Click on this button

Click on this button

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 3

FLUID MECHANICS

Introduction

The substances which flow are called fluids. Both liquids and gases come in this category. Now,
letÊs have a deeper view of the difference between solids and fluids. Solid have the property of
deformation when subjected to shear stress but deformation is constant for a particular stress.
While fluids continues to deform untill stress is withdrawn.
The science of fluids at rest is calld fluid statics, while that of moving fluid hydrodynamics. Fluid
statics involves hydrostatic pressure, floatation, PascalÊs law and ArchimedesÊ principle.
Hydrodynamics involves continutiy equation, BernoullisÊs principle and TorricelliÊs theorem.
Later we will discuss viscosity associated with fluids (i.e., liquids and gas) and surface tension
associated only with liquids and some important concepts.

Density

Density of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mas & volume. Let a substance be of mass
M which has a volume V1 then density of the substance is given by

M
=
V

Unit of density is kg/m3 in S.I. system.

Relative Density or specific gravity

Relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density
of pure water at 40c.

r = /w

Density of a mixture of substance in proportion of mass

Let a number of substances of masses M1, M2, M3 etc. and densities 1, 2, 3 etc. respectively are
mixed together. The total mass of the mixture.
= M1 + M2 + M3......

M1 M2 M3
total volume =  
1 2 3

Therefore, the density of mixture is

M1  M2  M3 ....
M1 M2 M3
S =    ....
1 2 3

FLUID MECHANICS
 4 QUIZRR
For two substances the density of the mixture can be written as

1 2 (M1  M2 )
=
1 M1  2 M2

Density of a mixture of substance in proportion of volume

Suppose that a number of substances of volume V1, V2, V3 etc. and densities 1, 2, 3, etc.
respectively are mixed together. The toal mass of the mixture.
= 1V1 + 2V2 + 3V3........
total volume = V1 + V2 + V3.......
Therefore, density of the mixture is

1 V1  2 V2  3 V3 ....
 =
V1  V2  V3 ....

1 V1  2 V2
For two substances  =
V1  V2

Pressure

If we fill a vessel having a hole with fluid, fluid flows out of the hole. Now if we cover this hole
with a plate, which exactly fits the hole, the place can remain at rest only if we apply some
external force on the plate. This shows that fluid exerts force on the plate to push it outwards.
If s is the area of the plate and F is the normal force exerted by the fluid, the pressure at the
hole

F dF
p = lim 
S  s ds

F
h p
S
p

(A) (B)
For a point at dept h beow the surface of a liquid density , hydrostatic pressure p is given by :
p = p0 + hg
where p0 is the atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference between hydrostatic pressure and
atmospheric pressure is called gauge-pressure and will will be
p ă p0 = hg

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 5

Regarding pressure it is worth noting that :

(1) Even though pressure is produced by a force that has directional properties and is a vector,
the pressure itself is a scalar as its direction (always normal to the area considered) is unique
and not to be specified.
(2) It has dimensions [MLă1T-2] and SI unit N/m2 which is specificaly called pascal (Pa). Other
practical units of pressure are atmosphere, bar and torr (mm of Hg) with

1 atm = 1.01 ï 105 Pa = 1.01 bar = 760 torr

(3) At a point it acts in all directions. If a pressure measuring device is at a given point in a
fluid, whatever be its orientation the pressure remains the same.

p
Piston
p h Vacuum
p
p Pressure
Sensor

(4) It always acts normal to the fluid bourndaries as the ability to flow makes fluid unable to
sustain a tangential force.

(A) (B)

(5) It depends on the depth of the point below the surface (h), nature of liquid () and acceleration
due to gravity (g) while it is independent of the amount of liquid, shape of the container or
cross sectional area considered. So if a given liquid is filled in vessels of different shapes to
same height, the pressure at the base in each vesselÊs will be the same, though the volume
or weight of the lilquid in different vessels will be different.

pA = pB= PC but WA < WB < WC

FLUID MECHANICS
 6 QUIZRR
(6) In a liquid at same level, the pressure will be same at all points; if not, due to pressure
difference the liquid cannot be at rest. This is why the height of luqid is the same in vessels
of different shapes containing different amounts of the same liquid at rest when they are
in communication with each other.

hA HB hC hD hE

A B C D E
PA = PB = PC = PD = PE
Also, hA = hB = hC = hD = hE

PASCAL’S LAW

It states that „pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion
of the fluid and the wall of the containing vessel‰.
A well known application of PascalÊs law is the hydraulic lift used to support or lift heavy objects.
It is schemetically illustrated in figure.
A piston with small cross section area A1exerts a force F1 on the surface of a liquid such as oil.

F1
The applied pressure is P = A transmitted
1 F1

through the connecting pipe to a larger piston CAR

A1 A2
area A2. The applied pressure is the same in
both cylinders so

F1 F2 A2
P = A A or F2 = A .F1
1 2 1

Now, since A2 > A1, therefore, F2 > F1. Thus, hydraulic lift is a force multiplying device with a
multiplication factor equal to the ratio of the areas of the two positions. DentistÊs chairs, car lifts
and jacks, many elevators and hydraulic brakes all use this principle.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Vacuum
1. Barometer : (P=0)

It is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure.

h
1
In principle, any liquid can be used to fill the barometer, but 2
mercury is the substance of choice because its great density makes
possible an instrument of reasonable size.
P1 = P2

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 7

Here, P1 = atmospheric pressure (P0)

and P2 = 0 + gh = gh
 = density of mercury
P0 = gh
Thus, the mercury barometer reads the atmospheric pressure (P0) directly from the height of the
mercury column.
For example if the height of mercury in a barometer in 760 mm, then atmospheric pressure will
be,
P0 = gh
= (13.6 ï 103)(9.8)(0.760)
= 1.01 ï 105 N/m2

2. Manometer :

It is a device used to measure the pressure of a gas inside a

P0
container.
The U ă shaped tube often contains mercury. h
1 2
P1 = P2
Here, P1 = pressure of the gas in the container (P)
Hg
and P2 = atmospheric pressure (P0) + gh
P = P0 + hg
This can also be written as
P ă P0 = gauge pressure = hg
Here,  is the density of the liquid used in U-tube.
Thus by measuring h we can find absolute (or gauge) pressure in the vesel.

3. Free body diagram of a liquid :

The free body diagram of the liquid (showing the vertical forces only) is shwon in Fig. (b). For
the equilibrium of liquid.

P0A
A

 h
W

(a) (b) (P0 + gh)A

FLUID MECHANICS
 8 QUIZRR
Net downward force = net upward force
P0A + W = (P0 +  gh)A
W = ghA

Example 1
A s
A liquid of density  is filled in a beaker of cross section S to a
Cylinder
height H and then a cylinder of mass m and cross section S is mg
made to float in it as shown in Fig. If the atmospheric pressure H s
C
is p 0, find the pressure (a ) at the top face A of the cylinder (b) at
B
the bottom face C of the cylinder and (c ) at the base B of the
beaker. Can ever these three pressures be equal ? S

Solution :
(a) Above the cross section A there is external pressure due to the atmosphere only.

So pA = Atmospheric pressure = p0

(b) At the point C the pressure will be due to atmosphere and also due to the weight of the
cylinder, i.e.,

mg
PC = P0 +
S

Note : If h is the height of cylinder inside the liquid, by concept of hydrostatic pressure pC
must be p0 + hg so that

p0 + (mg/s) = p0 + hg, i.e., mg = hsg = V´g [as V´ = hS]

i.e., weight of cylinder is equal to the thrust, which is the principle of floation and verifies
the correctness of our result.

(c) At the point B of beaker, pressure will be due to atmosphere, weight of cylinder and weight
of liquid in the beaker; so

mg  pgHS mg
pB = p0   gH 
= p0 ρ
S S

Note : The pressure due to the weight of cylinder at its own base C (mg/s) is more than at
the base of beaker B (mg/S) as s<S.
If the system is in fall (as in a satellite), g  0,

pA = pC = pB = p0 [as weight = 0]

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 9

Example 2

An open U-tube of uniform cross-section contains mercury. When 27.2 cm of water is poured
into one limb of the tube, (a ) how high does the mercury rise in the other limb from its
initial level ? (b) what is the difference in levels of liquids of the two sides ? (w = 1 and Hg
= 13.6 units)
Solution :
(a) If water depresses the mercury by y, the mercury in the other limb will rise by y above its
initial level (as fluids are incompressible),
so that
AAÊ = BBÊ = y
D
Also h2 = BÊB + BC h1 B´
y
i.e., h2 = BÊB + AAÊ A y B h2
A´ C
[as BC = AAÊ]
or h2 = 2y
[as AAÊ = BBÊ = y]
Now if h1 is the height of water column above AÊ, then as in a liquid, pressure is same at
all points in the same level:
pAÊ = pC, i.e, P0 + h1g = p0 + h22g,
or h11 = h22 i.e. 27.2 ï 1= 2y ï 13.6
which on solution gives by y = 1 cm, i.e., mercury rises by 1 cm from its initial level.

(b) The difference of level on two sides

z = h1 ă h2 = 2.72 ă 2 ï 1 = 25.2 cm,
i.e., the water level will stand 25.2 cm higher than the mercury level in the other limb.
Note : The answer does not depend on the atmospheric pressur p0 acceleration due to
gravity g or the cross section of the tube if the tube is unform.

Example 3

To what height should a cylindrical vessel be filled with a homogeneous liquid to make the
force with which the liquid presses on the side of the vessel equal to the force exerted by
the liquid on the bottom of the vessel ?
Solution :
Consider a cylindrical vessel of radius r filled with a liquid of density to a height h. If p0 is the
atmospheric pressure, the pressure difference inside and outside the base of the cylinder,
pB = (p0 + hg) ă p0 = hg
 FB = pBS = r2hg ...(1)

FLUID MECHANICS
10 QUIZRR
Now as pressure at a depth y below the surface of liquid inside
will be (p0 + yg) while outise p0, so pressure difference on two y
sides of the curved surface at depth y below the surface will be h dy
pS = (p0 + yg) ă p0 = yg

So the force on a strip of curved surface of thickness dy at depth r

y below the surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. will be :
dFC = pS (2r dy) = 2rgy dy

FC = 2rg  ydy = rgh2 ...(2)

0

But according to the given problem FB1 = FC1 so from equations (1) and (2) r2hg = r2gh2
i.e. h= r

Example 4

For the arrangement shown in the figure, what is the density of oil ?
Solution :
PB = P0 + w. gl
PA = P0 + oil (+ d)g d=12.3mm
C
PA = PB Oil
water l=135mm
PA = Pa
A B
w  1000 135
  oil    = 916.5 kg/m3
( + d) (135+12.3)

Example 5

A U-tube of uniform cross-sectional area contains three liquids

A, B and C. The column of liquid A has heigh 3 cm. The liquid
B has height 1 cm in left column and 2 cm in right column
3 cm 2 cm
respectively. Its specific gravity is 13.5. The liquid C has height
2 cm and its specific gravity is 1.5. If 2 cm of liquid A is added 1 cm 2 cm
B
in left column and 1 cm of liquid C is added in right column,
what will be the height of liquid B in left column ?
Solution :
3Ag + 1Bg = 2Bg + 2Cg
 3A = 1B + 2c = 13.5 + 2 ï 1.5

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 11

 A = 16.5/3 = 5.5 ....(1)

Now after adding 2 cm of liquid A and 1 cm of liquid C
5Ag + (1ăx)Bg = (2 + x)Bg + 3Cg
 5 ï 5.5 = (1 + 2x) 13.5 + 3 ï 1.5
27.5 = 13.5 + 27x + 4.5
27x = 27.5 ă 18
x = 9.5/27 = 0.35cm in left column

Example 6

Two vessels have the same base area but different shapes. The first vessel takes twice the
volume of water that the second vessel requires to fill up to a particular common height.
Is the force exerted by water on the base of the vessel the same in the two cases ? If so, why
do the vessels filled with water to that some height give different readings on a weighing
scale?
Solution :
Pressure (and therefore force) on the two equal base areas are identical. But force is exerted by
water on the sides of the vessels also, which has a non-zero vertical component when the sides
of the vessel are not perfectly normal to the base. This net vertical component of force by water
on the sides of the vessel is greater for the first vessel than the second. Hence, the vessels weigh
different when force on the base is the same in the two cases.

Pressure Difference in Accelerating Fluids

Consider a liquid kept at rest in a beaker as shown in figure (a). In this case we know that
pressure do not change in horizontal direction (x-direction), it decreases upwards along y-direction.
So, we can write the equations.

dP dP
= 0 and = ă g ...(i)
dx dy

y y

ay

ax

x x
(a) (b)

FLUID MECHANICS
12 QUIZRR
But suppose the beaker is accelerated and it has components of acceleration ax and ay in x and
y directions respectively, then the pressure decreases along both x and y directions. The above
equation in that case reduces to,

dP dP
= ă ax and = ă (g + ay) ...(ii)
dx dy
y
These equations can be derived as under :
(P + dP)A
Consider a beaker filled with some liquid of density p P+dP
accelerating upwards with an acceleration ay along
A ay
positive y-direction. Let us draw the free body diagram A dy
of a small element of fluid of area A and length dy as
shown in figure. P x PA

Equation of motion for this fluid element is,

PA ă W ă (P + dP) A = (mass) (ay)
or ăW ă (dP) A = (A dy) (ay)
or ă(Ag dy) ă (dP) A = (A dy) (ay)

dP
or = ă  (g + ay)
dy
y
Similarly, if the beaker moves along positive x-
direction with acceleration ax, the equation of motion
for the fluid element shown in figure is, ax
P+dP (P+dP)A
PA ă (P + dP) A = (mass) (ax) P PA
A A
or ă (dP) A = (A dx) ax ax
dx
x
dP
or = ă ax
dx

Free Surface of a Liquid Accelerated in Horizontal Direction

Consider a liquid placed in a beaker which is accelerating horizontally with an acceleration ÂaÊ.
Let A and B be two points in the liquid at a separation x in the same horizontal line. As we have
seen in this case. y

dP
= ă a
dx 
h1
h2
or dP = ă a dx a
A B
x x

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 13

Integrating this with proper limits, we get

PA ă PB = ax ...(iii)
Further, PA = P0 + gh1
PB = P0 + gh2
Substituting, in Eq. (iii), we get
g(h1 ă h2) = ax

h1  h2 a
= = tan 
x g

a
tan  =
g

Example 7 
A liquid of density  is in a bucket that spins with angular velocity  as shown
in figure. Show that the pressure at a radial distance r from the axis is

2 r 2
P = P0 +
2

where P0 is the atmospheric pressure.

Solution :
Consider a fluid particle P of mass m at coordinates (x, y). From a non-inertial rotating frame of
reference two forces are acting on it,

P P mx2
x
 
mg Fnet

P (x,y)

(i) pseudo force (mx2)

(ii) weight (mg)
in the direction shown in figure.

FLUID MECHANICS
14 QUIZRR
Net force on it should be perpendicular to the free surface (in equilibrium). Hence,

mx2 x2 dy x2

tan  = = or =
mg g dx g

y y
x2
  dy =
0
0 g .dx

x2 2
 y=
2g

This is the equation of the free surface of the liquid, which is a parabola.

r 2 2
At x = r, y=
2g
P0
 P(r) = P0 + gy y
x=r P(r)
r 2 2
or P(r) = P0 +
2

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

According to ArchimedesÊ principle,

„When a body is fully or partially submerged in a fluid, a buoyant force or upthrust from the
surrounding fluid acts on the body. The force is directed upward and has magnitude equal to the
weight mg of the fluid that has been displaced by the body‰
The buoyant force on a body in a liquid (fluid) has the magnitude

F = mg = Vi L g

where m = the mass of the liquid displaced by the body

Vi = immersed volume of solid

 L = density of liquid

and g = acceleration due to gravity

Law of Floatation

Let a body of volume V and density  S is floating in a liquid of density  L . Suppose Vi be the
volume of body immersed in the liquid,

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 15

For equilibrium of body

Weight = Upthrust

 V S g = Vi L g

Vi S
 = ...(i)
V L

This is the fraction of volume immersed in liquid.

Percentage of volume immersed in liquid

Vi 
=  100 = S  100
V L

Three possibilities may now arise.

1. If S < L, only fraction of body will be immersed in the liquid.
2. If S = L, the whole of the rigid body will be immersed in the liquid.
3. If S > L, the body will sink.

Some Particular Cases

(i) In liquid, the apparent weight of the body decreases, and this decrease in its weight is equal
to the upthrust acting on the body.
Hence, apparent weight
wapp = Vg(S ă L,)
(ii) If object is immersed in water, then

wt. of body in air

RD =
Loss in wt. in water

wt. of body in air

=
wt. in air ă wt. in water

So, by weighing a body in air and in water, we can determine the relative density of the
body.
(iii) Buoyant Force in Accelerating Fluids

Suppose a body is dipped inside a liquid of density  L placed in an elevator moving with an

acceleration a . The buoyant force F in this case becomes,

F = V L geff

 
Here, geff = | g ă a |

FLUID MECHANICS
16 QUIZRR
For example, if the lift is moving upwards with an acceleration a, the value of geff is g + a and
if it is moving downwards with acceleration a, the geff if g ă a. In a freely falling lift geff is zero
(as a = g) and hence, net buoyant force is zero. This is-why, in a freely falling vessel filled with
some liquid, the air bubbles do not rise up (which otherwise move up due to buoyant force). The
above result can be derived as follows.

Suppose a body is dipped inside a liquid of density  L in an elevator moving up with an

acceleration a. As was done earlier also, replace the body into the liquid by the same liquid of
equal volume. The replaced liquid is at rest with respect to the elevator. Thus, this replaced liquid
is also moving up with an acceleration a together with the rest of the liquid.
The forces a acting on the replaced liquid are,
(i) the buoyant force F and
(ii) the weight mg of the substituted liquid.
From NewtonÊs second law,
F ă mg = ma or F = m(g + a)

Here, m = V L

 F = V L (g + a) = V L geff

where geff = g + a

Example 8

A certain block weighs 15 N in air. It weighs 12 N when immersed in water. When immersed in
another liquid, it weighs 13 N? Calculate the relative density of (a) the block (b) the other liquid.
Solution :

By definition, RD = / water

B Weight of body
(a) So for body RD = =
W Weight of equal vol. of water

Weight of body WA
i.e., RD = =
Thrust from water WA ă WW

15
= 5
15  12

(b) As Th = Loss in weight of body = Vg

L T hL 15  13 2
So for liquid, RD = = = =
W ThW 15  12 3

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 17

Example 9

A piece of copper having an internal cavity weighs 264 g in air and 221 g in water. Find
the volume of the cavity. Density of copper is 8.8 g/cc .
Solution :

As Th = Vg, the volume of body will be

Th (264 ă 221) g
V = g = 1 g
= 43 cc

Now as mass of body is 264 g while the density of material of body is 8.8 g/cc, the volume of
material in the body

mass of body 264

V0 = = = 30 cc
density of material 8.8

So The volume of cavity = V ă V0 = 43 ă 30 = 13 cc

Example 10

The tension in a string holding a solid block below the surface of a a

liquid (of density greater than that of solid) as shown in figure is T0
when the system is at rest. What will be the tension in the string if the
system has an upward acceleration a .
Solution :
Let m be the mass of block.
Initially for the equilibrium of block,
F = T0 + mg ...(i)
Here, F is the upthrust on the block

F F´

T0 + mg T + mg

When the lift is accelerated upwards, geff becomes g + a instead of g. Hence,

 ga
F´ = F   ...(ii)
 g 

FLUID MECHANICS
18 QUIZRR
From NewtonÊs second law,
F´ ă T ă mg = ma ...(iii)
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

 a
T = T0  1  
 g

FLOATATION

(A) Translatory-Equilibrium

When a body of density  B and volume V is immersed in a liquid of density , the forces acting
on the body are:

(1) The weight of body W = mg = V B g acting vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity of the body.
(2) The upthrust Th = Vg acting vertically upwards through the centre of gravity of the
displaced liquid, i.e., centre of buoyancy.
So the following three situations are possible :
(a) The density of body is greater than that of liquid (i.e., B > ). In this situation as
weight will be more than upthrust the body will sink. [Fig. (A)]
(b) The density of body is equal to the density of liquid (i.e., B = ). In this situation W
= Th, so the body will float fully submerged in neutral equilibrium anywhere in the
liquid. [Fig. (B)]

(A) (B) (C)

               B >              B =            B < 

(c) The density of body is lesser than that of liquid (i.e., B > ). In this situation W < Th,
so the body will move upwards and in equilibrium will float partially immersed in the
liquid such that
W = Ving
[Vin being the vol. of body in the liquid]

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 19

or VBg = Ving [as W = mg = BVg]

or VB = Vin ...(1)
From this all it is clear that :

(1) A body will float in a liquid only and only if  B  .

(2) And when a body is floating weight of body is equal to the upthrust, i.e., VBg = Ving.
(3) In case of floating as W = Th, the apparent weight of the floating body will be zero, i.e.,
Wapp = W ă Th = 0
(4) In case of floating as W = Th implies VBg = Ving, the equilibrium of floating bodies is
unaffected by variation in g though both thrust and weight depend on ÂgÊ.

(B) Rotatory–Equilibrium

When a floating body is slightly tilted from equilibrium position, the centre of buoyancy B shifts.
The vertical line passing through the new centre of buoyancy BÊ and initial vertical line meet at
a point M called meta-centre. If the meta-centre M is above the centre of gravity the couple due
to forces at G (weight of body W) and at BÊ (upthrust) tends to bring the body back to its original
position [Fig.(B)]. So for rotational equilibrium of floating body the meta-centre must always be
higher than the centre of gravity of the body.
However, if meta-centre goes below CG, the couple due to forces at G and BÊ tends to topple the
floating body. [Fig. (C)]

Th Th
G
G M M w
B
G B´ B´
B B
w

(A) (B) (C)

This is why a wooden log cannot be made to float vertical in water or a boat is likely to capsize
if the sitting passengers stand on it. In these situation CG becomes higher than MC and so the
body will topple if slightly tilted.

(C) Application

(1) Fraction of volume outside the liquid : As in case of a floating body W = Th

i.e., VBg = Ving or Vin = (B/)V

  
So Vout = V ă Vin = V 1  B 
 

FLUID MECHANICS
20 QUIZRR

Vout  B 
i.e., fout = = V 1  
V  

(2) Comparison of densities of floating bodies : As for floating VB = Vin, i.e.,

Vin
B =  = fin
V

So if different bodies are floating in the same liquid,

B1  fin 1
=
B2  fin 2
(3) Comparison of densities of liquids : If the same body is made to float in different liquids,
then
VB = (Vin)11 = (Vin)22

1  Vin 2
or =
2  Vin 1
i.e., density of liquid is inversely proportional to the volume of body inside it.
(4) Weighing a body : If a platform of mass M and cross section A is floating in a liquid of
density  with its height h inside the liquid.
Mg = hAg ...(1)
Now if a body of mass m is placed on it and the platform sinks by y then
(M + m)g = (y + h)Ag ...(2)
Subtracting Eqn. (1) from (2),
mg = Ayg, i.e., W  y ...(3)
So we can determine the weight of a body by placing it on a floating platform and noting
the depression of the platform in the liquid by it.

Example 11
A rod of length 6m has a mass 12kg. It is hinged at one end at a distance of 3m below water
surface, (a) What weight must be attached to the other end of the rod so that 5 m of the
rod are submerged ? (b) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge
on the rod. (Specific gravity of rod is 0.5).
Solution :
As shown the forces acting on the rod are :
(1) The weight of rod 12g N acting downwards through the CG of the rod, i.e., at a distance
of 3m from the hinge.
FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 21

w
Th
R
3m 
W

(2) Force of buoyancy through the CG of displaced liquid vertically upwards. As

Weight of displaced water

RD =
Force of buoyancy

 5  12g
Force of buoyancy =     20g N
 6  0.5

and acts at a distance 2.5 m from the hinge.

(3) Extra weight w at the other end of the rod at a distance 6m from O acting vertically
downwards.
(4) Reaction R at the hinge at O will be vertical (as here all the forces are vertical, so for
horizontal equilibrium of the rod RH = 0).
So for translatory equilibrium of rod,
R + Th ă W ă w = 0
i.e., w ă R = 20g ă 12g =8g ...(1)
And for rotational equilibrium of rod (taking moments about O)

6 5
ă 12g  sin   20g  sin  ă w6sin  = 0
2 2

or w = (14/6)g = 2.33g N = 2.33kg ...(2)

Substitvting the value of w from eq.2 in (1) and solving for R, we get R = (2.33 - 8)g N = ă 5.67kg
Negative sign implies R is vertically downwards.

Example 12

Why does a uniform wooden stick or log float horizontally ? If enough iron is added to one
end, it will float vertically; explain this also.
Solution :
When a wooden stick is made to float vertically, its rotational equilibrium will be unstable as its
meta-centre will be lower than its CG and with a slight tilt it will rotate under the action of the
couple formed by thrust and weight in the direction of tilt, till it becomes horizontal. [Fig. (A)]

FLUID MECHANICS
22 QUIZRR

Th
Th

G
G
B M
B´ B´
W G G

W
(A) (B)
However, due to loading at the bottom, the CG of the stick (or log) will be lowered and so may
be lower than the metacentre. In this situation the equilibrium will be stable and if the stick (or
log) is tilted, it will come back to its initial vertical position. [Fig. (B)]

Example 13

A cubical block of iron 5 cm on each side is floating on mercury in a vessel. (a) What is the
height of the block above mercury level ? (b) Water is poured into the vessel so that it just
covers the iron block. What is the height of water column ?
[RD of Hg = 13.6 and Fe = 7.2]
Solution :
(a) In case of floatation W = Th, i.e., V = Vin; so if h is the height of iron block above mercury
and a is the side of iron cube,
a
h 2.35 h 2.54
2.65 2.46
a h
Hg Hg

(A) (B)

(a  a  a) = (a ă h)  a  a  

  
i.e., (a ă h) = a or h = a 1 ă 
  

 7.2 
so h = 5 1 ă   2.35cm
 13.6 

(b) Here upthrust is provided by both mercury and water and if h is the height of water-level,
Vg = ThHg + Thw

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 23

i.e., a  a  a   = a  a(a ă h)Hg + a  a  hw

i.e., a = (a ă h)Hg + hw or h(Hg ă w) = a (Hg ă )

 Hg ă   13.6 ă 7.2

h = a  ă   5  13.6 ă1  2.54cm
or
 Hg w   

Example 14

A block of wood floats in water with two-thirds of its volume submerged. In oil the block
floats with 0.90 of its volume submerged. Find the density of (a) wood and (b) oil, if density
of water is 103 kg/m3.
Solution :
In case of floatation W = Th, i.e., V = Vin
so (a) V = (2/3)Vw [as Vin = (2/3)V]

2 2 kg
or  =  w   103  667 3
3 3 m

(b) For oil, V = 0.9Voil

or 0.9Voil = (2/3Vw ) [as V = (2/3)Vw]

2 2 kg
oil = 3  0.9  w  2.7 10  740 m3
3
or

Example 15

A glass beaker having mass 390g and an interior volume of 500cm3 floats on water when
it is less than half filled with water. What is the density of the material of the beaker ?
Solution :
As the beaker floats in water when less than half filled with water, it will float just fully suberged
when half filled. In this situation,
V=500cc
mass of beaker + mass of water in it = V
Water
i.e., 390 + 250 = V  1 [as  = 1 g/cc]
i.e., outer volume of beaker Water
V = 640 cc
Now as inner volume of beaker is given to be 500 cc, so the volume of the material of beaker =
640 ă 500 = 140 cc. But as mass of beaker is 390g, so density of material of beaker

m 390 g
 =   2.79
V 140 cc

Note : Density of body (beaker) will be 390/640 = 0.61 g/cc!

FLUID MECHANICS
24 QUIZRR
Example 16

A cube of wood supporting 200 g mass just floats in water. When the mass is removed, the
cube rises by 2 cm. What is the size of the cube ?
Solution :
If a is the side of the cube and as cube rises 2 cm on removing the mass, the weight of body must
be equal to the thrust provided by 2 cm height of cube of base area (a  a), i.e.,
mg = VÊg or (200  g) = (2  a2)  1  g
or a = 10 cm, i.e., the side of cube is 10 cm.

Example 17

A block of wood weighs 12kg and has a relative density 0.6. It is to be in water with 0.9 of
its volume immersed. What weight of a metal is needed (a) if the metal is on the top of wood,
(b) if the metal is attached below the wood ? (RD of metal = 14)
Solution :
(a) When the metal is on the top of wood,

M  M
M + m1 = 0.9Vw = 0.9   asVw  
w  w 

    0.9 
m1 = M  0.9 ă 1  12  ă1  6kg
 w   0.6 

m1

Vw PW Vw PW
 
M M
PM m1
VM

(A) (B)

(b) When the metal is attached at the bottom of wood,

(M + m2) = (0.9Vw + VM)

 M m2   mass 
or M + m2 = 0.9    as   vol. 
 w M   

     
or m2 1 ă  = M 0.9 ă1
 M   w 

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 25

 1  0.9 
or m2 1 ă  = 12  ă1  6kg
 14   0.6 

14  6
or m2 =  6.5kg
13

Example 18

A wooden stick of lenght L, radius R and density  has a small metal piece of mass m (of
negligible volume) attached to its one end. Find the minimum value for the mass m (in
terms of given parameters) that would make the stick float vertically in equilibrium in a
liquid of density .
Solution :
For the stick to be vertical for rotational equilibrium, centre of gravity should be below in a
vertical line through the centre of buoyancy. For minimum m, the two will coincide.
Let h be the length of immersed portion. For translatory equilibrium,
Wt. of rod + mass attached = force of buoyancy
(M + m)g = R2hg ...(1)

L h
2 C

m
2
where M = R L.
The height of centre of mass from bottom

(M)L / 2  m  0 ML
=
mM 
= 2 mM

For rotatory equilibrium and for minimum m, this should be equal to h/2.

h ML
   2 m  M 
2  

ML
 h =
 m  M

FLUID MECHANICS
26 QUIZRR
Substituting for h in Eqn. (1), we get

ML
(M + m)g = R 2 g .
m  M
(M + m)2 = R2 . ML

(M + m) = MR 2 L  R 2 L . R 2 L

m = R 2 L  ă R 2 L

  
= R L   ă 1
2

 

Flow of Fluids

The flow of liquids (fluids) is of two types :

(i) Streamline flow (ii) Turbulent flow

Streamline flow :

The streamline flow of a liquid is the flow in which each element of the liquid passing through
a point travels along the same path and with the same velocity as the preceeding element passing
through the same point.
v3
v1

v2

Hence, it is a regular flow. The path followed by each element is called streamline. The tangent
drawn at any point of streamline gives the direction of the flow of liquid at that point. From figure
velocity at different points may be different. Hence, in the figure
  
v1  cons tan t, v 2 = cons tan t, v 3  cons tan t
  
but v1  v 2  v 3

Turbulent flow

A liquid can possess streamlined motion only when its velocity is less than a limiting velocity,
called the critical velocity. When the velocity of the liquid becomes greater than the critical
velocity for the liquid, the different elements of the liquid move along a zig-zag path. As a result
of unsteady motion of the elements of the liquid along zig-zag paths, the liquid gets churned up.
Such a motion of the liquid is called turbulent flows

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 27

Principle of Continuity

It states that, when an incompressible and non-viscous liquid flows in a streamlined motion
through a tube of non-uniform cross-section, then the product of the area of cross-section and the
velocity of flow is same at every point in the tube.
Thus, A1v1 = A2v2 Q
or Av = constant P V2
V1
1 A2
or v A1
A

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

In streamlin flow, the energy of a fluid particle remains constant. Suppose that, in a tube of flow,
cross-sectional area at 1 and 2 are A1 and C C´
A2, corresponding velocities v1 and v2 and movement P2
pressures are P1 and P2 respectively. D D´
B B´
Consider an element ABCD of an P1
A A´
incompressible fluid. In a time t, the liquid
h2
moves in and the liquid element becomes h2
AÊBÊCÊDÊ. In other words, we can also say
that fluid element ABBÊA has effectively
changed into DCCÊDÊ.
m = A1v1 t = A2v2 t
Work done by fluid pressure at 1 = (P1A1)v1 t = P1 m/
Work done by fluid pressure at 2 = ă (P2A2)v2 t = ă P2 m/
Work done by gravity = ă (m).g. (h2 ă h1)
Change in kinetic energy = 1/2 m [v22 ă v12]
Using work energy theorem = (W = K)

m m 1
 P1 ă P2 ă g (h 2 ă h1 ) = m  v 22 ă v12 
  2

P1 v2 P v2
 gh1  1 = 2  gh 2  2
 2  2

v12 v 2
 P1  gh1  = P2  gh 2  2
2 2

v 2
 P  gh  = Constant
2
FLUID MECHANICS
28 QUIZRR
where, P = Pressure energy per unit volume or Pressure at a cross-section.
gh = potential energy per unit volume and (1/2) v2 = kinetic energy per unit volume.
The above equation is known as BernoulliÊs equation.

Pressure head, velocity head and gravitational head of a flowing Liquid

Dividing the BernoulliÊs equation by g, we have

P v2
  h = constant (m)
g 2g

P v2
In this expression g is called the ÂPressure head, the velocity head and h the gravitational
2g

head. The SI unit of each of these three is metre. Therefore, BernoulliÊs equation may also be
stated as,
Sum of pressure head, velocity head and gravitational head is constant for an ideal
fluid.

Applications of principle of continuity and Bernoulli’s Theorem :

(A) Venturimeter
The device is used to measure the rate of steamine flow of a fluid
through a tube. The working of a venturimeter is based on A1 V1
P2
BernoulliÊs principle. The construction of the device is shown in P1
the figure. The tube has different areas of cross-section A1 and A2 h
in two sections. A U-tube containing mercury is fitted between the
larger and narrower part of the horizonal tube. The area of cross-
section of the broader part is A1 and that of the narrower part is A2. The flow speed of the
narrower part is V2 and that at the broader part is V1.
The fluid is incompressible. The rate of flow of the fluid is given by,

q = v1A1 = v2A2             ...(1)

(= the quantity (mass) of fluid flowing per second.)

Suppose that the pressure at broader end of section is P1 and at the narrower end is P2.

Therefore, P1 ă P2 = h0g ...(2)

where 0 is the density of mercury in the U-tube.

Now applying BernoulliÊs principle at the two positions, we have

1 1 2
P1  v12  0 = P2   v 2  0
2 2
FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 29

i.e., P1 ă P2 =
1
2

 v 22 ă v 12 

i.e., 0gh =
1
2

 v 22 ă v 12  ...(3)

Solving equations (1) and (3) for v1, we have

20 gh
v1 = A 2 ...(4)

 A 12 ă A 22 
Therefore, the rate of flow of fluid is given by,
q = v1A1

20 gh
 q = A1 A 2 ...(5)

 A12 ă A 22 

(b) Velocity of Efflux

Suppose that a liquid is taken in a container of large cross sectional
area A1. There is also a small hole of cross-sectional area A2 on the wall
h
of the container. Suppose that the velocity of efflux of the liquid out of
H
the container is v2. The velocity of a liquid particle at the surface at that
instant is v1. The height of the liquid column at any instant from the
position of the hole to the upper end of the tank is h, and the atmospheric x
pressure is P0 Now from the principle of continuity, we get
v1A1 = v2A2 ...(1)
Applying BernoulliÊs principle at the free end outside the hole and also at the surface, we get

1 1
P0  v12  gh = P0  v 22 ...(2)
2 2
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), we get,

2gh
v 22 = ...(3)
  A 2 
1 ă  2  
  A 1  

If A2 << A1 then,

v2 = 2gh ...(4)
Equation (3) and (4) give the velocity of efflux of a liquid coming out in a small hole in a tank.

FLUID MECHANICS
30 QUIZRR
I mportant note

(i) v  h

(ii) v is independent of nature of liquid.

(iii) If the liquid is ejected through the hole horizontally and the hole is at a height h from the
upper level of liquid and the total depth of liquid is H, then the time taken by the liquid
to reach the ground is :

2H ă h
t= ...(5)
g

Suppose that horizontal distance travelled by the liquid stream is x, i.e. the liquid will strikes
the ground at a distance x from the base of the container below the hole.

2 H ă h
Then, x = v.t = 2gh. ...(6)
g

dx
This range x will be maximum if 0
dh

dx
Now, x2 = 4h (H ă h). Therefore, 2x  4H ă 8h  0
dh

Therefore, H = 2h i.e. h = H/2 ...(7)

H
and xmax = 2  H ă H / 2 i.e. Xmax = H ...(8)
2

Example 19
A non-viscous liquid of constant density 1000 kg/m3 flows in a steamline motion along a
tube of variable cross-section. The tube is kept inclined in the vertical plane as shown in
the figure. The area of cross-section of thetube at the points P and Q at heights of 2 metre
and 5 metre are respectively 4 ï 10ă3 m2 and 8 ï 10ă3 m2. The velocity of the liquid at point
P is 1 m/s. Find the work done per unit volume by the pressure and the gravity forces as
the fluid flows from point P to Q. Take g = 9.8 m/s2.

P 5m
2m

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 31

Solution :
Given : A1 = 4 ï 10ă3 m2, A2 8 ï 10ă3, h1 = 2m, h2 = 5m, v1 = 1, m/s and  = 103 kg/m3
From continutiy equation, we have
A1v1 = A2v2
A2
 A1  v2
or v2 =  v
 A2  1
A1 2
v1
 4 10 ă3  1
or v2 =  ă3  (1m/s) h2
 8 10  h1

1
v2 = m/s
2

Applying BernoulliÊs equation at section 1 and 2,

1 1
P1  v12  gh1  P2  v22  gh2
2 2

1
P1 ă P2  g (h2 ă h1 )   (v22 ă v12 ) ...(i)
2

(i) Work done for unit volume by the pressure as the fluid flos from P toQ
W1 = P1 ă P2

1
= g (h2 ă h1) + (v 22 ă v12 ) [from Eq. (i)]
2

 1 1 
= (103 )(9.8)(5 ă 2)+ (102 )  ă1  J/m3 = 29400 ă 375 J/m3
 2 4 

Or W1 = 29025 J/m3 Ans.

(ii) Work done per unit volume by the gravity as fluid flows from P to Q.
W2 = ăg (h2 ă h1) = ă(103)(9.8)(5 ă 2) J/m3
or W2 = ă19400 J/m3 Ans.

FLUID MECHANICS
32 QUIZRR
Example 20

A cylindrical tank of base area A has a small hole of area Âa Ê at the bottom. At time t =0,
a top starts to supply water into the tank at a constant rate  m3/s.
(a) what is the maximum level of water h max in the tank ?
(b) find the time when level of water becomes h(<h max).
Solution :
(a) Level will be maximum when
3
rate of inflow of water = rate of outflow of water Rate =  m
s
i.e.,  = av
A
or  = a 2 ghmax

h

hmax = Ans.
2 ga 2 v= 2gh
a
(b) Let at time t, the level of water be h. Then

 dh 
A    ă a 2 gh
 dt 

h dh dt

t
or 0
 ă a 2 gh = 
0 A

Solving this, we get

A     ă a 2 gh  
t = ag   l n  
 ă 2 gh  Ans.
   

Example 21

Water flows through a tunnel from the reservoir of a dam towards the turbine installed in
its power plant. The power plant is situated h m below the reservoir. If the ratio of the
cross-sectional areas of the tunnel at the reservoir and power station end is , find the
speed of the water entering into the turbine.
Solution :
Applying BermouliÊs theorem at reservoir and power plant for the following water, we obtain,

1
P0  gh1  v12  P0  gh 2  v 22
2

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 33

 v 22  v12  2g (h1 ă h2 ) .

Putting (h1 ă h2) = h, we obtain v2 = v12  2 gh ...(1)

Equation of continuity yields A1v1 = A2v2 ....(2)

Eliminating v1 from equations (1) and (2), we obtain

2
 A2 
v2 =  v2   2 gh
 A1 

2gh
2
v2 = A 
1ă  2 
 A1 

Putting A1/A2 = ,we obtain

2gh
v2 =  .
2 ă1

Example 22

A cylindrical tank 1 m in radius rests on a platform of 5 m. Initially the tank is filled with water upto
a height of 5 m. A plug whose area is 10ă4 m2 is removed from an orifice on the side of the tank at
the bottom. Calculate (a) initial seed with which the water flows from the orifice (b) initial speed with
which the water strikes the ground and (c) time taken to empty the tank to half its original value (d)
Does the time to emptied the tank depend upon the height of stand ?
Solution :
(a) As speed of efflux is given by

vH = (2 gh) so here v = 2  10  5  10 m/s

A

5m
A0

5m

FLUID MECHANICS
34 QUIZRR
(b) As initial vertical velocity of water is zero, so its vertical velocity when it hits the ground

vv = 2 gh  2  10  5  10 m / s

So the initial speed with which water strikes the ground,

v= vH2  vv2 10 2  14.1 m/s

(c) When the height of water level above the hole is y, velocity of flow will be v = 2 gy and
so rate of flow

dV
 A 0 v  A 0 2 gy
dt

or ăAdy =  
2gy A dt
0
[as dV = A dy]

which on integration gives

A 2
t= A [ H ă H']
g
0

 12 2
so t = ă4
[ 5 ă 5 / 2]  9.2 103 s  2.5h
10 10

(d) No, as expression of t is independent of height of stand.

Example 23

A 3.6m long verticle pipe resonates with a source of frequency 212.5 Hz when water level
is at a certain height in the pipe. Find the heights of water level (from the bottom of the
pipe) at which reasonances occur. Neglect end correction. Now, the pipe is filled to a height
H ( 3.6m). A small hole is drilled very close to its bottom and water is allowed to leak.
Obtain an expression for the rate of fall of water level in the pipe as an a function of H.
If the radius of the pipe and hole are 2 ï 10ă2 m and 1 ï 10ă3 m respectively, calculate the
time interval between the occurrance of first two resonances. Speed of sound in air
340 m/s and g = 10 m/s2.
Solution :
For resonance to occure in a closed pipe,

 2n ă1 
l = where n = 1, 2, 3,....
4

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 35

v 340
Here,  =  1.6m
n 212.5

So, resonance occure for length of air column 0.4 m, 1.2 m, 2.0 m, 2.8 m and 3.6 m and
corresponding height of water column from bottom.
= 3.2 m, 2.4 m, 1.6 m, 0.8 m and 0m.
The velocity of efflux, when height of water level is h above bottom

= 2gh

Applying continuity equation,

 dh 
Aă   a 2 gh
 dt 

where a and A are area of cross-section of hole and pipe respectively.

A
dt = ă dh
a 2 gh

So, the time in which the height of water column changes from 3.2 m to 2.4 m, i.e., time interval
between first to resonances,

2.4 2.4
A 1 A
t= ă 
a 3.2 2 gh
dh  ă
a 2 gh
2 h1 / 2
3.2

 10 ă2 ) 2  2 3.2 ă 2.4 

10 ă3 )2 2 10  
=

= 42.87 s Ans.

Example 24

A container of large uniform cross-section area A resting on a horizontal surface, holds

two immiscible, non-viscous and incompressible liquids of densities d and 2d each of height
(H/2) as shown in Fig. The lower density liquid is open to the atmosphere having pressure
p 0. (a ) A homogeneous solid cylinder of length L (L < A
H/2), cross-sectional area (A/5) is immersed such that d
H/2
if floats with its axis vertical at the liquid-liquid
interface with length (L/4) in the denser liquid. 2d
Determine (i) The density of solid and (ii) The total H/2 h
pressure at the bottom of the container. (b) The
cylinder is removed that original arrangement is x

FLUID MECHANICS
36 QUIZRR
restored. A tiny hole of areas s (s<<A) is punched on the vertical side of the container at
a height h (h < H/2). Determine (i) the initial speed of efflux of the liquid at the hole (ii) the
horizontal distance x travelled by the liquid initially and (iii) the height h m at which the
hole should be punched so that the liquid travels the maximum distance x m initially. Also
calculate x m.
Solution :
(a) As for floating, W = Th
Vg = V1d 1 + V2d 2g

A  3  A   1  A 
or L      L    d   L    2d
5  4  5   4  5 

3 2 5
i.e., = d  d  d
4 4 4

(ii) Total pressure = p0 + (weight of liquid + weight of solid)/A

H H 5 A  1
i.e., p = p0 = dg  2dg  d    L   g 
2 2 4 5  A

3 H 1 1
i.e., p = p0 + H dg  dg  L dg  p0  (6H  L)dg
2 2 4 4

(b) (i) By BermoulliÊs theorem for the point just inside and outside the hole

1 2 1
p1 + v1  p2  v22
2 2

H H  1
i.e., p0 + dg   ă h  2 dg  p0  (2d )v2
2 2  2

or g(3H ă 4h) = 2v2 or v = ( g / 2)(3H ă 4 h)

(ii) As at the hole vertical velocity of liquid is zero so time taken by it to reach the
ground,

t= 2h / g

g 2h
So that x = vt = (3 H ă 4 h)   h(3 H ă 4 h)
2 g

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 37

(iii) For x to be maximum x2 must be maximum, i.e.,

d d
dh
 
x2 = 0 or
dh
(3Hh ă 4h2 ) = 0

or 3H ă 8h = 0, i.e., h = (3/8)H

3H  3  3
and Xmax =  3H ă H   H
8  2  4

VISCOSITY
F
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid. Viscous v
forces opposes the motion of one portion of a fluid
relative to the other.
The simplest example of viscous flow is motion of
y
a fluid between two parallel plates.
The bottom plate is stationary and the top plate x

moves with constant velocity v . The fluid in contact
with each surface has same velocity at the surface. The flow speeds of intermediate layers of fluid
increase uniformly from bottom to top, as shown by arrows. So the fluid layers slide smoothly over
one another.
According to Newton, the frinctional force F (or viscous force) between two layers depends upon
the following factors,
(i) Force F is directly proportional to the area (A) of the layers in contact, i.e.,
F  A

 dv 
(ii) For F is directly proportional to the velocity gradient  dy  between the layers. Combining
 

these two, we have

dv
F A
dy

dv
F = A
dy

Here, is is constatn of proportionality and is called coefficient of viscosity. Its value depends
on the nature of fluid. The negative sign in the above equation shows that the direction of
viscous force F is opposite to the direction of relative velocity of the layer.

FLUID MECHANICS
38 QUIZRR
2
The SI unit of  is N-s/m . It is also called decapoise or pascal second. Thus,
1 decapoise = 1 Năs/m2 = 1 Pa-s = 10 poise
Dimensions of  are [MLă1Tă1]
Coefficient of viscosity of water at 100C is  = 1.3 ï 10ă3 N-s/m2. Experiments show that
coefficient of viscosity of a liquid decreases and its temperature rises.

Example 25

A plate of area 2m2 is made tomove horizontally with a speed of 2 m/s by applying a
horizontal tangential force over the free surface of a liquid. If the depth of the liquid is 1m
and the liquid in contact with the bed is stationary. Coefficient of viscosity of liquid is 0.01
poise. Find the tangential force needed to move the plate.
Solution :

v
Velocity gradient = y
v=2m/s

2ă0 m/s F
= 1ă 0 2 m 1m

From, NewtonÊs law of viscous force,

v
F A
y

= (0.01 ï 10ă10)(2) (2)

= 4 ï 10ă3 N.
So, to keep the plate moving, a force 4 ï 10ă3 N must be applied. Ans.

STROKES LAW AND TERMINAL VELOCITY

When an object moves through a fluid, it experiences a viscous force which acts in opposite
direction of its velocity. The mathematics of the viscous force for an irregular object is difficult,
we will consider here only the case of a small sphere moving through a fliuid.
According to stokes law a spherical object of radius r moving at velocity v expression is viscous
force given by
F = 6rv ( = coefficient of viscosity)
This law is called StokeÊs Law.

Terminal Velocity (VT)

Consider a small sphere falling from rest through a large column of viscous fluid. The forces
acting on the sphere are,
FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 39

(i) Weight W of the sphere acting vertically downwards Ft + Fv

(ii) Upthrust Ft acting vertically upwards
(iii) Viscous force Fv acting vertically upwards, i.e., in a direction opposite to velocity V
of the sphere
Inivially, Fv = 0 (as v = 0)
W
W > Ft
and
and the sphere accelerates downwards. As the velocity of the sphere increases, Vv increases.
Eventually a stage in reached when
W = Ft + Fv ....(i)
After this net force on the sphere is zero and it moves downwards with a constant velocity
called terminal velocity (VT).
Substituting proper values in Eq. (i) we have

4 3 4
r g  r 3 g  6 rVT
3 3

Here,  = density of sphere,  = density of fluid

 = coefficient of viscosity of fluid

2 r2 ( ă ) g
From Eq. (ii), we get vT =
9 

Figure shows the variation of the velocity v of the sphere with time

VT

O time

Tip : From the above expression we can see the terminal velocity of a spherical body is directly
proportional to the difference in the densities of the body and the fluid (ă ), the terminal
velocity is negative. This means that the body instead of falling, moves upward. This is why
air bubbles rise up in water.

FLUID MECHANICS
40 QUIZRR
Example 26

A spherical ball of radius 1 ï 10ă4 m and density 104 kg/m3 falls freely gravity through a
distance h before entering a tank of water. If after entering the water the velocity of the
ball does not change, find h. The viscosity of water is 9.8 ï 10ă6 N-m2.
Solution :

After falling through a heigh h, the velocity of the ball becomes v = 2gh . After entering water,
this velocity does not change, this velocity is equal to the terminal velocity.

2 2  ă 
2 gh  r g
g   
i.e.,

  
2
2 104 ă 103
or, 
2gh =  9  (10 ă4 2
)
9.8 10 ă5 
 

 2.04 
2

or, h = = 0.212m
2  9.8

Example 27

Two identical drops of water are falling through air with a steady volocity v. If the drops
coalesced, what will be the new velocity ?
Solution :
Let r be the radius of each drop. The terminal velocity vT of a drop of radius r is given by

2 r  ă 
2

vT  ...(1)
9 

Now when two drops each of radius r coalesce to form a new drop, the volume of coalesced drop
will be given by

4 4 4
R 3  r 3  r 3
3 3 3
The radius of the coalesced drop will be
R = (2)1/3r
Hence, the new terminal velocity of the coalesced drop is

2  2  r   ă  
 1/ 3
v´T =  ....(2)
9 

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 41

So, dividing equation (2) by (1)

vT' 2
2 3
vT

vT' =  2 3 v [as vT = v]
2
or

SURFACE TENSION

The free surface of a liquid constracts so that its exposed surface area becomes minimum, i.e., it
behaves as if it were under tension, somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane. This property
is known as surfance tension.
The surface tension of a liquid varies with temperature as well as dissolved impurities, etc. When
soap is mixed with water, the surface tension of water decreases.
Surfance tension of a liquid is measured by the normal force acting per unit length. On either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of a liquid, the direction of this force is
perpendicular to the line and tangential of the free surface of liquid.

F
T=
L
B
Consider a wire frame, as shown in figure, equipped with a sliding wire
AB. It is dipped is soapy water. A filmk of liquid is formed. A force F has
F
to be aplied to hold the wire in place. Since, the soap film has two L
surfaces attached to the wire, the totallength of the film is contact with
the wire is 2L. A

F
T (surface tension) =
2L

Properties of surface Tension :

Ć Scalar quantity
Ć Temparature sensitive
Ć Impurity sensitive
Ć Depends only on the nature of the liquid
Ć Unit of surface tension, N/,
Ć Dimension of surface tension, ML 0Tă2.

Surface Energy

If the area of the liquid surface has to be increased, work has to be done against the force of
surface tension. The work done to form a film is stored as potential energy of the surface and the
FLUID MECHANICS
42 QUIZRR
amount of the energy per unit are of this surface under isothermal condition is the instrinsic
surface energy density or free surface energy density.
Work done in small displacement dx.
dW = F ï dx = 2TL dx
F
x
W = 0 2TLdx  2TLx
x dx
As A = 2Lx (area of both sides)
W/A = T (intrinsic surface enrgy)

Excess Pressure

The pressure inside a soap bubble and outside it, are not identical due to the surface tension of
the soap buble. To calculate this pressure difference, letÊs first consider an air bubble inside a
liquid. If the pressure differences is P, then the work done to increase the radius of bubble from
r to (r + r) is given by :
W = Fr = 4r2pr
While change in area,     S = 4(r + r)2 ă 4r2 = 8r r
From the definition of surface tension

4 r 2 pr
T = W/S =
8  r r

2T
 p =
r

For a soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces, and so

p = 2  2T / r  4T
r

Angle of Contact

1. Angle of contact, for a solid and a liquid is defined as the angle between tangent of the
liquid surface drawn at the point of contact and the surface inside the liquid.
2. The angle of contact of a luqid surface on a solid surface depends on the nature of the liquid
and the solid.

 

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 43

Case I: When  < 900.

The luquid surface curves up towards the solid. This happens when the force of cohension
between two liquid molecules is less then the force of adhesion between the liquid and the solid.
If such a liquid is poured into a solild tube, it will have a concave meniscus. For example, a glass
rod dipped in water, or water inside a glass tube.

Case II: When  > 900.

The liquid surfaces get curved downward in contact with a solid. In this case the force of cohension
is greater than the force of adhesion. In such cases, solids do not get „wet‰. When such liquids
are put into a solid tube, a convex menicus is obtained.
For example, a glass rod dipped in mercury or mercury within a solid glass tube.

Capillarity

Surface tension causes elevation or depression of the liquid in the narrow tube. This effect is caled
capillarity.
When a glass capillary (A tube of very smal diameter is called a capillary tube) open at both ends
is dipped vertically in water, the water in the tube will rise above the level of water in the vessel
as shown in figure (a). In case of mercury, the luquid is depressed in the tube below the level
of mercury in the vessel as shown in figure (b).

(a) (b)

When the contact angle is less than 900 the liquid rises in the tube. For a nonwetting liquid angle
of contact is greater than 900 and the surface is depressed, pulled down by the surface tension
forces.

Explanation

When a capillary tube dipped in water, the water meniscus inside the tube is concave. The

2T
pressure just below the menicus is less than the pressure just above it by , where T is the
R
surface tension of the and R is the radius of curvature of the menicus. The pressure on the surface
of water is P0, the atmospheric pressure. The pressure just below the plane surface of water

FLUID MECHANICS
44 QUIZRR

2T
outside the tube is also P0, but that just below the the menicus inside the tube is P0 ă . We
R
know that pressure at all points in the same level of water must be the same. Therefore, to make

2T
up the deficiency of pressure below the menisus water being s to flow from outside into the
R
tube. The rising of water in the capillary stops at a certain height h. In this position of pressure

2T
of water column of heigh h becomes equal to , i.e.,
R

2T
hg =
R

2T
or h =
Rg

If r is the radius of the capilliary tube and  the angle of contact, then
r

2r R
R=
cos 

2T cos 
h =
rg

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 45

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Example 1 A
x
A closed tube in the form of an equilateral triangle of side l
E
contains equal volumes of three liquids, which do not mix,
and is placed vertically with its lowest side horizontal. Find
D
the value of x in the figure, if the densities of liquids are in x
arithmetic progression. C
B F x
Solution :
Let ÂdÊ be the density of liquid in DAE, Âd + yÊ be the density of liquid in FCE and Âd + 2yÊ be the
density of liquid in FBD.

3
Pressure at D = (l ă x) sin 600 dg = (l ă x) dg
2
Pressure at F = (l ă x) sin 600 dg + x sin 60Ĉ (d + 2y)g

3 x 3
= (l ă x) dg + (d + 2y)g
2 2

x 3
Pressure at E = x sin 60Ĉ dg  dg
2
Pressure at F is aso equal to = x sin 600 dg + (l ă x) sin 600 (d + y)g

x 3 3
 dg  (l  x) (d  y) g
2 2
Equating the values of pressure at F

3 x 3 x 3 3
(l ă x) dg + (d+ y)g = dg + (l ă x) (d + y)g
2 2 2 2
 (l ă x)d + x(d + 2y) = xd + (lă x) (d + y)
 x = (l/3).

Example 2

A rectangular container of water undergoes constant accelaration down an incline as

shown. Determine the slope tan  of the free surface using the coordinate system shown.
Take g = 10 m/s2.
y
x 

a=3m/s2

30Ĉ

FLUID MECHANICS
46 QUIZRR
Solution :
Net force on a fluid particle of mass m at the surface of the liquid should be perpendicular to its
surface when seen from accelerating frame of reference. Two forces are acting on the fluid
particle.
(i) weight (mg) acting vertically downwards
(ii) pseudo force (ma) along negative x-direction
As we said, the resultant of these two should be perpendicular to the free surface or along the
free surface the components of these two forces should cancel each other.
e
 ma cos  = mg cos (600 + ) rfac
su
0 0 r ee id
or 3cos  = 10(cos 60 cos  ă sin 60 sin ) ma F
liq
u
of
 3cos  = 5 cos  ă 5 3 sin  
60Ĉ
 5 3 sin  = 2 cos  mg 30Ĉ

2
 tan  = = 0.23
5 3

Therefore, the desired slope is 0.23.

Example 3

Two narrow bores of radius 3.0 mm and 6.0 mm are joined together a U-shaped tube open
at both ends. If the U-tube contains water, what is the difference in its levels in the two
limbs of the tube. Surface tension of water is 7.3 ï 10ă2 N/m. Take the angle of contact to
be zero and density of water to be 103 kg/m3. g = 9.8 m/s2.
Solution :
hg = P

2T cos  2T cos 
= ă
r1 r2

2T cos   r2 ă r1 
or h =  
g  r1 r2 

Substititing the values, we have

2  7.3 10ă2  cos00  6.0 ă 3.0  1

h =    ă3
10 ă3  9.8  6.0  3.0  10

= 2.48 ï 10ă3 m.
= 2.48 mm.

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 47

Example 4

A solid ball of density half that of water falls freely under gravity from a height of 19.6m and
then enters water. Upto what depth will the ball go. How much time will it take to come again
to the water surface. Neglect air resistance and viscosity effects in water g = 9.8m/s2.
Solution :

v = 2gh  2  9.8 19.6  19.6m / s

Let  be the density of ball and 2 the density of water. Net retardation inside the water,

upthrust ă weight g
a =
mass h=19.6m

V  2  g ă V    g 
= (V = volume of ball)
V   g v
a=g
= g
= 9.8m/s2
Hence, the ball will go upto the same depth 19.6 m below the water surface.
Further, time taken by the ball to come back to water surface is,

 v
t = 2 
a

 19.6 
= 2   4s
 9.8 

Example 5

A block of mass 1 kg and density 0.8g/cm3 is held stationary with the help of a string
as shown in figure. The tank is accelerating vertically upwards with an acceleration
a = 1.0m/s2. Find
(a) the tension in the string
(b) if the string is now cut find the acceleration of block. a
2 3 3
Take g = 10m/s and density of water = 10 kg/m .

Solution :
(a) Free body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. In the figure,
F = upthrust force
= V (g + a)

FLUID MECHANICS
48 QUIZRR

 mass of block 
=     g  a 
 density of block  F
a

 1 
=   1000 10  1  13.75N
 800  W+T

W = mg = 10N
Equation of motion of the block is,
F ă T ă W = ma
 13.75ăTă10 = 1  1
 T = 2.75 N
(b) When the string is cut T = 0

FăW
 a=
m

13.75 ă 10
=
1

= 3.75m/s2.

Example 6

Length of a horizontal arm of a U-tube is 20cm and ends of both
the vertical arms are open to a pressure 1.01  103 N/m2. Water
10cm
is poured into the tube such that liquid just fills horizontal part
of the tube. Now, one of the open ends is sealed and the tube is
then rotated about a vertical axis passing through the other
20cm
vertical arm with angular velocity . Take density of water = 103
kg/m3 and g = 10m/s2. Assume temperature to be constant.
Solution :
Let the cross sectional area of the tube be A. Initial pressure of air in sealed tube,
Pi = 1.01  103 N/m2

Initial volume, Vi = 0.1A
Final volume, Vf = (0.1 ă x) A 10ăx
Let final pressure be Pf. Using
C x
PiVi = PfVf, we have
x B
Pi Vi  0.1 
Pf = 
 1.01 103   ...(i)
Vf  0.1 ă x 
FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 49

PB = Pf + gx ...(ii)
3 2
PC = 1.01  10 N/m ...(iii)
Pressure difference is, P = PB ă PC ...(iv)
Centripetal force required for circular motion of vertical column is provided by reaction of the tube
while that to horizontal part is provided by excess pressure at B.
Thus, (P) A = (mass of horizontal part of liquid) (r2)
Here, mass of horizontal part = (0.2 ă x) A
r = distance of centre of mass of horizontal portion of liquid from axis of rotation

 0.2 ă x   0.2  x
= x  
 2  2

Substituting the values,

 0.1   0.2  x  2
(1.01  103)   + gx ă (1.01  103) = (0.2 ă x)   
 0.1ă x   2 

Here x = 0.05m, S = 103kg/m3 and g = 10m/s2   2.02 + 0.5 ă 1 = 0.01875 2,

= 9.15 rad/s

Example 7 P
v Q
Water flows into a bent pipe of cross-section A with velocity v as shown
in the diagram. If the flow is assumed to be streamline and the pipe PQR 90Ĉ
R
is on a horizontal plane, find the force acting on the pipe (0 = density of
water). v
Solution :

The incoming momentum per sec (flow along PQ) = A0 v2 i .

y
The final momentum

(flow along QR = ă A0v2 j ) x


Now force, Fwp , exerted by pipe on water = Rate of change of momentum

 2 
  2 
 2  
= ă A0 v jă A0 v i  ă A0 v  i  j

   
= ă 2 A0 v 2  i  j 
 2 2 

FLUID MECHANICS
50 QUIZRR

 Fpw = Force exerted by water on pipe

  i j 
2 
i j
= ă F wp  2A0 v 2     2A0 v n; where n 
 2 2 2 2
 

Example 8

What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solutions of radius 5.00mm ? Given that
the surface tension of soap solution at the temperature (20ĈC) is 2.50  10ă2 N/m. If an air
bubble of the same dimension were formed at a depth of 4.0 cm inside a container containing
soap solution (relative density 1.20), what would be the pressure inside the bubble ? (1atm
= 1.01  105Pa)
Solution :
r = 5.00  10ă3m, T = 2.50  10ă2 N/m, h = 40cm = 0.4m,
 = 1.20  103 kg/m3 and P0 = 1.01  105 Pascal.
Excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution

4T 4  2.50 10 ă2
  20Pa
r 5.00 10 ă3

Excess pressure inside an air bubble in soap solution

2T 2  2.50 10 ă2
  10Pa
r 5.00 10ă3

2T
Total pressure inside the air bubble = P0 + hg +
r

= 1.01  105 + 0.4  1.2  103  9.8 + 10 = 1.06  105 Pa

Example 9

Two separate air bubbles (radii 0.004 m and 0.002m) formed of the
same liquid (surface tension 0.07 N/m) come together to form a r2
double bubble. Find the radius and the sense of curvature of the
internal film surface common to both the bubbles. P
P2

P1
r1

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 51

Solution :

4T
P1 = P0  r
1

4T
P2 = P0 
r2

r2 < r1
 P2 > P1
i.e., pressure inside the smaller bubble will be more. The excess pressure

 r1 ă r2 
P = P2 ă P1 = 4T   ...(i)
 r1 r2 

This excess pressure acts from concave to convex side, the interface will be concave towards
smaller bubble and convex towards larger bubble. Let R be the radius of interface then,

4T
P= ...(ii)
R

From Eqs. (i) and (ii)

r1 r2  0.004 0.002
R =
r1 ă r2  0.004 ă 0.002
= 0.004m

Example 10

A bubble having surface tension T and radius R is formed on a b R

ring of radius b (b << R). Air is blown inside the tube with velocity
v
v as shown. The air molecule collides perpendicularly with the
wall of the bubble and stops. Calculate the radius at which the
bubble separates from the ring.
Solution :
2b  2Tsin  = Av2

b Tsin
 4bT  = b2v2
R
T 
T
4T
 R = v2 Tsin

FLUID MECHANICS
52 QUIZRR
Example 11

Two long capillary tubes of diameter 5.0 mm and 4.0 mm are held vertically with one
inside water. How high will water rise in each tube? (g = 10m/s2, surface tension of water
= 7.0  10ă2 N/m.)
Solution :
Height of water column in a capillary tube of radius r is given by

2T cos 
h = ...(1)
rg

where T is surface tension,  is density and  is angle of contact of water-glass which can be
assumed zero.

For the first tube, r = 2.5 mm= 2.2  10ă3m

2  (7.0  10 ă2 N/m)
 h = = 5.6 mm
(2.5  10ă3 m)  (1  103 kg/m3 )  (10N/kg)

According to equation (1), for the same liquid, we have

2T cos
 hr = g
= constant

If a liquid rises to a height h1 in a capillary tube of radius r1 and to a height h capillary tube
of radii r2, then

or, h1r1 = h2r2

h1 r1 5.6  2.5
or, h2 = r = = 7.0 mm
2 2.0

Example 12

Semicircular plane gate AB is

hinged along B and held by
H=8m A FA
horizontal force FA applied at A.
The liquid to the left of the gate R=3m Gate
side view
is water, calculate the force FA
B
required for equilibrium.

3 kg
Take g = 10m/s2 and density of water = 10 .
m3

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 53

Solution :
For the equilibrium of gate, net clockwise torque of hydrostatic force
= anticlockwise torque of FA
Torque of hydrostatic force
y = R sin 
X
dy = R cos  d
x = R cos  dy
y R
dA = 2x dy = (2R cos )(R cos ) d 
= (2R2 cos2) d
dF = g(8 ă y) dA
= g(8 ă R sin )(2R2 cos2 ) d
= 2gR2 (8 ă R sin )(cos2 ) d
3 2
d  = y dF = 2gR (8 ă R sin )(sin  cos ) d

/2

 C =  d
0

/2
= 2gR 3  (8  R sin )(sin  cos ) d
2

Substituting  = 103 kg/m3, g = 10 m/s2 and R = 3m

/2

 (8  3sin )(sin  cos ) d 

2
C = 2  10  10  (3)
3 3
0

 8 3 
= 5.4  105  ă N ă m
 3 16 

= 1.12  106 Năm ...(i)

Anticlockwise Torque

A = 3FA ...(ii)

Equating Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

FA = 3.73  105 N  373 kN

FLUID MECHANICS
54 QUIZRR
Example 22

A cylindrical weir has a diameter of 3m and a length of 6 m. Find the magnitude of the
resultant force acting on the weir from the water. Take g = 10m/s2 and density of water
= 1000 kg/m 3.

0m
3.
3.0m

D=
1.5m

Solution :
Hydrostatic force from left side
dA = (6) R d
h = R(1 ă sin )
dF = (gh)dA = 6gR2 (1 ă sin ) d
dFx = dF cos  = 6gR2 cos  (1 ă sin ) d
and dFy = ă dF sin  = ă 6gR2 (1 ă sin ) sin  d

+ /2  / 2

 Fx = 
ă /2
d Fx = 6gR 2 
ă/ 2
cos (1  sin ) d
h dF


 /2
cos 2 
= 6gR 2  sin  
 4  / 2

or Fx = 12gR2 ...(i)

 / 2  /2
Similarly, Fy = 
ă / 2
d Fy =  6gR 2  (1  sin ) sin  d
ă / 2

 / 2
 sin 2  
= 6gR 2   cos    
 4 2ă/ 2

= ă 3gR2  ...(ii)

Hydrostatic force from right side

dA = 6(R d)
h = R sin 
dF = (gh) dA = 6gR2 sin  d  h
dF
dFx = ă dF cos  = ă 3gR2 (sin 2) d

FLUID MECHANICS
 QUIZRR 55

/2

Fx = ă 3gR2  (sin 2) d

0

= ă 3gR2 ...(iii)
2 2
dFy = dF sin  = 3gR (2 sin ) d

/2

Fy = 3gR 2
 (1  cos2) d
0

3
= gR 2 ...(iv)
2

From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)

(Fx) net = 12gR2 ă 3gR2 = 9gR2

9
(Fy) net = gR 2
2

2
 9 
= gR 81    = 16.76gR2
2
Fnet
 2 

= (16.76)(103)(10)(1.5)2

= 377100 N  377 kN

FLUID MECHANICS