Mathematical Induction (selected questions)


1. (a) Let P(n) be the proposition : 1 + 2 + ⋯+ n = n n + 1


For P(1), L.H.S.= 1 = × 1 × 1 + 1 =R.H.S., ∴P(1) is true.


Assume P(k) is true for some natural number k, that is, 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k = k k + 1 ………(1)


For P(k + 1), 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k + k + 1 = k k + 1 + k + 1 , by (1)


= k + 1 k + 2


= k + 1  k + 1 + 1

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.


1. (b) Let P(n) be the proposition : 1 + 2 + ⋯ + n = n n + 1 2n + 1


For P(1), L.H.S.= 1 = 1 = × 1 × 2 + 1 2 × 1 + 1 =R.H.S., ∴ P(1) is true.


Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is, 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k  = k k + 1 2k + 1 ………(1)


For P(k + 1), 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k + k + 1 
= k k + 1 2k + 1 + k + 1 , by (1)


= k + 1 k 2k + 1 + 6 k + 1 


= k + 1 2 k + 7 k + 6


= k+1 k+2 2k+3


= k + 1  k + 1 + 12 k + 1 + 1

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1. (c) Let P(n) be the proposition : “x2n – y2n is divisible by x + y for any integers x, y and positive integer n.”
or “x  − y  = x + y g  x, y , where g  x, y is a polynomial in x ,y and x, y ∈ Z, n∈N.
For P(1), x  − y = x + y x − y = x + y g x, y , ∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is,
x  − y  = x + y g  x, y , where g  x, y ∈ Z[x, y]
For P(k + 1), x   − y   = x  − y  x  + y 
= x + y g  x, y x  + y 
= x + y g  x, y , where g  x, y = g  x, y x + y  ∈ x, y
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

 
1. (d) Let P(n) be the proposition : 1 + 2 + ⋯ + n = n n+1 !


 
For P(1), L.H.S.= 1 = 1 = × 1 × 1 + 1 ! =R.H.S. , ∴ P(1) is true.


 
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is, 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k  = k k + 1 ! ………(1)


1
  
For P(k + 1), 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k + k + 1 
= k k + 1 ! + k + 1 , by (1)


= k + 1 k  + 4 k + 1 
"

= k + 1  k  + 4 k + 4
"

= k + 1  k + 1
"

 
=$ k + 1  k + 1 + 1%


∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1. (e) Let P(n) be the proposition : 2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 4 × 2 + 5 × 2 + ⋯ + n + 1 2' = n2

For P(1), 2 × 1 = 2 = 1 × 2 , ∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, 2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 4 × 2 + 5 × 2 + ⋯ + k + 1 2' = k2 … 1
For P(k + 1), 2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 4 × 2 + 5 × 2 + ⋯ + k + 1 2' + k + 2 2
= k2 + k + 2 2 , by (1)
= k + k + 2 2 = 2 k + 1 2 = k + 1 2 . ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

       
1. (f) Let P(n) be the proposition : 1− + − +⋯− = + + + ⋯+
  "     
  
For P(1), 1− = = , ∴ P(1) is true.
  
       
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, 1 − + − + ⋯− = + + + ⋯+ … 1
  "     

           
For P(k + 1), 1− + − + ⋯− + − = + + + ⋯+ ! +  −   , by (1)
  "        

          
= + + ⋯+ + + − ! =  +  + ⋯ +  +  +  
      

. ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1. (g) Let P(n) be the proposition : 2" − 1 = 15a where a ϵ+.

For P(1), 2" − 1 = 15 = 15a , where a = 1ϵ+. ∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, 2 "
− 1 = 15a … 1 , where a ϵ+.
For P(k + 1), 2" 
− 1 = 16 × 2 "
− 1 = 16 × -2" − 1. + 15 = 16 × 15a + 15 , by (1)
= 15 16a + 1 = 15a, where a ϵ+.
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1
1. (h) Let P(n) be the proposition : The no. of diagonals in a convex n-sided polygon is f(n)= n ( n − 3) (n ≥ 3).
2
For P(3), There is no diagonal in a triangle. f(3) = 0. ∴ P(3) is true.

2
 Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N \{1,2}, that is,
1
The no. of diagonals in a convex k-sided polygon is f(k)= k ( k − 3) (k ≥ 3) ………(1)
2
For P(k + 1), Let P1, P2, …., Pk, Pk+1 be the vertices in clockwise direction of the (k+1)-sided polygon.
1
By (1), The no. of diagonals in a convex k-sided polygon P1P2….Pk is f(k)= k ( k − 3)
2
There are additional (k – 1) diagonals connected to the the point Pk+1, namely, Pk+1P2, Pk+1P3, …, Pk+1Pk.
∴ The no. of diagonals in a convex (k+1)-sided polygon P1P2….PkPk+1 is
1 1 1 1
f(k) + (k – 1) = k ( k − 3) + ( k − 1) = {k ( k − 3) + 2( k − 1)} = {k 2 − k − 2} = {( k + 1)[( k + 1) − 3]}
2 2 2 2
= f(k + 1). ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1. (i) Let P n be the proposition: m, n ≥ 2, a1, a2 , …, an, b1, b2, …, bm ∈ R,

a + a + ⋯ + a b + b + ⋯ + b1 = ∑1 
45 ∑35 a 3 b4 = ∑35 ∑1
45 a 3 b4

For P(2), a + a b + b + ⋯ + b1 = a b + a b + a b + a b + ⋯ + a b1 + a b1
= ∑35 a3 b + ∑35 a3 b + ⋯ + ∑35 a3 b1 = ∑1
45 ∑35 a 3 b4


Also, a + a b + b + ⋯ + b1 = a b + a b + ⋯ + a b1 + ab + a b + ⋯ + a b1
= ∑1
45 a b4 + ∑45 a  b4 = ∑35 ∑45 a 3 b4
1  1

∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k ∈ N\{1},
a + a + ⋯ + a b + b + ⋯ + b1 = ∑1
45 ∑35 a 3 b4 = ∑35 ∑45 a 3 b4 … 1
  1

For P(k + 1), a + a + ⋯ + a + a b + b + ⋯ + b1

= a ′ + a ′ + ⋯ + a ′ b + b + ⋯ + b1 where a7 = a , … , a7' = a' , a7 = a + a
= ∑1
45 ∑35 a 3 ′b4 = ∑45a b4 + a  b4 + ⋯ + a ' b4 + a  + a  b4  , by (1)
 1

= ∑1
45a b4 + a  b4 + ⋯ + a  b4 + a  b4  = ∑45 ∑35 a 3 b4
1 

Also, a + a + ⋯ + a + a b + b + ⋯ + b1
= a ′ + a ′ + ⋯ + a ′ b + b + ⋯ + b1 where a7 = a , … , a7' = a' , a7 = a + a
= ∑35 ∑1
45 a 3 ′b4 = ∑45 a b4 + ∑45 a  b4 + ⋯ + ∑45 a ' b4 + ∑45 a  + a  b4
1 1 1 1

= ∑1
45 a b4 + ∑45 a b4 + ⋯ + ∑45 a ' b4 + ∑45-a  b4 + a  b4 .
1 1 1

= ∑1 1 1 1 1
45 a b4 + ∑45 a b4 + ⋯ + ∑45 a ' b4 + + ∑45 a  b4 + ∑45 a  b4

= ∑
35 ∑45 a 3 b4
1

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N\{1}.

1. (j) Let P(n) be the proposition : 3n-2 ≥ n5 for n ≥ 20.

For P(20), 320-2 = 318 = (33)6 = 276 ≥ 206 ≥ 205. ∴ P(20) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k ∈ N , where k ≥ 20, that is, 3k-2 ≥ k5 ………(1)
(k+1)-2 k–2 5
For P(k + 1), 3 = 3(3 ) ≥ 3(k ) , by (1)

3
 = k5 + 3k (k4) ≥ k5 + 0.4 k k4 + 0.4 k2k3 + 0.4 k3 k2 + 0.4 k4 k + 0.4 k5
≥ k5 + 0.4(20)k4 + 0.4(20)2k3 + 0.4(20)3k2 + 0.4(20)4k + 0.4 (20)5, since k ≥ 20.
5 4 3 2
≥ k + 5k + 10k + 10k + 5k + 1
= (k + 1)5 ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N, where n ≥ 20.

1. (k) Let P(n) be the proposition : 2n > n2 for n ≥ 5.

For P(5), 28 = 32 > 25 = 5 ∴ P(5) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k ∈ N, where k ≥ 5, that is 2 > k  … 1
For P(k + 1), 2 = 2-2 . > 2k  = k + k  ≥ k  + 5k = k  + 2k + 3k
≥ k  + 2k + 3 5 > k  + 2k + 1 = k + 1 
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N, where n ≥ 5.

   … ;' 1 1 1 … 1;

1. (l) Let P(m) be the proposition : ∑1
5 =
;! ; !

  … ;    … ; ;
For P(1), =1= ∴ P(1) is true.
;! ; !

   … ;'    … ;

Assume P(k) is true for some k ∈ N, that is ∑5 = … 1
;! ; !

   … ;'    … ;'   … ;'

For P(k + 1), ∑
5 = ∑5 +
;! ;! ;!

   … ;   … ;

= + , by (1)
; ! ;!

  … ;   … ;   ;

= k + p + 1  = P(k + 1) is true.
; ! ; !

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(m) is true ∀ m ∈ N.

!
1. (m) Let P(n) be the proposition : C? = is always an integer, where 0 ≤ r ≤ n
?! '? !

For P(0), CCC = 1 , which is an integer.

!
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ +⋃{0}, that is, C? = is always an integer. …(1)
?! '? !


For P(k + 1), CC = C = 1 are integers.


For r ≥ 1, C? = C? + C?' is the sum of two integers by (1), and is an integer.
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N ∪ {0}.

1. (n) Let P(n) be the proposition : 2 × 4 + 3 = 11a , where a ∈ +

4
 For P(1), 2 × 4 + 3" = 209 = 11 × 19 = 11a ∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, 2×4 
+ 3 = 11a … 1 , where a ∈ +
For P(k+1), 2 × 4 + 3" = 32× 4 + 27 × 3
= 16-2 × 4 + 3 . + 11 × 3
= 16 11a + 11 × 3 , by (1)
= 11-16a + 3 . = 11a , where a = 16a + 3 ∈ +.
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

1. (o) Let P(n) be the proposition : 4 + 3 = 13a , where a ∈ + .

For P(1), 4 + 3 = 91 = 13×7 = 13a ∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, 4 + 3 = 13a … 1 , where a ∈ +
For P(k+1), 4 + 3 = 16× 4 + 3 × 3
= 3-4 + 3 . + 13 × 4
= 3 13a + 13 × 4 , by (1)
= 13-3a + 3 
. = 13a , where a = 3a + 3 ∈ +
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

   
1. (p) Let P(n) be the proposition : + +⋯+ <1− (We change the proposition and prove this first.)
   
   
For P(1), = < =1− ∴ P(1) is true.
     

   
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N , that is, + +⋯+ <1− … 1
   

        
For P(k+1), + + ⋯+ = J + +⋯+ K +J + − K , by (1)
          

     
<1− +J − K = 1 −   = 1 −  < 1 − 
   

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.
   
∴ + + ⋯+ <1− <1
   

1. (q) Let P(n) be the proposition : The number of pairs of non-negative integers (x, y) satisfying x + 2y = n
1 1
is f(n) = ( n + 1) + [1 + ( −1) ] n

2 4
For P(1), (x, y) = (1, 0) , f(1) = 1 ∴ P(1) is true.
For P(2), (x, y) = (2, 0) and (0, 1) are solutions. Also, f(2) = 2 ∴ P(2) is true.
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is,
The number of pairs of non-negative integers (x, y) satisfying x + 2y = k is

5
 1 1
f(k) = ( k + 1) + [1 + ( −1) k ] ………(1)
2 4
For P(k + 2), Consider the equation x + 2z = k ………(2)
1 1
The number of pairs of non-negative integers (x, z) satisfying (2) is f(k) = ( k + 1) + [1 + ( −1) k ] , by (1)
2 4
Put z = y – 1, (2) becomes x + 2(y – 1) = k or x + 2y = k + 2 ………(3)
Obviously (x, y) = (k + 2, 0) satisfies (3), but (x, z) = (x, y – 1) = (k + 2, – 1) does not satisfy (2).
∴ The total number of pairs of non-negative integers (x, y) satisfying (3) is
1 1
1 + f(k) = 1+ ( k + 1) + [1 + (−1) ] = 1 [(k + 2) + 1] + 1 [1 + (−1) ] = f (k + 2)
k k +2

2 4 2 4
∴ P(k + 2) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

2. (a) Let P(n) be the proposition : ( 3 +1 ) 2 n +1

− ( 3 −1 )
2 n +1
= 2 n +1 a n , where an ∈ Z.

For P(0), ( 3 +1 − ) ( 1
)
1
3 − 1 = 2 = 2a 0 , where a0 = 1

For P(1), ( 3 +1 − ) ( 3
)
3
[( )
2
3 − 1 = 2 3 3 + 1 = 20 = 21+1 a1 , where a1 = 5. ]
Assume P(k – 1) and P(k) are true for some k∈ N (k ≥ 1), that is,

( 3 +1) 2 k −1
− ( 3 −1 ) 2 k −1
= 2 k a k −1 , ( 3 +1 ) 2 k +1
− ( 3 −1 )
2 k +1
= 2 k +1 a k ….(*)

For P(k + 1), ( 3 +1 ) 2 k +3

− ( 3 −1 )2 k +3

= [( 3 + 1) 2 k +1
− ( 3 −1 )
2 k +1
] [( 3 + 1) + ( 3 − 1) ]− ( 3 − 1) ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 k +1
+ ( )(
3 +1
2
)
3 −1
2 k +1
, by (*)

= 2 k +1 a k × 8 − ( 3 +1 )(
2
3 −1 ) [(2
3 +1 )2 k −1
− ( 3 −1 )2 k −1
]
= 2k +2 a k × 4 − 8 × 2 k a k −1 = 2 k +2 ( 4a k − a k −1 ) = 2 k +2 a k +1 , where ak+1 = 4ak – ak-1∈ Z.
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N ∪ {0}.

2. (b) Let α = 3 + √5, β = 3 − √5 , then α + β = 6, αβ = 4.

Let P(n) be the proposition : α + β = 2a , where an ∈ Z.
For P(1), α + β = 6 = 2 a , where a1 =3 ∈ N.
For P(2), α + β = α + β
  
− 2αβ = 6 − 2 × 4 = 28 = 2 a , where a2 =7 ∈Z .
Assume P(k) and P(k + 1) are true, that is,
α + β = 2 a , α + β = 2 a … ∗ , where ak , ak+1 ∈ Z.
For P(k + 2), α + β = -α + β . α + β − αβ -α + β . = -2 a . 6 − 4 -2 a .

6
 = 2 3a − a = 2 a , where a ∈ .
∴ P(k+2) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

3. Let P(n) be the proposition : There are two collections of marbles of the same quantity, n. According to the rules of taking
marbles set by the question, the first player wins.
For P(1), The first player take 1 marble from one collection and the second player takes the last marble and wins.
∴ P(1) is true.
Assume P(1), P(2), …, P(k) are true. So if there are two collections of marbles of the same quantity less than or equal to k, the
second player wins.
For P(k + 1), There are two collections of marbles of the same quantity, k + 1.
If the first player takes away any number of marbles, say p, 1 ≤ p ≤ k + 1 from one collection. The second player
takes away also p marbles from the other collection. So now we have two collections of marbles each of k + 1 – a ≤ k.
Thus by the inductive hypothesis, the second player wins. ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

4. (a) Let P(n) be the proposition : ( m2 + 1 − m ) n

= a n m2 + 1 − bn , where an , bn ∈ Z, m ∈ N.

For P(1), m 2 + 1 − m = a 1 m 2 + 1 − b1 , where a1 = 1, b1 = m.

For P(2), ( m2 + 1 − m ) 2
= 2 m 2 + 1 − 2 m m 2 + 1 = a 2 m 2 + 1 − b 2 , where a2 = – 2m , b2 = –(2m2 + 1).

∴ P(1) , P(2) are true.

Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is, ( m2 + 1 − m ) k

= a k m2 + 1 − bk ………(1)

For P(k + 1), ( m2 + 1 − m ) k +1

= ( m2 + 1 − m )(
k
m2 + 1 − m )
(
= a k m2 + 1 − bk )( )
m 2 + 1 − m = ( − a k m − b k ) m 2 + 1 − [− (a k ( m 2 + 1) + b k m )] = a k +1 m 2 + 1 − b k +1

where a k +1 = −(a k m + b k ), b k +1 = − (a k m 2 + a k + b k m ) ……….(2)

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

(b) From (2), a n = −(a n −1m + b n −1 ), b n = − (a n −1m 2 + a n −1 + b n −1m ) ……….(3)

a n ( m 2 + 1) − b n = ( − a n −1m − b n −1 ) ( m 2 + 1) − (a n −1m 2 + a n −1 + b n −1m )

2 2 2 2
From (3),

[ ]
= b n −1 − a n −1 ( m 2 + 1) = − a n −1 ( m 2 + 1) − b n −1 = ( − 1) a n −2 ( m 2 + 1) − b n −2 = ...
2 2 2
[ 2
]
= ( −1) n −1
[a (m
1
2
+ 1) − b1
2
] = (−1) [1(m
n −1 2
+ 1) − m ] = ( −1)
2 n −1
……….(4)
From (3),

7
 a n ( m 2 + 1) − b n = ( −1) n = −1
2 2
(i) If n is even, an < 0, bn < 0.
∴ a n ( m 2 + 1) + 1 = b n
2 2
……….(5)

( m2 + 1 − m ) n
= a n m 2 + 1 − b n = − b n − a n m 2 + 1 = b n − a n ( m 2 + 1) = N + 1 − N , by (5).
2 2

a n ( m 2 + 1) − b n = ( −1) n = 1
2 2
(ii) If n is odd, an > 0, bn > 0.
∴ a n ( m 2 + 1) = b n + 1
2 2
……….(6)

( m2 + 1 − m ) n
= a n m 2 + 1 − b n = a n ( m 2 + 1) − b n = N + 1 − N , N∈ N
2 2
, by (6)

6. First, show by Math. Induction the proposition P(n) : 1 + 3 + … + (2n – 1) = n2 ∀n∈N ….(1)
3
Then, a1 = 1 =1 =1
a2 = 3 + 5 = 8 = 23
a3 = 7 + 9 + 11 = 27 = 33
: : : : :
2 2 2
an = (n – n + 1) + (n – n + 3) + … + [n – n + (2n – 1)] = n3
n ( n + 1) 
The last term of an = n2 + n – 1 = 2  − 1.
 2 

2
n
n ( n + 1)    n ( n + 1) 
r 3 = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 2
1 2
Adding up all equalities, ∑
r =1  
 − 1 = 
2    2 
 = n ( n + 1) , by (1).
4
2

2
b1 = 1 (no. of term = 1 ), b2 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 (no. of terms = 22), b3 = 11 + 13 + 15 + … + 27 (no. of terms = 32),

bn = 2[12 + 22 + …+ n2] – 1 = 2 n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)  − 1

1
The last term of ….(2)
6 
2

Sn = b1 + b2 + … + bn =  n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1) 
1
By (1), ….(3)
6 
1
By (2) , The last term of bn-1 = ( n − 1)( n )( 2 n − 1) − 1 .
6
2 2

Sn – Sn-1 =  n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)  −  ( n − 1)( n )( 2 n − 1)  = [2 n 5 + n 3 ]

1 1 1
Hence bn =
6  6  3
1 n 5 n
 1 n 5 1 2 
Hence Sn = b1 + b2 + … + bn = 2
3  r =1
∑
r + ∑r =1
r 3  = 2∑
 3  r =1
r + n ( n + 1) 2 
4 
….(4)

1 1 2
n 2
 1 2 1 2
Compare (3) and (4), we get ∑
r =1
r5 =  
3
2 6
n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)  − n ( n + 1)  = n ( n + 1) ( 2 n + 2 n − 1)
 4  12
2 2

7. (Backward Mathematical Induction)

 x + ... + x n 
(i) (a) I(n) : If xi ∈ [a, b], i = 1, 2, …, n, then f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) ≤ nf  1 
 n 

 x + x2 
For I(21), since it is given that f ( x 1 ) + f ( x 2 ) ≤ 2f  1 . ∴ I(21) is true.
 2 

8
  x 1 + ... + x 2 k 
Assume I(2k) is true. i.e. f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x 2 k ) ≤ 2 k f   ….(1)
 2k 
For I(2k+1), f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x 2 k ) + f ( x 2 k +1 ) + ... + f ( x 2 k +1 )

 x 1 + ... + x 2 k   x k + ... + x 2 k +1    x 1 + ... + x 2 k   x 2 k +1 + ... + x 2 k +1 

≤ 2k f  k
 + 2 k f  2 +1 k  = 2 k f   + f  , by (1)
 2   2    2k   2k 
  x 1 + ... + x 2k   x 2 k +1 + ... + x 2 k +1     1  x 1 + ... + x 2 k x 2 k +1 + ... + x 2 k +1  
= 2 k f  k
 + f k
  ≤ 2 k 2 f   +   , by I(2)
  2   2   2 2k 2k  
  x 1 + ... + x 2 k + x 2 k +1 + ... + x 2 k +1 
= 2 k +1 f   ∴ I(2k+1) is true.
  2 k +1 
(b) Assume I(n) is true (n ≥ 2),
 x + ... + x n   n − 1  x 1 + ... + x n −1 x 
i.e. f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) ≤ nf  1  = nf   + n 
 n   n  n −1 n − 1
x 1 + ... + x n −1
Put xn = , then
n −1
 x + ... + x n −1   x 1 + ... + x n −1 
f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n −1 ) + f  1  ≤ nf  
 n −1   n −1 
x + ... + x n −1 
f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n −1 ) ≤ ( n − 1)f  1  ∴ I(n – 1) is also true.
 n −1 
(c) ∀n ∈ N, ∃ (k ∈ N and r ∈ N) such that n = 2k – r.
By (a), I(2k) is true ⇒ I(2k – 1) is true ⇒ I(2k – 2) is true ⇒ …⇒ I(2k – r) = I(n) is true.
x + x 2   x1 − x 2   x 1 + x 2 ,
(ii) sin x1 + sin x2 = 2 sin 1  cos  ≤ 2 sin  −π ≤ x1 − x 2 ≤ π .
 2   2   2 
∴ f(x) = sin x is convex on [0, π] . Last part follows from (i).

             
9. Let P(n) be the proposition : J1 −  − "K + J −  − SK + ⋯ + J' − "' − "K =  J1 −  +  − " + ' − K

     
For P(1), L.H.S. = 1 −  − " = " , R.H.S. = 
J1 − K = " , ∴ P(1) is true.

Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is,

             
J1 −  − "K + J −  − SK + ⋯ + J' − "' − "K =  J1 −  +  − " + ' − K………(1)

          
For P(k + 1), J1 −  − "K + J −  − SK + ⋯ + J' − "' − "K + J − " − ""K

        
=  J1 −  +  − " + ' − K + J − " − ""K

          
=  J1 −  +  − " + ' − K + J −  × K −  × !

         
=  J1 −  +  − " + ' − K + 
×  −  × !

9
        
= J1 − + − + − + − K, ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
   " '   

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
q q2 qn
12. Let Fn ( z) = (1 − z ) + (1 − z )(1 − qz ) + ... + (1 − z)(1 − qz)...(1 − q n −1z ) ,
1− q 1− q2 1− qn

Let P(n) be the proposition : 1 + Fn(z) – Fn(qz) = (1 – qz)(1 – q2z) … (1 – qnz) .

W W
For P(1), 1 + F z − F qz = 1 + 1−z − 1 − qz = 1 − qz ∴ P(1) is true.
'W 'W

Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is,

1 + F z − F qz = 1 – qz 1 – q z … 1 – q z ………(1)
For P(k + 1),
WXYZ
But, F z = F z + 1 − z 1 − qz … -1 – q z.
'WXYZ

WXYZ
and F qz = F qz + 1 − qz 1 − qz … -1 – q z.
'WXYZ

1 + F z − F qz
WXYZ WXYZ
= 1 + F z − F qz + 1 − z 1 − qz … -1 – q z. − 1 − qz 1 − q z … -1 – q z.
'WXYZ 'WXYZ

WXYZ WXYZ
= 1 – qz 1 – q z … 1 – q z + 1 − z 1 − qz … -1 – q z. − 1 − qz 1 − q z … -1 – q z., by (1)
'WXYZ 'WXYZ

WXYZ
= 1 – qz 1 – q z … 1 – q z + 1 − qz … -1 – q z.-1 – q z. − -1 – q z.
'WXYZ

= -1 – qz.-1 – q z. … -1 – q z. − q 1 − qz … -1 – q z.
= -1 – qz.-1 – q z. … -1 – q z.-1 – q z.
∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

 [  [ [ [ [ \

14. 1+ = , 1+ + = + =
[ [ [ [\ [ [\ [\

 [ [ \ … ] [ \ … ] 

Assume that 1+ + + ⋯+ =
[ [\ [\^…] [\^…]

[ \ … ] 

Adding the term to both sides, we get:
[\^…]_

 [ [ \ … ] [ \ … ]  [ \ … ]  [ \ … ] 
1+ + +⋯+ + = +
[ [\ [\^…] [\^…]_ [\^…] [\^…]_

[ \ … ]  _

=
[\^…]_

10
 n  1 1  1 1 1
17. Let P(n) be the proposition : + 3 + ... + = + + ... +
2n + 1  2 − 2 ( 2n ) − 2n  n + 1 n + 2
3
2n
1 1 1 1
For P(1), L.H.S. = + = = = R.H.S. ∴ P(1) is true.
2 ×1 + 1 2 −2
3
2 1+1
k  1 1  1 1 1
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, that is, + 3 + ... + = + + ... +
2k + 1  2 − 2 ( 2k ) − 2 k  k + 1 k + 2
3
2k
k  1 1   1 1 1 
or + 3 + ... + − + + ... + =0 (*)
2k + 1  2 − 2 ( 2 k ) − 2k   k + 1 k + 2
3
2k 
k +1 1 1   1 1 1 1 1 
For P(k + 1), + 3 + ... + − + + ... + + + 
2k + 3  2 − 2 [2( k + 1)] − 2( k + 1)   k + 2 k + 3
3
2k 2k + 1 2k + 2 
k +1 k 1  1 1 1 
= − + − − + + , by (*)
2k + 3 2k + 1 [ 2( k + 1)] − 2( k + 1)  k + 1 2 k + 1 2 k + 2 
3

k +1 k 1 1 1 1
= − + + − −
2k + 3 2k + 1 2( k + 1)( 2 k + 1)( 2 k + 3) k +1 2k + 1 2( k + 1)
1 1 1
= + −
( 2 k + 1)( 2 k + 3) 2( k + 1)( 2 k + 1)( 2 k + 3) 2( k + 1)( 2 k + 1)
2( k + 1) + 1 − ( 2 k + 3)
= =0 ∴ P(k+1) is true.
2( k + 1)( 2k + 1)( 2 k + 3)
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

2  1  2  1 
18. Let P(n) be the proposition : an = a + ( b − a ) 1 − n  (1) , b n = a + ( b − a ) 1 +  ( 2)
3  4  3  2 × 4n 
a+b 2  1 a 1 + b (a + b ) / 2 + b a + 3b 2  1 
For P(1), a1 = = a + ( b − a ) 1 − , b 1 = = = = a + ( b − a ) 1 + 
2 3  4 2 2 2 3  2×4
∴ P(1) is true.

Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, i.e., a k = a +

2  1  2  1 
( b − a )1 − k  (3) , b k = a + ( b − a )1 +  ( 4)
3  4  3  2 × 4k 
For P(k + 1),
a k + bk 1
a + ( b − a )1 − k  + a + ( b − a )1 + 
2 1 2 1
a k +1 = =   , by (3) and (4)
2 2 3  4  3  2 × 4k 

= a + ( b − a )  1 − k  +  1 +   = a + 2 ( b − a ) 1 − 1 
1 1 1
   ….(5)
3  4   2 × 4k  3  4 k +1 
a k +1 + b k 1
a + ( b − a ) 1 − k +1  + a + ( b − a )1 +  ,by (5) and (4)
2 1 2 1
b k +1 = =  
2 2 3  4  3  2 × 4k 

= a + ( b − a )  1 − k +1  + 1 + k +1  = a + ( b − a )1 +

1 1 2 2 1 
 ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
3  4   4  3  2 × 4 k +1 
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

11
 1
19. Let P(n) be the proposition : pn-1 > pn > k > qn > qn-1 > 0 where p0 > k > q0, p n = ( p n −1 + q n −1 ) and pn q n = k 2 .
2

a
For P(1), Note that pC > ` > 0, qC = > 0.
;b

  a a
p = pC + qC < pC + pC = pC , q = > = qC
  ;Z ;b

 a a
p = pC + qC > cpCq C = √k  = k, k > 0 , q = < =k
 ;Z 

a
Also, p > ` > 0, q = >0
;Z

∴ pC > p > ` > q > q C > 0 and P(1) is true.

Assume P(m) is true for some m∈ N, i.e., p1' > p1 > ` > q 1 > q 1' > 0 … 1
  a a
For P(m + 1), p1 = p1 + q1 < p1 + p1 = p1 , q1 = > = q1
  ;dYZ ;d

 a a
p1 = p1 + q1 > cp1 q1 = √k = k, k > 0 , q 1 = < =k
 ;dYZ 

a
Also, p1 > ` > 0, q 1 = >0
;dYZ

∴ P(m + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

f f f … f'

20. (a) u x =
!

Let S(p) be the statement : ∑;5 u x = u; x + 1 − 1

f f
For S(1), ∑5 u x = u x = = x, u x + 1 − 1 = −1=x
! !
∴ S(1) is true.

Assume S(k) is true for some k∈ N, i.e., ∑5 u x = u x + 1 − 1 … 1

For S(k + 1), ∑
5 u x = ∑5 u x + u x = u x + 1 − 1 + u x

, by (1)
f f … f f f f … f
= −1+
!  !

f f … f

=  k + 1 + x − 1
 !

f f … f f

= −1
 !

= u x + 1 − 1 , ∴ S(k + 1) is true.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, S(p) is true ∀ p ∈ N.
Z Z Z Z
 J KgJ KhgJ Kh…gJ K'h
u JK = >0
a a a a
(b) Obviously, !

12
  
Let P(n) be the proposition : u J K <
 √

Z
 J K  
For P(1), L. H. S. = u J K = a
= , R. H. S. = ≈ 0.5773502691896, ∴ P(1) is true.
 !  √

 
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, i.e., u J K < … 1
 √

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
 J KgJ KhgJ Kh…gJ K'hgJ Kh J KgJ KhgJ Kh…gJ K'h gJ Kh
For P(k + 1), u JK = = ×
a a a a a a a a a a
 ! ! 

Z
 gJ Kh    √√  √"a S
< × = × = × != ×n o
a
√  √   √  √ 

 √"a S"   

< ×n o= × != ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
√  √  √

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

   
Since 0 < u; JK < , hence −1 < u; JK − 1 < −1
c; c;

   
Now, from (a), put x = − , ∑;5 u J− K = u; J1 − K − 1 = u; J K − 1
   

;  
−1 < ∑5 u J− K < −1
c;

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
J' K J' KgJ' Kh J' KgJ' KhgJ' Kh…gJ' K;'h 
−1 < + +⋯+ < −1
a a a a a a a
! ! ;! c;

  ∙ ∙∙8∙∙∙ ;' 

−1 < − 
+ ∙" + ∙"∙ + ⋯ + ∙"∙⋯ ;
!< −1
c;

  ∙ ∙∙8∙∙∙ ;' 

1 >  + ∙" + ∙"∙ + ⋯ + ∙"∙⋯ ;
>1−
c;

21. Let P(n) be the proposition : ln < a + 1 and l n-1 < l n .

For P(1), l1 = a < a + 1 and l1 = a < a + a = l 2 ∴ P(1) is true.

Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, i.e., lk < a + 1 (1) and l k-1 < l k ( 2)

For P(k + 1), l k +1 = a + l k < a + a + 1 < a + 2 a + 1 = a + 1

and l k + 2 = a + l k +1 > a + l k = l k+1

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.

n
1
22. (a) Prove of ∑i
i =1
2
=
6
n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1) is omitted.

13
 n n n
1⋅n + 2⋅(n – 1) + 3⋅( n – 2) + ⋅⋅⋅ + n⋅1 = ∑ i( n + 1 − i) = ( n + 1)∑ i − ∑ i
i =1 i =1 i =1
2

n ( n + 1) 1 1
= ( n + 1) − n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1) = n ( n + 1)( n + 2) ….(1)
2 6 6
1 1 1
(b) Let P(n) be the proposition : 1+ + + ... + ≤2 n ….(2)
2 3 n
For P(1), L.H.S. = 1 ≤ 2 = R.H.S. ∴ P(1) is true.
1 1 1
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N, i.e., 1+ + + ... + ≤2 k ….(*)
2 3 k
1 1 1 1 1
For P(k + 1), 1+ + + ... + + ≤2 k + , by (*)
2 3 k k +1 k +1
1 2( k + 1) − 2 k ( k + 1) − 1
= 2 k +1 − 2 k +1 + 2 k + = 2 k +1 −
k +1 k +1

= 2 k +1 −
( k + 1) − 2 k ( k + 1) + k
=2 k +1 −
( k +1 − k )2

≥ 2 k +1 ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
k +1 k +1
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N.
By (1),
1.n + 2( n − 1) + 3( n − 2) + ... + n.1
= [( n!) ]
1 2 1/ n
( n + 1)( n + 2) = > [(1.n )( 2.( n − 1))...( n.1)]
1/ n
, by A.M.>G.M.
6 n

n
1 2
∴ n!<  n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
6 
1/ n 1/ 2 n
2 n 1 1 1 1   1 1 1  1
By (2), ≥ 1 + + + ... +  > 1 × × × ... ×  = 
n n 2 3 n  2 3 n  n! 
n

∴ n
  < n!
4
   '
23. Let P(n) be the proposition : + + ⋯+ = where a3 is an arithmetic sequence.
√[Z √[a √[a c[q √[rsZ √[r √[Z √[r


For P(2), L.H.S.= = R.H.S., ∴ P(2) is true.
√[Z √[a

   '
Assume P(k) is true for some k∈ N\{1}, that is, + + ⋯+ = ………(1)
√[Z √[a √[a c[q √[XsZ √[X √[Z √[X

    ' 
For P(k + 1), + +⋯+ + = + , by (1)
√[Z √[a √[a c[q √[XsZ √[X √[X c[XYZ √[Z √[X √[X c[XYZ

' √[Z '√[X -√[X 'c[XYZ . ' √[Z '√[X -√[X 'c[XYZ .
= +- = +
√[Z √[X √[Z '√[X √[X c[XYZ .-√[X 'c[XYZ . [Z '[X [X '[XYZ

' √[Z '√[X -√[X 'c[XYZ .

= + , where d is the common difference.
' ' t 't

14
   
=− √a − √a − t -√a − ca. = − t -√a − ca .
t
  
= 't -√a − ca . = [ -√a − ca . = - -√a − ca .
Z '[XYZ √[Z c[XYZ .-√[Z 'c[XYZ .


=
√[Z c[XYZ

∴ P(k + 1) is true.
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true ∀ n ∈ N\{1}.

15