ∫ 𝑥 2+ 22 𝑑𝑥 + ∙ 2 tan−1 2
5 5 5
1 1 1 4 1 𝑥
= log(𝑥 − 1) − ∙ log(𝑥 2 + 22 ) + ∙ 2 tan−1 2 + 𝐶
5 5 2 5
1 1 2 𝑥
= log(𝑥 − 1) − log(𝑥 2 + 4) + tan−1 2 + 𝐶 (Ans.)
5 10 5

Method of Integration by Parts

In the previous sections special integral of products and divisions are performed by
substitutions. In all these cases one of the part could always be expressed as a differential
coefficient of other. But there are functions which are not so expressible. In that case if one part
is integrable, then the method of integration by parts is useful. This method also helps to
integrate some other elementary transcendental functions like logarithmic and inverse
trigonometric functions which could not be integrated by the earlier procedure.

Let 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑣(𝑥) be two functions. With the help of this method we can integrate the product
of two functions 𝑢 (𝑥)𝑣 (𝑥). The formula is given below.
𝑑
∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑥) ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 (𝑢(𝑥)) ∙ ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥....................... (1)

2nd
Function
1st Function It is
convention to call 𝑢(𝑥) as the first function and 𝑣(𝑥) as the second function. The method is
known as integration by parts (I.b.p) because of "splitting" the integrand into two parts- first
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

and second parts (functions). The procedure continues as long as the last integral in (1) contains
the product.

5.1 Selection of First and Second Function

From equation (1) it is apparent that integration of such product can be obtained easily if first
function can be selected properly. A function which disappears with number of successive
differentiation, is to be selected as the first function provided the integration of the remaining
one i.e., the second function is known.

For example we need to integrate ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. What should we take as first function? 𝑥 or sin 𝑥 ?

Let's see what happens if we choose sin 𝑥 as the first function.

𝑑
∫ sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) ∙ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 This term will continue like this and
2 2
will never disappear!
So, we should not choose 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 as the first function instead of 𝑥.

To choose the first function properly the following selection procedures may be adopted:

• Unknown Integral: The function whose elementary integral is not known, is to be

selected as a first function whatever may be the second function. Logarithmic function
and inverse trigonometric function are of this category. For Example, ∫ 𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, here
tan−1 𝑥 should be the first function.
• Smaller integer exponent and polynomial: The function whose exponent is integer and
smaller than the other, is to be chosen as a first function. Because successive
differentiation reduces the smaller exponent to zero earlier. For example, ∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
here integration of both elementary functions 𝑥 2 and sin x are known. Yet power 2 of 𝑥 2 is
less than that of sin 𝑥. So, 𝑥 2 is to be chosen and selected as to be first function, otherwise
product will continue endlessly and create massacre.
• Integrating elementary Functions: Integration by parts helps to integrate some
elementary functions like log 𝑥, sin−1 𝒙 etc. which cannot be integrated by any other
means. In such cases 1, the unity, is to be selected as the second function. For example
∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ cos −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be computed by taking unity as the second function with
them.

5.2 Examples
2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (iii) ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (iv)∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 (v) ∫ cot −1 (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
(vi) ∫ sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(i) - (iv) has been done for you. Solve the rest accordingly.

(i) ∫ 𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Substituting 1 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑧

⇒ 𝑥2 = 𝑧 − 1
⇒ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

𝑑
= tan−1 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 - ∫ [𝑑𝑥 (tan−1 𝑥) ∫ 𝑥 2 ] 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑥3
= 3 𝑥 3 tan−1 𝑥 - ∫ 3(1+𝑥 2) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 ∙𝑥
𝐼1 = ∫ 3(1+𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
= 3 𝑥 3 tan−1 𝑥 - 𝐼1
1 (𝑧−1)𝑑𝑧 1 1 𝑑𝑧
= ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫
1 1 1 6 𝑧 6 6 𝑧
= 𝑥 3 tan−1 𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − log(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐(Ans.)
3 6 6 1 1
= 6 𝑧 − 6 log 𝑧 + 𝑐
1 1
= 6 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 6 log(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

(ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑥 2 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) ∫ sin 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑
= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 ∫ cos 𝑥 − ∫ [ (2𝑥) ∫ cos 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans.)

2
(iii) ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝑑 2
= ∫ 𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
= 𝑥 2 𝐼 − ∫ [ (𝑥 2 ) ∙ 𝐼] 𝑑𝑥 (𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑥 2 = 𝑧
1 𝑥2
1 2 1 2 = 2 ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥 2 2 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ [2𝑥 ∙ 2 𝑒 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
1
=
2
∫ 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 2 𝑥2 𝑥2
= 2𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 1
= 2 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐 = 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 2

1 2 1 2 1 2
= 2 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐼 = 2 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 2
= 2 (𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans.)

𝑥𝑒 𝑥
(iv)∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑥
((𝑥+1)−1)𝑒 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝐼= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥+1)2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ {(𝑥+1) − (𝑥+1)2
} 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥+1)
1 𝑑 1
= (𝑥+1) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ {𝑑𝑥 ((𝑥+1)) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑥 1
(𝑥+1) = (𝑥+1) − ∫ − (𝑥+1)2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
= 𝐼 − ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥+1) + ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
= (𝑥+1) + ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑒𝑥
= (𝑥+1) + 𝑐 (Ans.)
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Definite Integral

1. Evaluation of the Definite Integral

𝑏
Suppose we require to evaluate ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .

1. First we evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 by the usual methods, and suppose the
result is 𝜑(𝑥) 𝑖. 𝑒. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑥)

2. Next substitute for 𝑥 in 𝜑(𝑥) first the upper limit and then the lower limit, and subtract the
last result from the first.
𝑏
Thus, ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎) = [𝜑(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎

It should be carefully noted that in a definite integral the arbitrary constant of integration does
not appear. The reason behind is explained below-

If we write ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑥) + 𝑐 = 𝜓(𝑥), 𝑠𝑎𝑦,

𝑏
Then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑏) − 𝜓(𝑎) = [𝜑(𝑏) + 𝑐] − [𝜑(𝑎) + 𝑐] = 𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎 )

Thus, while evaluating a definite integral arbitrary constant need not be added in the value of
the corresponding indefinite integral.

2. Change of Variable in an Integral

𝑏
To change the variable in the integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 by the substitution 𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑡), it is necessary
that

(i) 𝜑(𝑡) possesses a derivative at every point of the interval 𝛼 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝛽, where 𝜑(𝛼 ) = 𝑎 and
𝜑(𝛽) = 𝑏, and 𝜑′ (𝑡) ≠ 0 for any value 𝑡 in (𝛼, 𝛽).

(ii) 𝑓(𝜑(𝑡)) and 𝜑′ (𝑡) are bounded and integrable in (𝛼, 𝛽).

When the above conditions hold good, then and then only we have
𝒃 𝜷
∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝜶 𝒇(𝝋(𝒕))𝝋′ (𝒕)𝒅𝒕

3. Substitution in a Definite Integral

While integrating an indefinite integral by the substitution of a new variable, it is sometimes
rather troublesome to transform the result back into the original variable. In all such cases,
while integrating the corresponding integral between limits (i.e., corresponding definite integral
), we can avoid this tedious process of restoring the original variable, by changing the limits of
the definite integral to correspond with the change in the variable.
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Therefore in a definite integral the substitution should be effected in three places:

(i) in the integrand (ii) in the differential and (iii) in the limits.

The following illustrative example show the procedure to be employed.

Illustration
1 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Let 𝐼 = ∫0 √1+𝑥 2
Changing Variable: Changing Limits:
2 𝑑𝑧
= ∫1 2√𝑧 1 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑧 ⇒ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 0 1
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑥2 1 2
2 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
= [√𝑧]1 2

= √2 − 1 (Ans.)

4. Examples
Evaluate the following integrals-
𝜋 𝜋
3 1 √tan −1 𝑥 15 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
(i) ∫0 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫02 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (iii) ∫0 (iv) ∫8 (v)∫02 𝑑𝑥 (vi)
1+𝑥 2 (𝑥−3)√𝑥+1 cos2 𝑥+3 cos 𝑥+2
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
∫0 3+2 sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥
3 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(i) ∫0 6𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫02 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 2 [∫02 𝑑𝑥 + ∫02 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝑥 3+1 3 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
= 6[ ] 1
= 2 ∫02 2 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3+1 0 1 1
=2 [[𝑥]02 + 2 [sin 2𝑥]02 ]
6 4 243 𝜋
= (3 ) = 1 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
4 2 = 2 ∫02 (1 + cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + (sin 𝜋 − 0)] = + ∙ 0 = (Ans.)
2 2 2 4 4 4

1 √tan−1 𝑥
(iii) ∫0 1+𝑥 2

1 √tan −1 𝑥 1
∫0 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 Changing Variables : Putting tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2
𝜋
𝜋 3 4 Changing Limit
𝑧2
= ∫0 √𝑧 𝑑𝑧= [
4
3 ]
2 0 𝑥 0 1
2 𝜋 3 −1 𝜋
= 3 ( 4 )2 − 0 𝑧 = tan 𝑥 0
4
𝜋
= (Ans.)
6

15 𝑑𝑥
(iv) ∫8 (𝑥−3)√𝑥+1

15 𝑑𝑥
= ∫8
(𝑥+1−4)√𝑥+1 Changing Variables -
1 1
Putting √𝑥 + 1 = 𝑧 ⇒ 2√𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑧
√𝑥+1
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

15 𝑑𝑥
= ∫8 2
{ (√𝑥+1) −22 }√𝑥+1

4 2 𝑑𝑧 4 𝑑𝑧
= ∫3 = 2 ∫3 Changing Limit:
(𝑧 2 −22 ) (𝑧 2−22)

1 𝑥 8 15
1 𝑧−2 4 1 1 3 5
= 2 [2 log |𝑧+2|] = log 3 − log 5 = log 1 = log 3 3 4
3 5
𝑧 = √𝑥 + 1

(Ans.)
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

𝜋
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
(v) ∫02 cos2 𝑥+3 cos 𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥
Changing
0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= − ∫1 2 Variables
𝑧 +3𝑧+2

1 {2(𝑧+1)− (𝑧+2)} 𝑑𝑧
Let cos 𝑥 = 𝑧
= ∫0 (𝑧+2)(𝑧+1)
(Using 7.2 (2)) ⇒ − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧

1
⇒ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑧
2 1
=∫0 { − } 𝑑𝑧 Changing Limit -
𝑧+2 𝑧+1
𝜋
= [2log(z + 2) − log(z + 1)]10 𝑥 0
2
𝑧 = cos 𝑥 1 0
= [ log(𝑧 + 2)2 − log(𝑧 + 1)]10
9
(𝑧+2)2 1 9 2 9
= [log | (𝑧+1) |] = log 2 − log 4 = log 4 = log 8 (Ans.)
0
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
(vi) ∫0
3+2 sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥

𝜋 𝑑𝑥 2 tan 𝑥 1−tan2 𝑥
= ∫0 𝑥 𝑥 [Formula:sin 2𝑥 = 1+tan2 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 = 1+tan2 𝑥
]
3+2 sin 2 +cos 2
2 2

𝜋 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 2 tan
𝑥
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥 𝑥
3+3 tan2 +4𝑡𝑎𝑛 +1−tan2
𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥 𝑥
2 tan2 +4𝑡𝑎𝑛 +4
3+2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥+ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 1+tan2 1+tan2
2 2 2 2

2 𝑥 Changing
𝜋 (1+tan 2 )𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 2 tan2 𝑥+4𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
+4
𝑑𝑥 Variables Changing Limit -
2 2 𝑥
Let tan = 𝑧 𝑥 0 𝜋
𝑥 2 𝑥
𝜋 sec2 𝑑𝑥 1
2 2𝑥 𝑧 = tan 0 ∞
= ∫0 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ sec 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧 2
2 tan2 +4𝑡𝑎𝑛 +4 2 2
2 2 𝑥
⇒ sec 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑧
∞ 2 𝑑𝑧
= ∫0 2 𝑧 2 +4𝑧+4
∞ 𝑑𝑧 𝑅 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
=∫0 = lim ∫0 = lim [tan−1(𝑧 + 1)]𝑅0 [Formula: ∫ 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑎 tan−1 𝑎]
𝑧 2 +2𝑧+2 𝑅→∞ (𝑧+1)2+ 12 𝑅→∞

= lim [tan−1 (𝑅 + 1) − tan−1 1] = lim tan−1 (𝑹 + 𝟏) − tan1 1

𝑅→∞ 𝑅→∞
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= tan−1 ∞ − 4
= 2
− 4
= 4
(Ans.)

Exercise -
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

1 1−x 1 sin−1 𝑥 𝑎
(vii) ∫0 dx (viii) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 (ix) ∫0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1+x √(1−𝑥 2 ) 1
1 Ans: 4 𝜋𝑎2
1−x 2−(1+x) Ans: 8 𝜋 2
Hint: =
1+x 1+x
Ans: 2 log 2 − 1

1
𝑑𝑥 1
(x) Show that ∫02 = 2 log(2 + √3).
(1−2𝑥 2 )√(1−𝑥 2 )
Hint: Put 𝑥 = sin 𝜃;
𝜋
2
(xi) Show that ∫02 sin6 𝜃 cos3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 63
Hint: Put sin 𝜃 = 𝑥;
1 2
(xii) Evaluate the integral: ∫0 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Beta and Gamma Function

The Gamma Function:
If 𝑛 > 0, We define the gamma function by
∞
Γ(𝑛) = ∫ 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0

Some important properties of the gamma function:

(i) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛Γ(𝑛), 𝑛 > 0
1
(ii) Γ ( ) = √𝜋
2
(iii) Γ(𝑝)Γ(1 − 𝑝) = 𝜋/ sin 𝑝𝜋; 0 < 𝑝 < 1
𝑛 𝑛
(iv) For large 𝑛, Γ(𝑛 + 1) ~ √2𝜋𝑛 ( 𝑒 )
(v) For 𝑛 < 0 we can define Γ(𝑛) by
Γ(𝑛+1)
Γ(𝑛 ) = 𝑛

Prove: (a) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛Γ(𝑛), 𝑛 > 0; (b) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛!, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … ..

∞
(a) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = ∫0 𝑢𝑛 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑃
= lim ∫0 𝑢𝑛 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑃→∞
𝑃 𝑃
= lim [𝑢𝑛 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢 − ∫0 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 (−𝑒 −𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑢]
𝑃→∞
𝑃
= lim [𝑢𝑛 (−𝑒 −𝑢 )|𝑃0 + 𝑛 ∫0 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢]
𝑃→∞
𝑃
= lim [−𝑃𝑛 𝑒 −𝑃 + 0 + 𝑛 ∫0 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢]
𝑃→∞
∞
= 𝑛 ∫0 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

= 𝑛Γ𝑛 (Proved)

∞ ∞
(b) By (a), Γ(2) = 1Γ(1) [Γ(1) = ∫0 𝑢1−1 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑢 |∞
0 = 0 + 1 = 1]
Γ(3) = 2Γ(2) = 2.1 = 2!
Γ(4) = 3Γ(3) = 3.2.1 = 3! And so on..
This implies, Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛!, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … …. (Proved)
The Beta Function:
If 𝑚 > 0, 𝑛 > 0, We define Beta function as
1
Β(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫0 𝑢𝑚−1 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑢

We can show the following properties:

Γ(m) Γ(𝑛)
1. Β(𝑚, 𝑛) = Γ(𝑚+𝑛)
𝜋
1 Γ(m) Γ(𝑛)
2. ∫02 sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2n−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛) = 2Γ(𝑚+𝑛)
𝜋
1 Γ(m) Γ(𝑛)
Prove that∫0 sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2n−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛) =
2 .
2Γ(𝑚+𝑛)

Proof:
1
By definition of Beta function Β(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫0 𝑢𝑚−1 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑢

Letting 𝑢 = sin2 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃, this becomes

𝜋
Β(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫02 sin2𝑚−2 𝜃 cos 2𝑛−2 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
= 2 ∫02 sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
Γ(𝑚)Γ(𝑛)
Thus, ∫02 sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = (Ans.)
2Γ(𝑚+𝑛)
𝜋
(3) Evaluate ∫02 sin4 𝜃 cos 6 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Solution:
5 7
Let 2𝑚 − 1 = 4 ⇒ 𝑚 = 2 and 2𝑛 − 1 = 6 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2
𝜋
Γ(𝑚)Γ(𝑛)
Using the property of Beta function, ∫02 sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = We get,
2Γ(𝑚+𝑛)

𝜋 𝜋 5 7
2 2 5 7 Γ ( 2) Γ ( 2)
4 6
∫ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ sin2×2−1 𝜃 cos 2×2−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
5 7
0 0 2Γ(2 + 2)
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

5 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 3𝜋
Γ (2) = Γ (2 + 1) = 2 Γ (2) = 2 Γ (2 + 1) = 2 ∙ 2 Γ (2) = 4
7 5 5 5 3𝜋 15𝜋
Γ (2) = 2 Γ (2) = 2 ∙ =
4 8
5 7
Γ (2 + 2) = Γ(6) = 5! = 120
𝜋 3√𝜋15√𝜋 45𝜋
4 6 4 8 32 3𝜋 3𝜋
Thus ∫0 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
2
5 7 = = 32×16 = 512 (Ans.)
2Γ( + ) 240
2 2

Exercise:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋/2
(1) Evaluate ∫0 cos 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (Hint: ∫0 cos 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2 ∫0 cos 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐)
3
Γ(3)Γ(4) 5 Γ( )Γ(4)
2
(2) Evaluate (a) Γ(5) (b) (c) Γ (2) (d) 11
Γ(7) Γ( )
2

Length and Area of Plane curves

Formula for length of the curve (Definition)

If 𝑓 is smooth on[𝑎, 𝑏], the length of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is
𝑏
𝐿 = ∫𝑎 √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 …….. (2)
In Leibniz notation for derivatives,
𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿 = ∫𝑎 √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

If a curve has the equation 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑, and 𝑔′ (𝑦)is continuous, then by interchanging
the roles of x and y in Equation (2), we obtain the following formula for its length:
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2
𝐿 = ∫𝑐 √1 + [𝑔′(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑐 √1 + [𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑦 ……… (3)

Example
(1) Find the length of the arc of the semi cubical parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 between the points (1,1) and(4,8).

Solution:

For the top half of the curve we have 𝑦 = 𝑥 3/2

1
𝑑𝑦 3
= 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 2
And so the arc length formula gives
4 9
𝐿 = ∫1 √1 + 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
9 9
If we substitute 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
4 4
13
When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 4
and when 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 10
Therefore,
10 3 3
3 3
4 10 4 2 8 13 2 1 √13 1
𝐿 = ∫13 √𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∙ [𝑢2 ]13 = [102 − ( ) ] = [10√10 − 8 ( ) ]= [10√10 − 13√13] Ans.
9 4 9 3 27 4 27 2 27
4

(2) Find the length of the arc of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 from (0,0) to (1,1).

Solution:

𝑑𝑥
Since 𝑥 = 𝑦 2, we have 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑦,
Using equation (3)

1
𝐿 = ∫ √1 + 4𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
0
1 1
Letting 𝑦 = tan 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 2
When 𝑦 = 0, 𝜃 = 0 and when, 𝑦 = 1, 𝜃 = tan−1 2 = 𝛼 (𝑆𝑎𝑦)

1 𝛼 1 𝛼
Thus, 𝐿 = 2 ∫0 √1 + tan2 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃 = 2 ∫0 sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 𝛼
= 2 [∫0 sec 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ]
1 𝛼 𝛼
= [sec 𝜃 ∫0 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − ∫0 {sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ∫ sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃} 𝑑𝜃]
2
1 𝛼
= 2 [[sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ]𝛼0 − ∫0 {sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ∫ sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃} 𝑑𝜃]
1 𝛼
= 2 [[sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ]𝛼0 − ∫0 sec 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃]
1 𝛼 𝛼
= 2 [[sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ]𝛼0 − ∫0 sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ∫0 sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
1 1 𝛼 1
= 2 [sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ]𝛼0 − 2 ∫0 sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 2 [ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃|]𝛼0
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

1 1
Therefore, 𝐿 = [sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 ]𝛼0 − 𝐿 + [ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃|]𝛼0
2 2
1
⇒ 𝐿 = 4 (sec 𝛼 tan 𝛼 + ln|sec 𝛼 + tan 𝛼 | )

Since it is given, tan 𝛼 = 2

sec 𝛼 = √1 + 22 = √5

1 √5 ln|√5+2|
∴ 𝐿 = 4 (2√5 + ln|√5 + 2|) = 2
+ 4
(Ans.)

2
𝑥 3
(3) Find the length of curve 𝑦 = ( ) from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2.
2
Area between Curves

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous with 𝑓 (𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) throughout[𝑎, 𝑏], then the area of the region between
the curves 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) from 𝑎 to b is the integral of [𝑓 − 𝑔] from 𝑎 to 𝑏:
𝑏
𝐴 = lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑓(𝑐𝑘 ) − 𝑔(𝑐𝑘 )]∆𝑥𝑘 = ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞

Example –

𝜋
(1) Find the area between 𝑦 = sec 2 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 from 0 to 4 .
Solution:
Step – 1: Graph the curve and draw a representative rectangle.
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

𝜋
Step – 2: Lower limit of integration is 𝑎 = 0 and = 4 .
Step – 3: 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
Step – 4: Integration
𝜋 𝜋
√2 1
𝐴 = ∫04 (sec 2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥] = [tan 𝑥 + cos 𝑥]04 = [1 + 2
] − [0 + 1] = (Ans.)
√2

(2) Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥.

Solution:
We find the limits of integration by solving 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −𝑥 simultaneously for x.

2 − 𝑥 2 = −𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 2
The region runs from 𝑥 = −1 to 𝑥 = 2. The limits of integration are 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 2.

So, 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (2 − 𝑥 2 ) − (−𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥

2 9
Therefore, Area 𝐴 = ∫−1(2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = (Ans.)
2

(3) Find the area enclosed by the parabola 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 and the straight line 4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 4 = 0.
Solution:

To determine the intersection points of parabola and straight line –

Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 4 = 0
4𝑦 2
⇒ 8 − 𝑦 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0 ⇒ (𝑦 − 4)(𝑦 + 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑦 = 4, −2
1
So, the intersecting points are (2,4)and (2 , −2).
4 1 1
Required area = ∫−2{4 (𝑦 + 4) − 8 𝑦 2 }𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦2 1 𝑦3
= [ + 4𝑦] 4−2 − [ ]4−2
4 2 8 3
1 72
= 4 [8 + 16 − 2 + 8] − 24
15 9
= 2
−3= 2
sq. unit. (Ans.)

Area under a plane curve:

(4) Find the area of the circle𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2.

The powers of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are even in the given equation. So, the curve is symmetrical about both
axes. Hence the area is equally divided into four equal parts.
From the equation,
𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ± √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2
So, 𝑦 is maximum and minimum at 𝐵(𝑥 = 0) and 𝐶(𝑥 = 𝑎) respectively.
Therefore,
𝑎 𝑎
Area of 𝐵𝑂𝐶 = ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 [∵ 𝑦 is positive in 𝐵𝑂𝐶 part]
𝑎
= 𝑎 ∫0 √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
= ∫02 acos 𝜃 ∙ acos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
= ∫02 𝑎 2 cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
1
= 2 𝑎 2 ∫02 2 cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 𝑎
= = 2 𝑎2 ∫0 (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
= 2 𝑎 2 [𝜃]02 − 4 𝑎2 [sin 2𝜃]02
𝜋
= 4
𝑎 2 (Ans.)
(5) Prove that the area of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

The power of y in the given equation is even. So, the curve is symmetrical about the 𝑥 −axis. Let
𝐴𝐵𝐶 be the double ordinate and let abscissa of B be 𝑥1 .
𝑥 𝑥
So, Area 𝐴𝑂𝐵 = ∫0 1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 1 √4𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∵ 𝑦 is +𝑣𝑒 in the first quadrant.
3
2 𝑥
= √4𝑎 [ 𝑥 2 ]01
3
2
= 3 𝑥1 √4𝑎𝑥1
2
= 𝑥1 𝑦1 sq. units
3

2 2 2
∴ Required total area = 2 ∙ 3 𝑥1 𝑦1 = 3 (𝑥1 )(2𝑦1 ) = 3 (𝑂𝐵. 𝐴𝐶) (Ans.)

Volume and surface areas of solids and revolution

Figure – 1: Slice of area A(x) of cylinder

Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Figure – 2: Sliced into many parts to sum up and calculate the volume

Let’s divide 𝑆 into 𝑛 “slabs” of equal width ∆𝑥 by using the planes 𝑃𝑥1 , 𝑃𝑥2 , . .. to slice the solid.
(Think of slicing a loaf of bread.) If we choose sample points 𝑥𝑖∗ in[𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ], we can approximate
the 𝑖th slab Si (the part of 𝑆 that lies between the planes 𝑃𝑥𝑖−1 and 𝑃𝑥𝑖 by a cylinder with base
area 𝐴(𝑥𝑖∗ ) and “height” ∆𝑥.

The volume of this cylinder is 𝐴(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥, so an approximation to our intuitive conception of the
volume of the 𝑖th slab 𝑆𝑖 is
𝑉 (𝑆𝑖 ) = 𝐴(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥
Adding the volumes of these slabs, we get an approximation to the total volume (that is, what
we think of intuitively as the volume):
𝑛

𝑉 ≈ ∑ 𝐴(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥
𝑖=1

This approximation appears to become better and better as 𝑛 → ∞ (Think of the slices as
becoming thinner and thinner.) Therefore we define the volume as the limit of these sums as 𝑛 →
∞ .But we recognize the limit of Riemann sums as a definite integral and so we have the
following definition.

Definition

Let S be a solid that lies between x − a and x − b. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane 𝑃𝑥,
through x and perpendicular to the x-axis, is 𝐴(𝑥), where A is a continuous function, then the
volume of S is

𝑏
𝑉 = lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞

Volumes of solids of Revolution

Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

The most common application of method of slicing is to solids of revolution. Solids of

revolution are solids whose shapes can be generated by revolving plane regions about axes. The
figure below is given as an example of such solids.

Figure- 4: Solid of revolution

The volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis is the region between the
𝑥 −axis and the graph of the continuous function𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 is

𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋{𝑅 (𝑥)}2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Again, the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the y-axis is the region between the
𝑦 −axis and the graph of the continuous function𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑦), 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑 is

𝑑
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋{𝑅 (𝑦)}2 𝑑𝑦
𝑐

Example

(1) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region under the
curve 𝑦 = √𝑥 from 0 to 1.
Solution:
The region is shown in Figure 6(a). If we rotate about the x-axis, we get the solid shown in
Figure 5. When we slice through the point x, we get a disk with radius √𝑥. The area of this
cross-section is
2
𝐴 = 𝜋(√𝑥) = 𝜋𝑥
Lecture on Integral Calculus -- RP

Therefore, by definition,
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉 = ∫0 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [𝑥 2 ]10 = 2
(Ans.)

(2) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 8, and
𝑥 = 0 about the y-axis.

The radius, here is 𝑅 (𝑦) = 𝑥 = 3√𝑦 (From figure)

So, by definition,
2
8
The volume of the solid = ∫0 𝜋( 3√𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑦 =
96𝜋
5
(Ans.) --END of LECTURE--