Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Contents:

 Stresses and strains

 Mechanical properties of materials
 Stress-strain relationships: linear elastic, non-linear elastic, elasto-plastic, visco-plastic
 Unsymmetrical bending of non-standard sections
 Torsional stresses of non-circular and thin walled sections. Effect of warping. Elastic membrane (soap
films) and plastic analogy (sand hill)
 Complex stress and strain analysis: plane stress, plane strain, asymmetrical analysis of solid bodies
 Theories of material failure: Tresca, Von-Meises, Mohr-Colomb
 Experimental stress-strain analysis

References:
1- Mechanics of Elastic Structures:
J.T.gerOden and E.A.Ripper, McGrawhill Book Co., edition 1981
2- Introduction to Mechanics of Solids
Egor Popov Printece Hall Incorporation,
3- Any additional available references.
 Stresses:
 Axes x and z define the plane of a
cut section
 Axis y is perpendicular to the cut
section
 θ x, θ y ∧θ z are angles between
the incremental force ∆ F
applied on incremental area ∆ A .

∆F
 The stress at a point is defined by: σ = lim . This stress is in the direction of ∆ F .
∆ A →0 ∆A
 The stress can be resolved in5to a normal stress (normal to the cut section, parallel to y-axis ) and a
shear stress (in the plane of the cut section).
 The shear stress can be resolved into two shearing stresses in the directions of x and z axes.
 The normal stress is denoted by σ or more specifically concerning the above figure it is denoted by σ y .
the shear stresses regarding the above figure is denoted by τ yx ∧τ yz. The first subscript refers to the axis
perpendicular to the cut section while the second subscript refers to the axis parallel to the stress.
 If we extract a finite element of sides ∆ x , ∆ y∧∆ z, the normal and shearing stress components appear
as in the following figure. Note that there are six faces for this element. Each face is subjected to a
normal stress and two shearing stresses. The stresses at the face located at y + ∆ y are equal to those
stresses at face located at y plus the changes in these stresses along y-direction. Same for other faces.
Apparently, there are 18 stress components acting on the six faces of the element. In addition to these
stress component, the are ,in general, the so-called body forces X b, Y b and Z b (forces per unit volume).
 This element must be in equilibrium. Hence: ∑ F x =0 , ∑ F y =0, ∑ F z=0,∑ M x =0 , ∑ M y =0,
and ∑ M z=0. Applying these equations reduces the number of unknown stress components to only
six.
Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ F x =0 with the help of Fig.2, we get:

( ∂σx
σx +
∂x ) (
∆ x ∆ y . ∆ z−σ x ∆ y . ∆ z+ τ yx +
∂ τ yx
∂y ) (
∆ x . ∆ z−τ yx ∆ x . ∆ z + τ zx +
∂ τ zx
∂z )
∆ x . ∆ y−τ zx ∆ x . ∆ y + X b ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆

Divide by ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆ z, we get:
∂ σ x ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx
+ + + X b=0
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
Similarly, applying ∑ F y =0 and ∑ F z=0, we get:
∂ τ xy ∂ σ y ∂ τ zy ∂ τ xz ∂ τ yz ∂ σ z
+ + +Y b=0 and + + + Z b=0
∂x ∂ y ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂z
Now applying ∑ M x =0 we get (see Fig.3 for dimensions):

(
− σy+
∂σ y
∂y )
∆ y ∆x .∆ z z+( ∆z
2 )
+σy .∆ x.∆ z z+ (∆z
2 )(
+ τ yz +
∂ τ yz
∂y ) (
∆ x . ∆ z ( y + ∆ y )−( τ yz . ∆ x . ∆ z ) . y− τ xy +
∂ τ xy
∂x )
∆x
 ( )
∂σy ∆z
Neglecting higher order terms (like ∆ y . ∆ x . ∆ z z+ ) and after simplifying we get:
∂y 2
τ yz . ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆ z=−τ zy . ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆ z , or τ yz=−τ zy
Similarly, using ∑ M y =0 and ∑ M z=0 we get τ xy =−τ yx and τ zx =−τ xz
Hence the number of stress components reduce to only six components namely: σ x , σ y , σ z , τ xy , τ yz and τ zx . These
stress components define the state of stress at a point.
Note that in the above moment equation, the body forces were not included. This is because as the sides of the
element approach zero the effect of the body forces diminishes.

At a surface element, the outside surface is subjected to distributed forces that are resolved into X s ,Y s∧Z s with
units of force per unit area. Referring to Fig.4, the element is a tetrahedron having surface side of area ∆ S and the
other three sides each is normal to one axis. The areas of these sides are . l ∆ S , m . ∆ S and n . ∆ S where l , m∧n
3
are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface side. The volume of the tetrahedron is √2 lmn ∆ S 2 .
3
The internal sides of the tetrahedron are subjected to normal and shearing stresses. In general there are body forces
distributed over the volume of the tetrahedron with resultant components X b , Y b and Z b.

Referring to Fig.5 and considering the force equilibrium in x-direction we get:

3
Xb √
2lmn
∆ S 2 + X s ∆ S−σ x l ∆ S−τ yx m ∆ S−τ zx n ∆ S=0
3
As ∆ S approaches zero, the volume approaches zero hence the body force term vanishes. The above equation
reduces to:
 X s−σ x l−τ yx m−τ zx n=0 i.e. X s=σ x l+ τ yx m+ τ zx n
Similarly considering forces in y and z axes, we get:
Y s =τ xy l+ σ y m+ τ yz n , Z s=τ xz l+τ yz m+ σ z n

Effect of axes rotation:

** Two dimensional case: referring to Fig.6, assume that we have a 2-D element lying in the x-y plane with a state of

stress σ x , σ y ∧τ xy and having σ z =τ xz=τ yz =0 and we want to determine the state of stress regarding x’ and y’ axes.
In other words what are the expressions of σ x σ y ,∧τ x y . Assume that the area of the inclined plane is dA. the areas
' ' ' '

perpendicular to the x and y axes are dAcosθ∧dAsinθ respectively. The stresses parallel to x and y axes need to
resolved into components parallel to x’ and y’ axes. Summing up the forces parallel to x’ axis (∑ F x =0 ), we get: '

σ x dA=( σ x cosθ ) ( dAcosθ ) + ( σ y sinθ ) ( dAsinθ ) + ( τ xy sinθ ) ( dAcosθ ) + ( τ xy cosθ ) ( dAsinθ )

'

∴ σ x =σ x cos 2 θ+ σ y sin2 θ+ 2 τ xy sinθcosθ

'

Similarly, from ∑ F y =0, we get:

' τ x y =−( σ x −σ y ) sinθcosθ+τ xy ( cos2 θ−sin 2 θ )
' '

2 1 2 1
Using the relations sin 2 θ=2 sinθcosθ ,sin θ= ( 1−cos 2 θ ) ∧cos θ= ( 1+cos 2θ ), we get:
2 2
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx= ' + cos 2 θ+τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
−σ x −σ y
τ x y=
' ' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ
2
To get the normal stress in the direction of y’, replace θ by θ+ π /2 in the expression of σ x . We get: '

σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ y= ' − cos 2 θ−τ xy sin 2 θ
2 2
To determine the value of θ that gives maximum or minimum normal stress, differentiate σ x with respect to θ and '

equate to zero:
 dσ x ' σ x −σ y 2 τ xy
= (−2sin 2 θ ) +2 τ xy cos 2θ=0∨tan 2 θ=
dθ 2 σ x −σ y

Then: (see adjacent figure)

τ xy
sin 2 θ=

√( )
2
σ x −σ y 2
+ τ xy
2
σ x −σ y
2
cos 2 θ=

√( )
2
σ x −σ y 2
+τ xy
2

Substituting for sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ in the expression for σ x , we get: '

( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 2 τ xy
σx= ' + +τ xy
2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y σ x −σ y
+τ xy 2 + τ xy 2
2 2

( ( )
)
2
σ x −σ y 2
+ τ xy

√(
σ x+ σ y 2
¿ + or
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 2
) 2

(√ σ −σ2 ) + τ
2 2 σx= ' + +τ xy
x y 2 2 2
xy

Thus is one of the two principal stresses which will be 90 o apart. The other principal stress occurs at an angle θ+ π /2
from the axis x’. replacing 2 θ by 2 θ+ π in the expression of σ x (noting that cos (2 θ+ π ) =−cos 2 θ and '

sin ( 2 θ+ π )=−sin 2 θ ) , we get:

( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ +σ σ −σ y 2 τ xy
σx= x y− x
' −τ xy
2 2 σ x −σ y 2
2
+ τ xy 2 ) σ x−σ y 2
2 )
+ τ xy 2

( )
( )
2
σ x −σ y 2
+τ xy
σ x+ σ y 2
¿ −

√( 2 ) +τ
2 σ −σ
2
x y 2
xy

√ 2 ) +τ
− (
2
σ +σ σ −σ x y x y 2
or σ = '
xy
x
2
Hence, the principal stresses are given by:

σ max=
min
σ x +σ y
2
±
σ x −σ y 2
2
+τ xy
2

√( )
Substituting for sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ and using the above expression for tan2 θ in the expression for τ x y we get: ' '

τ x y=
−σ x −σ y
2
' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ=
'
−σ x −σ y
2
tan 2θ+ τ xy cos 2 θ ( )
((
¿ −
σ x −σ y
2 )( 2 τ xy
σ x −σ y ) )
+ τ xy cos 2 θ= (−τ xy +τ xy )=0

This means that the shearing stresses are zero when the normal stresses are principal (maximum or minimum).
## For maximum and minimum shearing stresses differentiate τ x y w.r.to θ : ' '

( )
dτ x y −σ x −σ y
' ' σ −σ y
( 2 cos 2 θ ) +τ xy (−2sin 2 θ ) =0 tan 2 θ=− x
=
dθ 2 2 τ xy
Hence sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ can be written as:

σ x −σ y
− τ xy
2 cos 2 θ=

√(
sin 2 θ=

√( )
2
, σ x −σ y
)
2 2
σ x −σ y 2 +τ xy
+ τ xy 2
2

The expression for the principal shearing stress is:

−σ x −σ y

√( )
2
−σ x −σ y 2 τ xy σ x −σ y 2
τ x y= = + τ xy +τ xy

√( √(
' '
2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y
σ x −σ y 2 2
+ τ xy
+ τ xy
2 2
Using 2 θ+ π instead of 2 θ and noting that cos (2 θ+ π ) =−cos 2 θ and sin ( 2 θ+ π )=−sin 2 θ , we get:

( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( ) √( )
2
−σ x −σ y 2 −τ xy σ x −σ y
τ x y=
' ' +τ xy =− +τ xy 2
2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y σ x −σ y
+τ xy 2 + τ xy 2
2 2

Or τ max=±
min √( σ x −σ y 2
2 )
+τ xy
2

It is of interest to whether the normal stresses are non-zeros at the principal shearing stresses. Substitute for cos 2 θ
and sin 2 θ in σ x : '

−σ x −σ y
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y τ xy 2 σ x+ σ y
σx= + + τ xy =

√( √(
'
2 2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y 2 σ x −σ y 2
+τ xy + τ xy
2 2
The normal stress parallel to y’ is:

( √( )
−σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y τ xy 2 σ x +σ y
σ y= ' − −τ xy =
2 2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y σ x −σ y
+τ xy 2 +τ xy 2
2 2
Which means that when the shearing stresses are minimum or maximum, the normal will be of the same value.

## Moh’r circle:
From the expression of σ x we get: '

σ x +σ y σ x −σ y σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx= ' + cos 2 θ+τ xy sin 2θ ∴ σ x − = cos 2 θ+ τ xy sin 2θ '
2 2 2 2
Squaring both sides we get:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y σ x −σ y 2 2 2
σx − ' = cos 2 θ+ ( σ x −σ y ) τ xy cos 2θ . sin 2 θ+τ xy sin 2 θ (a)
2 2
From the expression for τ x y , we get: ' '
 −σ x −σ y
τ x y=
' ' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ
2
Squaring both sides gives:

( )
2
2 σ x −σ y 2 2 2
( τx y ) =
' '
2
sin 2 θ−( σ x −σ y ) τ xy cos 2 θ . sin2 θ+ τ xy cos 2 θ (b)

Adding equations (a) and (b) gives:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y σ x −σ y
σx − '
2
+( τ x y ) = ( cos 2 2θ+ sin2 2 θ ) + τ 2xy ( cos 2 2 θ+sin 2 2 θ )
' '
2 2
And since cos 2 2 θ+sin 2 2 θ=1 this last expression becomes:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y 2 σ x −σ y 2
σx − ' +( τ x y ) = + τ xy ' ' (c)
2 2

Which is an equation of a circle of the form

( x−a )2+ y 2=R2 which is a circle with centroid located
on the x-axis at a distance a from the origin and having
a radius R.
We have for every value of θ , a point of coordinates (
σ x , τ x y ¿ which lies on the perimeter of a circle having
' ' '

σ x on the horizontal axis and τ x y on the vertical axis.

' ' '

The centroid of this circle will be on the horizontal axis

σ x+ σ y
at a distance of . The following figure shows the
2
details of such a circle. This circle is called Mohr’s circle for stress.

To construct Mohr’s circle:

1- Draw axes of σ x (horizontal) and τ x y (vertical).
' ' '

2- Plot the point (σ y , τ xy ¿ (assuming, as shown in the figure above, that the shear is positive on the face
subjected to σ y . The stresses σ yand τ xy define the state of stress at the point under consideration. These
stresses are supposed to be known.
σ x+ σ y
3- Locate the centroid of the circle, on the horizontal axis, which lies at a distance from the origin.
2

4- Draw the circle with radius R=

σ x −σ y 2 2
2 √( )
+ τ xy which should pass through the point (σ y , τ xy ¿.

5- Draw the diameter passing through point (σ y , τ xy ¿. This diameter should intersect with the perimeter of
the circle at the point (σ x ,−τ xy ¿.
 6- Determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses from the intersections of the circle with the
horizontal axis.

Example: Determine the principal stresses at points C and D of the beam shown. Consider elevations of y=0,0.1m
and 0.2m for each of points C and D. Neglect own weight.

2 2
10 x 6 10 x 6 10 x 1.5
Solution: R A = =30 kN , M C= =45 kN . m, M D =30 x 1.5− =33.75 kN . m
2 8 2
V C =0 ,V D =30−1.5 x 10=15 kN
We first should study the state of stress in an infinitesimal element at a distance y from the neutral axis. That is the
expressions for the normal stresses σ x and σ y and the shear stress τ xy .

M. y
For this element we have σ x = , where I is the moment of inertia.
I
∂ σ x ∂ τ xy
Applying the stress equilibrium equation + =0 , we get:
∂x ∂ y
∂( M. y
I) +
∂ τ xy
=0
, hence
∂ M y −∂ τ xy
∂x I
=
∂y
, or ∂ τ xy =-
∂M y
∂x I
∂ y . We
∂x ∂y
∂M
have =V , then:
∂x
−V . y 2
∂ τ xy = ∂ y or τ xy = −V . y +C
I 2I
2 2 2
d V .d −V . y V . d
Since xyτ =0 at top and bottom (i.e. at ¿ ± , then C= and τ xy = + . This gives maximum shear
2 8I 2I 8I
2
V .d VQ
at y=0 equal to τ xy = . It should be noted that the shear stress may be computed using the equation τ xy =
8I Ib
where Q is the moment of the area from the element level to the top of the section, about the neutral axis.
For the normal stress σ y , we take an element at the top of the beam where there acts the distributed load and
∂ σ y ∂ τ xy
apply the stress equilibrium equation +
∂ y ∂x
=0 . Then,
∂y ∂x
+
2I (
∂ σ y ∂ −V . y 2 V . d 2
+
8I )
=0 . We have

∂V ∂ σ y ∂ V . y 2 ∂V . d 2 ∂ σ y w y2 w d2
=−w , then − + =0, or + − =0 or by integration
∂x ∂ y ∂x 2 I ∂ x 8 I ∂ y 2I 8I

( ) −w
3 2
−w y y d
σ y= − +C . At the upper surface,( y=-d/2), we have σ y = , ( the negative sign because the stress is
I 6 8 b
compressive and the division by b, the width of the section, because we assumed the load is constant across the
width i.e the intensity w is distributed over an area 1 unit in the x-direction and b in the z-direction). Hence we get
(note that b=12 I /d 3):

( ) ( )
3 2 3 3 2 3
−w −w d d . d −w d −w y y d d
= − + C →C= hence, σ y = − + . One can check that at
b I 6 8 24 I I 6 8 24
y=+d/2, σ y is zero.
Now proceeding with the requirements of the example:
3
0.15∗0.4 4
Point C: I = =0.0008 m
12
 M C∗y
y=0: σ x = =0 (since y =0),
I
VQ
τ xy = =0(since V C =0) , Using y=0, we get:
Ib

( )
3
−10 0.4 kN
σ y= 0−0+ =−33.3 2 =−0.0333 MPa. Since the shear
0.0008 24 m
stress is zero, the horizontal and vertical axes are the principal axes. The
principal stresses are:
σ max=0 , σ min =−0.0333 MPa
y=0.1m: , M C =45 kN . m
M C∗y 45 x 10 6∗100
σ x= = 12
=5.625 MPa
I 0.0008 x 10
τ xy =0 since V C =0
Hence, the vertical axis passing through C is a principal axis since
τ xy =0 . Using the above expression for σ y and using
y=−0.1 , we get σ y =−0.056 MPa . hence σ max=−5.625 MPa .
,
σ min=−0.056 MPa(comp)
5.625∗0.2
y=0.2m: M C =45 kN . m , σ x = =11.25 MPa, τ xy =0 since V C =0
0.1
Hence, the vertical axis passing through C is a principal axis since τ xy =0. Using y=−0.2, σ y =−0.067 MPa
σ max=−11.25 MPa , σ min=−0.067 MPa.

Point D: M D =33.75 kN . m , V D=15 kN

M D∗y
y=0: σ x = =0(since y=0) ,
I
6 3
Q=150∗200∗100=3 x 10 mm
VCQ 15000∗3 x 10
6
τ xy = = =0.375 MPa
¿ 12
0.0008 x 10 ∗150
(+ve)
Using y=0, we get σ y =−0.0333 MPa . the
principal stresses are:

√( )
2
0+ (−0.0333 ) 0− (−0.0333 )
σ max= ± +0.3752=−0.0167 ± 0.3754=+ 0.359 MPa∨−0.392 MPa
min 2 2

σ max=0.0.359 MPa , σ min=−0.392 MPa . The angle θ of the principal axes is given by:

( )
2 τ xy
( )
−1
1 1 −1 2∗( 0.375 ) 1 −1 1
θ= tan = tan = tan ( 22.52 )= ∗87.46 °=43.73 °
2 σ x −σ y 2 0−(−0.0333 ) 2 2

y=0.1m:
M C∗y 33.75 x 106∗100
σ x= = 12
I 0.0008 x 10
¿ 4.22 MPa(comp)
6 3
Q=2.25 x 10 mm
6
15000∗2.25 x 10
τ xy = 12
=0.281 MPa
0.0008 x 10 ∗150
(+ve)
Using y=-0.15, we get σ y =−0.056 MPa
 √( )
2
−4.22+ (−0.056 ) −4.22−(−0.056 )
σ max= ± + 0.2812 σ max=−0.037 MPa (comp) , σ min=−4.239 MPa
min 2 2
(comp)

The angle θ of the principal axes is given by:

( )
2 τ xy
( )
−1
1 1 −1 2∗( 0.281 ) 1 −1 1
θ= tan = tan = tan (−0.135 )= ∗−7.69 °=−3.84 ° (clockwise)
2 σ x −σ y 2 −4.22−(−0.056 ) 2 2

4.22∗0.2
y=0.2m: σ x= =8.44 MPa ( comp ), τ xy =0 since Q=0 , σ y =−0.0667 MPa (y=-0.3)
0.1
Hence the vertical axis passing through D is a principal axis since τ =0
σ max=−8.44 MPa , σ min=−0.0667 MPa.

===============

** Three dimensional case: referring to Fig.7, assume that plane ABC in in the tetrahedron shown in Fig.7 is
subjected to a stress p which has components p x , p y ∧ p z parallel to x,y and z axes respectively. The force acting on
this plane is pdA where dA is the area of the triangle ABC. Plane ABC has a normal n that has direction cosines
l , m∧n related to x,y and z axes. Planes AQC, AQB, and CQB are perpendicular to x,y and z axes respectively. These
planes are subjected to normal and shear stresses as shown. These stresses are supposed to be known. Now the
areas of planes AQC, AQB, and CQB are ldA , mdA∧ndA respectively. Applying equilibrium and neglecting body
forces, we get:
∑ F x =0 : p x dA=σ x ldA + τ xy mdA + τ xz ndA → p x =σ x l+ τ xy m+τ xz n
Similarly, ∑ F y =0: p y =τ xy l+ σ y m+ τ yz n and ∑ F z=0 : p z=τ xz l+τ yz m+ σ x n

Now we want to find the relation between stresses σ x ' , τ x ' y ' ∧τ x ' z ' acting on plane ABC and stress components
acting on planes AQC, AQB and CQB, where axis x' is normal to plane ABC and y' and z' are perpendicular to each
other and both lie in the ABC plane. Axes x',y' and z' have direction cosines l 1 ,m1∧n 1for x' axis, l 2 ,m2∧n2 for y' axis
and l 3 ,m3∧n3 for z' axis. To find the component σ x ' project the stress components p x , p y ∧ p zon the x' axis to get:
σ x ' =l 1 p x + m1 p y +n1 p z . Using the above relations for p x , p y ∧ p z, we get:
2 2 2
σ x ' =σ x l 1 +σ y m1 + σ z n 1 +2 ( τ xy l 1 m1+ τ xz l 1 n1 + τ yz m1 n1 )
For the shear stress τ x ' y' which is in plane ABC and parallel to y', we project components p x , p y ∧ p zon the on y'
then substituting for the expressions of these components to get:
τ x ' y' =σ x l 1 l 2 +σ y m1 m2 +σ z n1 n2 +τ xy ( l 1 m2+ m1 l 2 ) +τ yz ( m1 n2 +n 1 m2 ) +τ xz ( l 1 n2+ n1 l 2 )
And similarly for τ x ' z ' , we get:
τ x ' y' =σ x l 1 l 3 +σ y m1 m3 +σ z n1 n3 +τ xy ( l 1 m3 +m1 l 3 ) + τ yz ( m1 n3+ n1 m3 ) + τ xz ( l1 n3 +n1 l 3 )

## Principal stresses and principal axes

do this, assume that we have a normal stress σ x ' acting normal to plane ABC.

** Three dimensional case: referring to Fig.7, assume that plane ABC is a principal plane. Hence, there will be only
normal stress σ n occur on this plane.

Equilibrium in x-direction gives:

∑ F x =0 : ( l. σ n ) ( A )−( σ x ) ( l. A ) −( τ yx ) ( m. A )−( τ zx ) ( n . A )=0
∴ l. ( σ x −σ n ) +m . τ yx +n . τ zx=0 ……………………………………. (1)
Similarly,
∑ F y =0:l . τ xy+ ¿ m. ( σ y −σ n )+ n . τ zy =0 ¿ ……………………………………. (2)
∑ F z=0 :l . τ xz + ¿ m. τ yz +n . ( σ z−σ n )=0 ¿
……………………………………. (3)
To solve these equations, the following condition must be satisfied:

| |
σ x −σ n . τ yx τ zx
τ xy σ y −σ n τ zy =0
τ xz τ yz σ z −σ n
Expanding this determinant results in a third order equation in σ n. Solving this equation results three roots. These
roots are the principal normal stresses. Using one of these stresses in equations 1,2 and 3 the direction cosines of
the n-axis can be determined. This means that the directions of the three principal axes are determined. It should be
noted that all equations 1,2 and 3 have zero right hand sides. This means that these equations are not solvable. To
overcome this problem, we use the relation between l , m∧n namely l 2 +m2+ n2=1. . here it is possible to use any
two of equations 1,2 or 3 along with this last equation to determine the direction cosines.

Example: If the state of stress at point P w.r.to x,y, and z axes is given by:
σ x =50 MPa , σ y =30 MPa , σ z =25 MPa , τ xy =−20 MPa , τ xz=10 MPa∧τ yz =15 MPa
Determine the principal stresses and locate the principal axes.
Solution: For the principal stresses we have:
 | || |
σ x −σ n . τ yx τ zx 50−σ n −20 10
τ xy σ y −σ n τ zy = −20 30−σ n 15 =0
τ xz τ yz σ z −σ n 10 15 25−σ n
3 2
Expanding this determinant gives: σ n −105 σ n +2775 σ n−7250=0 which gives:
σ n=2.93 MPa ,∨σ n=62.37 MPa∨σ n=39.7 MPa which are the principal normal stresses.
To locate the principal axes:
σ n=2.93 MPa
Using equations (1), (2) and (3) we get:
l . ( 50−2.93 )−20 m+10 n=0 → 47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0
−20 l+m. ( 30−2.93 ) +15 n=0→−20 l+ 27.07 m+15 n=0
10 l+15 m+ (25−2.93 ) n=0 →10 l+15 m+ 22.07 n=0
Since the right hand sides of these equations are zeros, use only two of them and the relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1. Using
the first two equations and this last relation gives:
47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0 …………………………… (a)
−20 l+27.07 m+15 n=0 ……………………………... (b)
2 2 2
l +m + n =1 ………………………………………. (c)
From equation (c) get n=± √ 1−l2 −m 2 and substituting for n in the eqn. (a), we get:
47.07 l −20 m± 10 √ 1−l 2−m 2=0
∴ 47.07 l−20 m=∓ 10 √1−l 2−m2
Squaring both sides and rearranging:
2 2
2315.58 l −1882.8 ml+500 m =100 …………………………. (d)
Substituting for n in eqn.(b), and following same steps, we get:
2 2
625 l −1082.8 ml+ 957.8 m =225 …………………………… (e)
Multiplying eqn. (d) by (-957.8/500) and adding to eqn.(e) we get:
2
2523.9 lm−3810.7 l −33.44=0
From which we get:
m=1.5098 l+0.0132/l ………………………………. (f)
Substituting for m in eqn. (d), we get:
2 0.0871
612.68 l −104.9+ 2
=0 ………………………… (g)
l
Multiplying by l 2, we get:
4 2
612.68 l −104.9l +0.0871=0
Hence, we get: l 2=0.1704 ,∨l 2=8.344 x 10−4.
From which we get: l=± 0.4128∨l=± 0.02889
Now we have eight cases corresponding to the four values of l . The direction cosines m and n will be determined for
each value of l then the equation 10 l+15 m+22.07 n=0 will be used to verify which set of l , m∧n is correct (by
verifying whether the L.H.S. equals zero or not).
0.0132
=0.6552 , n=± √ 1−0.1704−0.6552 =± 0.6327
2
## l=0.4128 : m=1.5098∗0.4128+
0.4128
For l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=0.6327, using the above mentioned equation, we have:
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.4128 ) +15 ( 0.6552 ) +22.07 ( 0.6327 )=27.9 ≠ 0 not good
For l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=−0.6327 :
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.4128 ) +15 ( 0.6552 ) +22.07 (−0.6327 ) ≅ 0 O. K .
## l=−0.4128: m=−0.6552, n=± 0.6327
For l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=0.6327,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.4128 ) +15 (−0.6552 ) +22.07 ( 0.6327 ) ≅ 0 O . K .
For l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=−0.6327 :
L . H . S .=10 (−0.4128 ) +15 (−0.6552 ) +22.07 (−0.6327 )=−27.9≠ 0 not good
## l=0.02889 : m=0.5005 ,n=± 0.8653
 For l=0.02889 , m=0.5005 and n=0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.02889 ) +15 ( 0.5005 ) +22.07 ( 0.8653 )=29.9 not good
For l=0.02889 , m=0.5005 and n=−0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.02889 ) +15 ( 0.5005 ) +22.07 (−0.8653 )=−11.3 not good
## l=−0.02889, m=−0.5005 and n=± 0.8653,
For l=−0.02889, m=−0.5005 and n=0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.02889 ) +15 (−0.5005 )+ 22.07 ( 0.8653 )=11.3 not good
For l=−0.02889 , m=−0.5005 and n=−0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.02889 ) +15 (−0.5005 )+ 22.07 (−0.8653 )=−26.9not good
Hence, from the above eight cases only two cases are accepted namely:
l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=−0.6327 and
l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=0.6327
It can be seen that the second set is the negative of the first ones which means that the axis corresponding to the
second set are of the opposite directions to the axis corresponding to the first set (since cos ( π +θ )=−cosθ ) .
Of course, these sets direction cosines correspond to the principal normal stress σ n=2.93 MPa. Same procedure
should be done for the other two principal normal stresses.
An other procedure for determining the direction cosines:
Starting with equilibrium equations
47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0
−20 l+27.07 m+15 n=0
10 l+15 m+22.07 n=0
And since the R.H.S. of these equations are zeros, we may give any one of the direction cosines any arbitrary value
and substitute in any two of the above equations and solve for the other two direction cosines. Now using the
relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1, we can modify the values of the just obtained direction cosines (including the assumed one).
For the above case: let l=1. Using the first two equations, we get:
47.07∗1−20 m+10 n=0 → 20 m−10 n=47.07 (1)
−20∗1+27.07 m+15 n=0 → 27.07 m+15 n=20 (2)
Solving for m and n, we get: m=1.5876 ,n=−1.5318
Now multiplying l , m∧n by any constant say α and use the relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1, we get:
( α∗1 )2 + ( α∗1.5876 )2+ ( α∗(−1.5318)) 2=1→ α 2+ 2.5205 α 2 +2.3464 α 2=1
∴ 5.8669 α 2=1 → α =± 0.4129
Then the actual direction cosines for the n-axis (using the +ve sign of α ) are:
l=0.4129 , m=0.6555 ,n=l=−0.6325
While the direction cosines for the opposite of the n-axis are (using the –ve sign of α ) are:
l=−0.4129 ,m=−0.6555 , n=l=0.6325
These direction cosines are the same that were obtained by the other method.
Following this procedure or the previous procedure for the other two principal stresses, we get:
For σ n=62.37 MPa: l=0.8457 ,m=−0.5188 , n=l=0.0198

For σ n=39.7 MPa: l=0.3144 , m=0.5491 , n=l=0.7744

Stress resultants in bars:

In bars (truss members, beams, frame members, grid members) we may use stress resultants in constructing static
equilibrium equations for any part of the bar. In general, at any cut section, there are one normal stress resultant,
two shear stress resultants in the directions of two perpendicular axes lying in the cut section and a moment about
each of the three Cartesian axes. Referring to the adjacent figure, the stress resultants may be expressed as follows:
❑
N x =normal force=∫ σ x dA
A
❑
V y =shear force∈ y −direction=∫ τ xy dA
A
 ❑
V z=shear force ∈ z−direction=∫ τ xz dA
A
❑
M x =torsional moment=twisting moment=∫ ( τ xz . y−τ xy . z ) dA
A
❑
M y =bending moment about y−axis=∫ σ x . z . dA
A
❑
M y =bending moment about z−axis=∫ σ x . y . dA
A