AUTOMOTIVE STARTING SYSTEM

1.1 SIMPLE DC MOTOR.

Construction. An electric motor is constructed essentially the same as a generator. If brushes of simple
generator are connected to a battery and current is permitted to flow through the loop of wire, the loop
will rotate in the direction indicated by the arrows. This rotation is due to the repulsion between the field
magnetism and magnetic whirl set up around the loop of wire by the current.
Operation. The repulsion is caused by the magnetic lines of force tending to flow around the conductor
in the same direction. This distorts and crowds the magnetic lines on one side of the conductor more than
on the other, which results in a repulsion of the conductor. The rubber band characteristic of the lines of
force causes the lines to exert a push on the conductor. If the magnetic field is reversed, with the direction
of current unchanged, the magnetic lines of force will crowd to the other side of the conductor, and it will
be repelled in opposite direction. The same action would result if the current, instead of the magnetism,
were reversed. Thus, in Figure 1, owing to the current flowing in reverse directions in the two sides A
and B of the loop, and the consequent field distortion. Side A will be repulsed upward and while B
downward, and the loop will rotate in a clockwise direction.

Figure 1. Principle operation of starter motor

1.2 AUTOMOTIVE STARTING MOTOR.

The motor armature has many coil loops equally spaced around the entire circumference of the armature.
Each coil carries current and consequently exerts a force to rotate the armature as it passes the pole pieces.
The switching of armature coils to the brushes is handled by a segmented commutation. The result is a
comparatively high turning power (or torque) that is sufficient to crank the engine if it is applied through
suitable gear reductions. A cutaway view of a typical automotive starter motor is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2(a). Automotive starter motor

Figure 2(b): Construction of a starter motor

The automotive starter motor consists of the following parts.

Armature. The armature contains multiple loops of heavy copper. These coils pass through a laminated
core of iron to increase the permeability of the armature. The commutator segments are made of heavy
copper bars that are set into mica or epoxy resins. The armature rotates on bronze bushings.
Field Coils. The field coils electromagnetically create the magnetic field that cause armature rotation.
They are constructed of heavy copper wire that is usually rectangular in cross section. An insulating
material is placed within the windings to insulate the coils from each other. The coils then are insulated
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on the outside by either wrapping them in paper or sealing them in rubber. The field coils are secured to
the field frame by pole shoes. The pole shoes serve as a core for the field coils to increase permeability.
Field Circuit Configurations. Field circuits will vary according to the application of the starter motors.
The following are the most popular shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Field Circuit Configurations

Two Windings: Parallel (A). The wiring of two field coils in parallel will increase the field strength
because they each receive full voltage. Note that two additional pole shoes are used. Though they have
no windings, their presence will strengthen further the magnetic field.
Four Windings: Series-Parallel (B). The wiring of four field coils in a series-parallel combination will
create a much stronger magnetic field than the two field coil configuration.
Four Windings: Series (C). The wiring of four field coils in series will provide a large amount of low-
speed starting torque, which is a very necessary characteristic of an automotive starting motor. An
undesirable characteristic of series-wound motors is that they will build up excessive speed if allowed to
run free to the point where they will destroy themselves.
Six Windings: Series-Parallel (D). Three pairs of series-wound field windings provide the magnetic
field for a heavy-duty starter. This configuration uses six brushes.

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Three Windings: Two Series, One Shunt (E). The use of one field coil that is shunted to ground with
a series-wound motor will control motor speed. The shunt coil, because it is not affected by speed, will
draw a steady, heavy current, effectively limiting speed.

1.3 STARTER MOTOR DRIVES.

The starter motor may drive the engine through a pinion or by dog clutch attached to starter armature
shaft. The shaft is brought together with the teeth cut on the rim of the flywheel or with mating half of
dog clutch. The drive must be equipped with an overrunning clutch for quick disengagement. Owing to
limitations of size and capacity of the battery, a high-speed starter with high gear reduction is used to
obtain the necessary torque. The great speed reduction utilizing the flywheel as a driven gear. In some
instances, gear is bolted or shrunk on flywheel, while in others the gear teeth are cut directly in the rim
of the flywheel itself. The starter is mounted on the flywheel housing.
Gear Reduction Starters (Fig. 4). The gear reduction obtained through the flywheel gear with a single
reduction is usually approximately 11:1 or 12:1 or even 16:1; ie, speed of the starter armature is 11 or 12
times that of the flywheel. The pinion gear on armature shaft meshes directly with gear teeth on flywheel.
When double reduction is used, the gear ratio is as high as 25:1 or even 40:1. With double reduction, the
gear on the armature shaft does not mesh directly with the teeth on flywheel but with an intermediate
gear, which drives flywheel driving pinion. The double-reduction drive permits the use of very small
starter motor running at high speed, but has the disadvantage of requiring a more complicated mechanism
than single-reduction drive.

Figure 4a. A gear reduction-drive starter motor.

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Figure 4b. Gear reduction starter motor
Overrunning Clutch (Fig. 5). Power can be transmitted through the overrunning clutch in one direction
only, which prevents engine from driving the starter motor. The shell and sleeve assembly of the clutch
is driven by starter armature shaft. The inner portion, or rotor, is connected to the pinion, which meshes
with the teeth on engine flywheel. Steel rollers are located in wedge-shaped spaces between the rotor and
the shell. Springs and plungers normally hold the rollers in position within the wedge spaces. When
starter armature shaft turns, the rollers are jammed between the wedge-shaped surfaces, causing both
inner and outer members to rotate as a unit and crank the engine. As soon as the engine transmits power
through the pinion in a reverse direction, the pinion and rotor assembly is driven by the flywheel. This
action tends to work the rollers back against the plungers to where the space is greater, causing a slipping
or overrunning action. As a result, the clutch cannot be driven in this direction hence, it is disengaged.

Figure 5a. Overrunning Clutch.

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Figure 5b. When engine starts, flywheel spins the pinion gear faster, which releases rollers from wedge.

Pedal Shift (Fig. 7). With this type of starting mechanism, the starter pinion is meshed when the driver
presses the starter pedal. When the yoke lever is moved by action of the driver in stepping on starter
pedal, the pinion gear is shifted into mesh with flywheel ring gear. After the gears are in mesh, continued
movement of pedal operates the starter switch and crank the engine. In case the pinion does not mesh
perfectly with the flywheel, further motion of the shift lever compresses a spring so that the pinion will
snap into place where the starter armature begins to rotate. After the engine has started, releasing starter
pedal will pull the pinion out of the mesh.

Figure 7. Pedal shift starter motor type

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Solenoid Shift (Fig. 8a). Shifting the overrunning clutch pinion gear in mesh with the flywheel gear is
made automatic on a good proportion of modern vehicles by the use of a solenoid. A solenoid is a coil of
wire wound in a spiral of one or more layers, which produces a magnetic field when current is passed
through it. The magnetic field thus produced flows in concentric circles around the wire.
Operation of Solenoid Shift. A remote control switch is necessary to operate the solenoid. The ignition
switch is connected to control circuit so that the starter will not operate until ignition is on. The solenoid
shift unit is mounted rigidly on starter field frame. Inside the solenoid coil is a heavy plunger connected
to the shift lever. The two larger terminal posts on shift unit are connected in series with the starter. The
smaller terminal that leads to the solenoid, is connected to the remote control circuit. When the remote
control circuit is closed to supply current to the solenoid coil, it exerts a pull on shift plunger, which shifts
the pinion to engage with flywheel teeth. After pinion shift lever has moved the distance required for
engaging, the pointed end of shift plunger presses against the end of a contact plunger. This action pushes
a contact disk on contact plunger across the switch contacts to operate the starter. An overrunning clutch
is required with this system to prevent damage to the starter at the time the engine starts.

Figure 8a. Solenoid shift lever

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Figure 8b: Actions of the solenoid and overrunning clutch as the pinion engages.

Bendix Starter Drive (Fig. 9). The Bendix drive is a starting mechanism that seldom is used on modern
vehicles. This automatic screw pinion shift mechanism is built in two distinct styles: the inboard type, in
which the pinion shifts toward the starter to engage the flywheel, and the outboard type, in which the
pinion shifts away from the starter. The same general construction is used in both types. A sleeve having
screw threads (usually a triple thread), with stops at each end to limit the lengthwise travel of the pinion,
is mounted on the extended armature shaft. The pinion gear, which is unbalanced by a weight on one
side, has corresponding internal threads for mounting on this sleeve. The sleeve is connected to the starter
armature shaft through a special drive spring attached to a collar pinned to the armature shaft.
Operation. When the starter is not operating, the pinion is out of mesh and entirely away from the
flywheel gear. When the starter switch, which may be foot or hand operated, is closed and the total
available battery voltage is impressed on the starter, the armature immediately starts to rotate at high
speed. The pinion, being weighted on one side and having internal screw threads, does not rotate
immediately with the shaft but, because of its inertia, runs forward on the revolving threaded sleeve until
it meets or engages with the flywheel gear. If the teeth of the pinion and the flywheel meet instead of
engaging, the drive spring allows the pinion to revolve and forces it into mesh with the flywheel. When
the pinion gear is engaged fully with the flywheel gear, the pinion then is driven by the starter through
the compressed drive spring and cranks the engine. The drive spring acts as a cushion while the engine
is being cranked against compression. It also breaks the severity of the shock on the teeth when the gears
engage and when the engine kicks back due to ignition. When the engine fires and runs on its own power,
the flywheel drives the pinion at a higher speed than does the starter, causing the pinion to turn in the
opposite direction on the threaded sleeve and automatically disengages from the flywheel. This prevents

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the engine from driving the starter. When the pinion is disengaged from the flywheel automatically, it is
held in this position by a latch until the starter switch is closed again.

Figure 9. Bendix starter drive

Advantages. The chief advantages claimed for this type of starter are listed below.
a) It is simple in construction.
b) The mechanism is automatic in operation, requiring no action by the operator other than pressing
the starter switch.
c) It gives high starting speed, because the starter is permitted to pick up speed before the load is
applied.
d) The engine is given a high cranking torque immediately, thus requiring little cranking and
minimizing the demand on the battery.
(3) Disadvantages. The chief disadvantages are listed below.
a) The quick impulse given to the pinion is likely to cause nicking or breaking of the teeth when the
pinion does not mesh properly on first contact with the flywheel teeth.
b) Breakage or nonfunctioning of the pinion latch will cause the pinion to drift toward the flywheel
teeth, which is likely to cause damage if the engine is running.
c) All the starter torque is transmitted through drive spring, which puts it under considerable strain.

1.4 STARTER MOTOR CIRCUIT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

The starting system has six basic components and two distinct electrical circuits which are the battery,
ignition switch, cables, magnetic switch (either electrical relay or a solenoid), starter motor, and starter
safety switch. The system has two separate circuits: starter circuit and the control circuit (Figure 10).

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Figure 10. Starting motor circuit and control systems.

The starter motor draws high current of 250 amperes (A) or more from the battery. This current flows
through large cables that connects battery to the starter and ground. The driver controls the flow of this
current using the ignition switch normally mounted on the steering column. The battery cables are not
connected to the switch. The starter circuit carries the heavy current from the battery to the starter motor
through a magnetic switch in a relay or solenoid. The control circuit connects battery power at the ignition
switch to the magnetic switch, which controls the high current to the starter motor.

Key and Pushbutton Switch Control Circuits (Fig. 10). One method of controlling the solenoid shift
is by a pushbutton on the instrument panel. Pushing the button closes the control circuit so that current
can be supplied to the solenoid coil. A relay frequently is used in the control circuit to supply current to
the solenoid coils. Only a low-current control circuit to instrument panel pushbutton is then necessary.
The relay will close the circuit through the solenoid coil, which carries a larger current.

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Figure 10. Key and Pushbutton Control Circuits

Vacuum Lockout Switch Control Circuit (Fig. 11). The vacuum lockout switch is incorporated on
some vehicles to prevent the starter from accidentally being engaged after the engine is running. The
switch has a diaphragm that is actuated by manifold vacuum after the engine starts. The movement of the
diaphragm opens the switch, disabling the starter solenoid circuit.

Figure 11. Vacuum Lockout Switch Control Circuit.

Generator Lockout Relay (Fig. 12). A generator lockout relay sometimes is used to prevent the starter
from accidentally being engaged on a running engine. The relay is actuated by the stator terminal on the
alternator to open starter solenoid circuit as the engine runs and the alternator begins producing current.

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Figure 12. Generator Lockout Relay

Oil Pressure Lockout Circuit (Fig. 13). The oil pressure lockout circuit is used on some models to
prevent accidental starter engagement to a running engine. As the engine starts, the lockout switch is
turned on by the engine oil pressure. The lockout switch will, in turn, actuate a relay that opens the starter
solenoid circuit.

Figure 13. Oil Pressure Lockout Circuit

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Figure 14: starter motor

Figure 15: Starting-system Circuit.

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Figure 16: Construction of a starter motor.

Figure 17a. Typical starter motor assembly.

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Figure 17b. Automotive starter motor assembly.

Figure 22. Synchronous motor used in Toyota’s hybrid vehicles controlled by inverter.

Figure 23. Inertia starter motor

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Figure 24. Starter motor commutator and brush-gear

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Figure 25. Starter motor inertia-drive operating cycle

Figure 26. Starter motor solenoid switch

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Figure 25. Inertia starter motor circuit

Figure 27. Pre-engaged starter motor drive

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Figure 27. Pre-engaged starter motor drive

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Figure 28. Axial (Sliding Armature) type starter motor drive

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Figure 26. Co-Axial (Sliding Pinion sleeve) type starter motor drive

STARTER MOTOR SERVICE

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The starter should be cleaned and inspected as it is disassembled. Inspect the end frame and drive housing
for cracks or broken ends. Check the frame assembly for loose pole shoes and broken or frayed wires.
Inspect the drive gear for worn teeth and proper overrunning clutch operation. The commutator should
be free of flat spots and should not be excessively burned. Check the brushes for wear. Replace them if
worn past specifications.
Starter Motor Component Tests
With the starter motor disassembled, tests can be conducted to determine the reason for failure. The
armature and field coils should be checked for shorts and opens first. Normally, if the armature or coils
are bad, the entire starter is replaced.
Field Coil Tests. The field coil and frame assembly can be wired in a number of different ways. Accurate
testing of the coils can only be done if you follow the specific guidelines of the manufacturer or if you
know how the coils are wired. To do this, look at the wiring diagram and figure out where the coils get
their power and where they ground. When you have this information, you will know if the coils are wired
in series or parallel. The usual way to check the field coils for opens is to connect an ohmmeter between
the coils’ power feed wire and the field coil brush lead (Fig. 18a). If there is no continuity, the field is
open. To check the field coil for a short to ground, connect the ohmmeter from the field coil brush lead
and the starter (field frame) housing. If there is continuity, the field coil is shorted to the housing.

Figure 18a. Checking a field coil for an open. Figure 18b. Checking the armature for an open.

Armature Tests. The armature should be inspected for wear or damage caused by contact with the
permanent magnets or field windings. If there is wear or damage, check the pole shoes for looseness and
repair as necessary. A damaged armature must be replaced.
Next, check the commutator of the armature. If the surface is dirty or burnt, clean it with emery cloth or
cut it down with an armature lathe. Measure the diameter of the commutator with an outside micrometer
or vernier caliper. If the diameter is less than specifications require, replace the armature. Measure
commutator runout by mounting the armature in V-blocks. Position a dial indicator so that it rides on the

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center of the commutator. If the runout is within specs, check the commutator for carbon dust or brass
chips between the segments. If the commutator runout is beyond specs, replace the armature.
Check the depth of the insulating material (mica) between the commutator segments. Check each one
and compare the depth with specifications. If necessary, undercut the mica with the proper tool or a
hacksaw to achieve the proper depth. If the proper depth cannot be achieved, replace the armature.
Check for continuity between the segments of the commutator (Fig 18b). If an open circuit exists between
any segments, replace the armature.
Place the armature in an armature tester, commonly called a growler. Hold a hacksaw blade on the
armature core (Fig 18c). If the blade is attracted to the armature’s core or vibrates while the core is turned,
the armature is shorted and must be replaced. With an ohmmeter, check the armature windings for a short
to ground. Hold one meter lead to a commutator segment and the other on the armature core. Also check
between the armature shaft and the commutator. If there is continuity at either of these two test points,
the armature needs to be replaced.

Fig. 18c. Testing armature on growler. Fig. 18d. Check overrunning clutch by rotate in both directions.

Starter Drives and Clutches. Carefully inspect the teeth on the starter drive. If the teeth are chipped,
excessively worn, or damaged in any way, replace the drive assembly. Also check the teeth on the starter
ring gear on the engine’s flywheel. Often the same thing that caused damage to the starter drive will
damage the teeth on the flywheel. If either or both are damaged, they should be replaced. To check the
operation of the overrunning clutch, slide the drive and clutch assembly onto the armature shaft. Rotate
the clutch in both directions. Check its movement. It should rotate smoothly in one direction and lock in
the other (Figure 18d). If it does not lock in either direction or if it locks or barely moves in both
directions, the assembly must be replaced.
Brush Inspection. Brush inspection begins with an ohmmeter check of the brush holder. Connect one
meter lead to a positive brush and the other lead to a negative brush. There should be no continuity
between them. If there is, replace the brush holder. Install the brushes into the brush holder and slip the
unit over the commutator. Using a spring scale, measure the spring tension of the holders at the moment
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the spring lifts off the brush. Compare the tension with specs. If the tension is incorrect, replace the spring
or the brush holder assembly. Measure the length of the brushes (Figure 18e). If the brushes are not within
specs, replace the brush or the brush holder assembly. To seat new brushes after installing them in the
brush holder, slip a piece of fine sandpaper between the brush and the commutator. Then rotate the
armature. This will put the contour of the commutator on the face of the brushes.

Figure 18e. Measure the length of the brushes.

Bearings and Bushings. Check each bearing and bushing by placing the armature into the bushing and
paying attention to the fit and feel as the armature is rotated in the bushing. If the bushing or bearing feels
too loose, tight, or rough, it should be replaced. Bushings can often be visually inspected for uneven and
excessive wear. If the bushing is bad, replace it. Many bearings are held in the case by a retainer, while
bushings are typically pressed out and into their bore.

HIGH-VOLTAGE MOTORS
Hybrid and fuel cell vehicles use strong electric motors to move the vehicle and, in some cases, to start
the engine as well. Often hybrid vehicles also have a normal starting motor, which may only serve as a
back-up unit. High-voltage motors are used for many purposes and in many different systems. They may
be used to drive the air-conditioning compressor, work as a starting motor, or power the vehicle. The
latter motors are referred to as traction motors.
Traction Motors
The placement and purpose of traction motor depends on the design of the hybrid. All are powered by
more than 12 volts. On some models, the high voltage motor is not capable of moving the vehicle by
itself. Instead it merely works as a starter motor and generator or adds power to the output of the engine.
The motors can be liquid or air cooled and are normally lubricated. Most production vehicles use AC
motors, and many conversion electric vehicles use a DC motor. DC motors can be powered directly by
the batteries, whereas AC motors require converters and inverters to change the DC voltage stored in the
batteries into the AC required by the motors. DC electric motors are quite reliable, but the brushes and
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commutator present some durability concerns. The carbon brushes spark and wear out, and the spring
tension on the brushes must be kept within specifications. Excessive spring tension causes excessive
friction and wear of the brushes and commutator.
When the spring tension is too low, sparking occurs between the brush and the commutator, causing
damage to both, and the brushes can bounce, which makes and breaks the circuit. Both of these problems
can result in overheating the motor and decreasing reliability. Although brushless DC motors do not have
this problem, most cannot provide enough power to move a vehicle. DC motors are typically more
expensive than comparable AC motors. In addition, the available torque from a DC motor is at its peak
when the rotor or armature is not turning. The available torque decreases from that peak as armature
speed increases. DC motors also tend to run hotter; therefore, they need proper cooling. DC motors also
do not provide for regenerative braking unless they are separately excited. DC motors fitted with a special
controller that allows for efficient switching of the motor to a generator and back to a motor.
AC motors are lighter than comparable DC motors. They are also very reliable. Because they have only
one moving part, the shaft, they should last the life of the vehicle with little or no maintenance. In an AC
motor, there is no commutator to distort or burn and no brushes to wear or spark. AC systems typically
operate at higher voltage and lower current than DC systems with the same power output. In an AC
induction motor, the torque output is constant through a wide range of speeds. This provides even
acceleration and often allows driving without the need of a transmission and different speed gears. There
is no need for additional controllers or electronics to have regenerative braking.
The primary disadvantage of an AC motor is the cost of the electronic systems required to convert (invert)
the battery’s DC to AC for the motor. Manufacturers used AC motors simply because of their efficiency
and lighter weight.

Brushless DC Motors
A brushless DC motor is much like a brushed DC motor, but the purpose of the rotor (armature) and
stator (field windings) are reversed. The rotor has a set of permanent magnets and the stator has
controllable electromagnets (Fig 19). The brushless motor has no brushes and no commutator. The
normal electrical arcing that takes place between the brushes and commutator is eliminated with the
brushless design. This arcing not only decreases the usable life of a motor, it also creates electromagnetic
interference that is detrimental to advanced electronic systems.
Rather than using brushes, an electronic circuit switches current flow to the different stator’s windings
to keep the rotor turning. The reversing of current flow through the windings is done by power transistors
that switch according to the position of the rotor. Many brushless DC motors use Hall-effect sensors to
monitor the position of the rotor. Brushless DC motors, when compared to brush DC motors, are more
reliable, more powerful, and more expensive. The expense is largely due to the cost of the electronic
controls. High-output brushless DC motors are used in some electric drive vehicles.
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Figure 19. A brushless DC motor.

AC Motors
With AC voltage, the direction of current flow changes but not immediately. Rather, as the current is
getting ready to change directions, it decreases until it reaches zero and then gradually builds up in the
other direction. Therefore, the amount of current in an AC circuit always varies. Basic Construction of
an AC motor has two basic electrical parts: a stator and a rotor. The stator is comprised of individual
electromagnets electrically connected to each other. The rotor is the rotating magnetic field and can be
an electromagnet or a permanent magnet. The rotor is located within the stator fields.

Operation. Current is passed through the stator and rotor, causing the rotor to spin. Because the current
is alternating, the polarity in the windings constantly changes. A synchronous AC motor will run at the
frequency of the AC voltage. Many AC motors are induction types. In these motors, electrical current is
induced in the rotor as it rotates, rather than have current delivered to it from an external source.
The rotor spins because it is pulled along by a rotating magnetic field in the stator. The stator does not
physically move. The magnetic field does. If the windings of the stator are wired in series, current passes
through them one at a time, and the polarity and strength of the field around them are constantly changing
(Figure 20). The magnetic field of the rotor reacts and moves along with the stator. Three-phase AC
voltage is commonly used in motors because it provides a smoother and more constant supply of power.
To produce a rotating magnetic field in the stator, each phase of the three-phase power source is
connected to separate stator windings. Because each phase reaches its peak voltage at successively later
times, the magnetic field is at its strongest point in each winding in succession as well. This creates the
effect of the magnetic field continually moving around the stator. This rotating magnetic field will move
around the stator once for every cycle of the voltage in each phase (Fig 21). As each polarity change is
made, the poles of the rotor are attracted by the opposite poles on the stator. Therefore, as the magnetic
field of the stator rotates, the rotor rotates with it.

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Figure 20. The polarity of stator and rotor changes over time for three- phase AC motors.

Figure 21. The rotor turns in response to the changing polarities caused by the three-phase AC.

Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor operates at a constant speed regardless of the load. Rotor speed is equal to the
speed of the stator’s rotating magnetic field. A synchronous motor is used when the exact speed of a
motor must be maintained. Often, synchronous motors have magnets built into the rotor assembly. These

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magnets allow the rotor to easily align itself with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. When three-
phase AC is fed to the three sets of windings in the stator coil, a rotating magnetic field is present around
the stator. The rotor simply rotates with that rotating magnetic field. The torque output of the rotor,
therefore, is dependent on the strength of the magnetic field around the stator. The speed of the rotor is
determined by the frequency of the AC input to the stator. Synchronous motors are available with outputs
up to thousands of horsepower. One of the disadvantages of synchronous motors is that they cannot be
started by merely applying three-phase AC power to the stator. When AC is applied to the stator, a high-
speed rotating magnetic field is immediately present. This field rushes past the rotor so quickly that the
rotor cannot get started. The rotor is first repelled in one direction and then, very quickly, in another.
There are many ways of addressing this, but for hybrid and electric vehicles the problem is solved by
complex electronics that begin the rotating magnetic field in such a way and speed that the rotor simply
follows the field (Fig 22). Once the rotor is spinning, normal synchronous operation begins.

Figure 22. Synchronous motor used in Toyota’s hybrid vehicles controlled by inverter.

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