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C H A P T E R 18
Laminar Boundary Layers

Lamina—A thin scale or sheet. A layer or coat lying over another.

Funk and Wagnalls Standard Desk
Dictionary, 1964

PREVIEW BOX

Here we get down to the brass tacks of actually solving with laminar boundary layers, and Chapter 19 deal-
the boundary-layer equations and obtaining practical ing with turbulent boundary layers.
formulas for the calculation of skin friction and aero- Laminar boundary layers are easier to deal with,
dynamic heating to the surface. The solution, however, and that is why we treat them first. The analysis of a
depends on whether the flow in the boundary layer is laminar boundary layer is more theoretically “pure”
laminar or turbulent. And what a big difference there than that for a turbulent boundary layer. You will feel
is! The difference is so important that we have separate intellectually comfortable with this chapter, so sit back
chapters for each case—the present chapter dealing and enjoy this intellectual experience.

18.1 INTRODUCTION
Within the panoply of boundary-layer analyses, the solution of laminar boundary
layers is well in hand compared to the status for turbulent boundary layers. This
chapter is exclusively devoted to laminar boundary layers; turbulent boundary
layers is the subject of Chapter 19. The basic definitions of laminar and turbulent
flows are discussed in Section 15.1, and some characteristics of these flows are
illustrated in Figures 15.5 and 15.6; it is recommended that you review that
material before progressing further.
The roadmap for this chapter is given in Figure 18.1. We will first deal
with some well-established classical solutions that come under the heading of

981
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Laminar boundary layer solutions

Classical solutions Computational fluid

(self-similar solutions) dynamic solutions

Finite difference

Incompressible Compressible
flow flow

Flat plate Flat plate

Stagnation point
Reference temperature method

Figure 18.1 Road map for Chapter 18.

self-similar solutions, a term that is defined in Section 18.2. In this regard, we will
deal with both incompressible and compressible flows over a flat plate, as noted on
the left side of our roadmap in Figure 18.1. We will also discuss the boundary-layer
solution in the region surrounding the stagnation point on a blunt-nosed body,
because this solution gives us important information on aerodynamic heating at
the stagnation point—vital information for high-speed flight vehicles. As part
of the classical solution of compressible boundary layers, we will discuss the
reference temperature method—a very useful engineering calculation that makes
use of classical incompressible boundary-layer results to predict skin friction and
aerodynamic heating for a compressible flow. Then we will move to the right side
of the roadmap in Figure 18.1 and discuss some more modern computational fluid
dynamic solutions to laminar boundary layers. Unlike the classical self-similar
solutions, which are limited to a few (albeit important) applications such as flat
plates and the stagnation region, these CFD numerical solutions deal with the
laminar boundary layer over bodies of arbitrary shapes.
Note: As we progress through this chapter, we will encounter ideas and results
that are already familiar to us from our discussion of Couette flow in Chapter 16.
Indeed, this is one of the primary reasons for Chapter 16—to introduce these
concepts within the context of a relatively straightforward flow problem before
dealing with the more intricate boundary-layer solutions.

18.2 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW OVER A FLAT

PLATE: THE BLASIUS SOLUTION
Consider the incompressible, two-dimensional flow over a flat plate at 0◦ angle
of attack, such as sketched in Figure 17.7. For such a flow, ρ = constant, μ =
constant, and dpe /d x = 0 (because the inviscid flow over a flat plate at α = 0
yields a constant pressure over the surface). Moreover, recall that the energy
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CHAPTER 18 Laminar Boundary Layers 983

equation is not needed to calculate the velocity field for an incompressible flow.
Hence, the boundary-layer equations, Equations (17.28) to (17.31), reduce to
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (18.1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +v =ν 2 (18.2)
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂p
=0 (18.3)
∂y
where ν is the kinematic viscosity, defined as ν ≡ μ/ρ.
We now embark on a procedure that is common to many boundary-layer
solutions. Let us transform the independent variables (x, y) to (ξ, η), where

V∞
ξ = x and η = y (18.4)
νx
Using the chain rule, we obtain the derivatives
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η
= + (18.5)
∂x ∂ξ ∂ x ∂η ∂ x
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η
= + (18.6)
∂y ∂ξ ∂ y ∂η ∂ y
However, from Equations (18.4) we have

∂ξ ∂ξ ∂η V∞
=1 =0 = (18.7)
∂x ∂y ∂y νx
(We do not have to explicitly obtain ∂η/∂ x because these terms will eventually
cancel from our equations.) Substituting Equations (18.7) into (18.5) and (18.6),
we have
∂ ∂ ∂η ∂
= + (18.8)
∂x ∂ξ ∂ x ∂η

∂ V∞ ∂
= (18.9)
∂y νx ∂η
∂2 V∞ ∂ 2
= (18.10)
∂ y2 νx ∂η2
Also, let us define a stream function ψ such that

ψ = νx V∞ f (η) (18.11)
where f (η) is strictly a function of η only. This expression for ψ identically
satisfies the continuity equation, Equation (18.1); therefore, it is a physically
possible stream function. [Show yourself that ψ satisfies Equation (18.1); to do
this, you will have to carry out many of the same manipulations described below.]
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From the definition of the stream function, and using Equations (18.8), (18.9),
and (18.11), we have 
∂ψ V∞ ∂ψ
u= = = V∞ f  (η) (18.12)
∂y νx ∂η
  
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η ∂ψ 1 νV∞  ∂η 
v=− =− + =− f − νx V∞ f (18.13)
∂x ∂ξ ∂ x ∂η 2 x ∂x
Equation (18.12) is of particular note. The function f (η) defined in Equa-
tion (18.11) has the property that its derivative f  gives the x component of
velocity as
u
f  (η) =
V∞
Substitute Equations (18.8) to (18.10), (18.12), and (18.13) into the momentum
equation, Equation (18.2). Writing each term explicitly so that you can see what
is happening, we have
⎛  ⎞ 
  
∂η  1 νV∞ ∂η  ⎠ V∞  V∞ 
V∞ f  V∞ f −⎝ f + νx V∞ f V∞ f = νV∞ f
∂x 2 x ∂x νx νx

Simplifying, we obtain
 
2 ∂η ∂η
2
1 V∞ V2
V∞ 
f f −  
f f − V∞ 2
f  f  = ∞ f  (18.14)
∂x 2 x ∂x x
The first and third terms cancel, and Equation (18.14) becomes

2 f  + f f  = 0 (18.15)

Equation (18.15) is important; it is called Blasius’ equation, after H. Blasius, who

obtained it in his Ph.D. dissertation in 1908. Blasius was a student of Prandtl, and
his flat-plate solution using Equation (18.15) was the first practical application
of Prandtl’s boundary-layer hypothesis since its announcement in 1904. Examine
Equation (18.15) closely. Amazingly enough it is an ordinary differential equa-
tion. Look what has happened! Starting with the partial differential equations for
a flat-plate boundary layer given by Equations (18.1) to (18.3), and transform-
ing both the independent and dependent variables through Equations (18.4) and
(18.11), we obtain an ordinary differential equation for f (η). In the same breath,
we can say that Equation (18.15) is also an equation for the velocity u because
u = V∞ f  (η). Because Equation (18.15) is a single ordinary differential equa-
tion, it is simpler to solve than the original boundary-layer equations. However,
it is still a nonlinear equation and must be solved numerically, subject to the
transformed boundary conditions,
At η = 0: f = 0, f  = 0
At η → ∞: f = 1
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CHAPTER 18 Laminar Boundary Layers 985

[Note that at the wall where η = 0, f  = 0 because u = 0, and therefore f = 0

from Equation (18.13) evaluated at the wall.]
Equation (18.15) is a third-order, nonlinear, ordinary differential equation; it
can be solved numerically by means of standard techniques, such as the Runge-
Kutta method (such as that described in Reference 52). The integration begins at
the wall and is carried out in small increments y in the direction of increasing y
away from the wall. However, since Equation (18.15) is third order, three bound-
ary conditions must be known at η = 0; from the above, only two are specified.
A third boundary condition, namely, some value for f  (0), must be assumed;
Equation (18.15) is then integrated across the boundary layer to a large value
of η. The value of f  at large eta is then examined. Does it match the boundary
condition at the edge of the boundary layer, namely, is f  = 1 satisfied at the
edge of the boundary layer? If not, assume a different value of f  (0) and integrate
again. Repeat this process until convergence is obtained. This numerical approach
is called the “shooting technique”; it is a classical approach, and its basic phi-
losophy and details are discussed at great length in Section 16.4. Its application
to Equation (18.15) is more straightforward than the discussion in Section 16.4,
because here we are dealing with an incompressible flow and only one equation,
namely, the momentum equation as embodied in Equation (18.15).
The solution of Equation (18.15) is plotted in Figure 18.2 in the form of
f  (η) = u/V∞ as a function of η. Note that this curve is the velocity profile and
that it is a function of η only. Think about this for a moment. Consider two different
x stations along the plate, as shown in Figure 18.3. In general, u = u(x, y), and
the velocity profiles in terms of u = u(y) at given x stations will be different.
Clearly, the variation of u normal to the wall will change as the flow progresses
downstream. However, when plotted versus η, we see that the profile, u = u(η), is

Figure 18.2 Incompressible velocity

profile for a flat plate; solution of the
Blasius equation.
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986 PA R T 4 Viscous Flow

Figure 18.3 Velocity profiles in physical and transformed space,

demonstrating the meaning of self-similar solutions.

the same for all x stations, as illustrated in Figure 18.3. This result is an example
of a self-similar solution—solutions where the boundary-layer profiles, when
plotted versus a similarity variable η are the same for all x stations. For such self-
similar solutions, the governing boundary-layer equations reduce to one or more
ordinary differential equations in terms of a transformed independent variable.
Self-similar solutions occur only for certain special types of flows—the flow over
a flat plate is one such example. In general, for the flow over an arbitrary body,
the boundary-layer solutions are nonsimilar; the governing partial differential
equations cannot be reduced to ordinary differential equations.
Numerical values of f , f  , and f  tabulated versus η can be found in Ref-
erence 42. Of particular interest is the value of f  at the wall; f  (0) = 0.332.
Consider the local skin-friction coefficient defined as c f = τw / 12 ρ∞ V∞ 2
. From
Equation (17.34), the shear stress at the wall is given by
 
∂u
τw = μ (18.16)
∂ y y=0
However, from Equations (18.9) and (18.11),
 
∂u ∂f  V∞ ∂ f  V∞ 
= V∞ = V∞ = V∞ f (18.17)
∂y ∂y νx ∂η νx
Evaluating Equation (18.17) at the wall, where y = η = 0, we obtain
  
∂u V∞ 
= V∞ f (0) (18.18)
∂ y y=0 νx