Composition of Meat

General Characteristics

Meat is a high-quality, concentrated, and easily-digested source of nutrients. It is

well-balanced in terms of relative amount of nutrients it contains. It is an excellent source of protein,
vitamin of the B-complex, and of certain minerals.
Meat provides satiety unequaled by other food items. It can be prepared in several ways and
its nutrients are almost in the proportion and amount needed by the human body. A nutritious food,
meat is easily attacked by microorganism, hence, it spoils rapidly at ordinary room temperature.

Components of Meat

Meat contain lean, fat, bones, connective tissues, and other similar elements. The major components
of meat are lean, fat, and bone. The lean is the most important portion of meat in relation to human
nutrition. Its proximate composition is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Proximate composition of meat from different animal species.

Proximate Composition
Species Moisture (%) Crude protein (%) Crude fat (%) Ash (%)
Beef 74.24 19.70 4.71 1.08
Chevon 75.34 21.27 2.87 1.10
Pork 72.96 21.52 3.42 1.10
Carabeef 75.15 19.26 3.20 1.00
Chicken 75.30 20.60 3.10 1.00
Dog meat 66.60 23.10 9.10 1.20
Rabbit meat 76.20 19.80 2.80 1.20
Goose meat 72.30 23.40 3.20 1.10
Turkey meat 72.60 19.20 3.90 1.40
Frog meat 77.50 20.90 0.60 1.00
Duck meat 68.60 20.50 9.90 1.00
Quail meat 70.20 21.10 7.70 1.00
Lamb 74.10 20.20 4.70 1.00
Deer meat 76.10 21.90 0.20 1.20

The nutritional quality of food protein is not only dependent on its amount but also on the
relative proportion of its essential amino acid content. Meat protein has high biological value. It can
supply the essential nutrients needed for normal growth and physiological function of human adults
without being fortified.
The essential and non-essential amino acid composition of lean meat is quiet constant
regardless of the species or cut except meat containing large amount of connective tissues.
Connective tissue proteins have high proline, hydroxyproline, and glycerine , but have low
tryptophan an tyrosine. The amino acid profile of lean meat of beef, pork, lamb, is presented in Table
3.
Meat also contains sufficient B-vitamins, phosphorus, iron, and potassium but deficient in
calcium. The cooking and processing of meat do not appreciably affect the quantity or availability of
the mineral elements as long as mineral salts are added. Meat in the diet also provides efficiently
utilized essential fatty acids. On the other hand, it also contains a certain amount of nonbeneficial
cholesterol, hence, consumption of meat should be limited within the recommended daily
allowance. Cholesterol content of various meats and animal food products is presented in Table 4.
Table 3. Amino acid composition of beef, pork, and lamb.
Amino Acid Beef (%) Pork (%) Lamb (%)
Essential Amino Acid 6.6 6.4 6.9
Arginine 2.9 3.2 2.7
Histidine 5.1 4.9 4.8
Isoleucine 8.4 7.5 7.4
Leucine 8.4 7.8 7.6
Lysine 2.3 2.5 2.3
Methionine 4.0 4.1 3.9
Phenylalanine 4.0 5.1 4.9
Threonine 1.1 1.4 1.3
Tryptophan 5.7 5.0 5.0
Valine

Nonessential Amino Acid

Alanine 6.4 6.3 6.3
Aspartic acid 8.8 8.9 8.5
Cystine 1.4 1.3 1.3
Glutamic acid 14.4 14.5 14.4
Glycine 7.1 6.1 6.7
Proline 5.4 4.6 4.8
Serine 3.8 4.0 3.9
Tyrosine 3.2 3.0 3.2

Table 4. Average cholesterol content of some animal products (in mg/100 g food material).
Food Material Cholesterol Content
Beef 70
Pork 70
Poultry 75
Veal 90
Mutton 70
Game 110
Heart 130
Kidney 320
Liver 300
Brains 2200
Milk 12
Butter 240
Cream 102
Hens egg (whole) 470

Selection of Good Quality Meat for Processing

The meaning of quality meat varies among the different sectors of the meat industry. For
example, the consumers have a view on good quality meat, health officers have their own view, and
the processors have also their own. However, quality connotes the degree of excellence of a product.
Differences in the definition of quality among various sectors are probably the result of the
differences in emphasis in evaluating quality.
Characteristics of meat that affect the quality
a. Appearance
b. Palatability
c. Composition
d. Processing
e. Safety traits

To a consumer, a good meat must have:

a. Firm fat
b. Bright and fine textured lean
c. Tender and juicy when cooked
d. Has full-characteristic flavor
e. Should not contain pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms as well as dangerous residues.
f. Contain high amount of nutrients in the right proportion and easily available form.

Other traits of meat required for specific products

1. Acceptable to consumer
2. High water holding capacity
3. High emulsion capacity
4. Good amount of soluble proteins
5. Formed stable emulsion

Water holding capacity is the ability of the meat to retain water under standard processing
procedures. This trait is reflected in terms of shrinkage, and holding of the meat particles together.
Water holding capacity of meat is decreased if animals are stressed before slaughter, if meat is
subjected to alternate freezing and thawing, overground, or excessively attacked by microorganisms
and other similar treatments. These should, therefore, be avoided to maintain good water-holding
capacity of the meat.

Soluble proteins are required in binding the pieces of meat. Together in processed products.
The higher the amount of soluble proteins, the better the binding of the meat particles would be.
This trait is very important in sausages, reformed hams, and other meat products that have to
undergo comminution in the processing procedures. Proteins of connective tissues are not soluble,
hence, their usage in emulsion and restricted products is limited.

Emulsifying capacity refers to the ability of meat to form a stable emulsion with a lipid.
Normally, this is measured by the amount of lipid emulsified per unit protein. Meat with high-
emulsion capacity is preferred over low-emulsion capacity meat. These characteristics are related to
the amount of fat that can be incorporated in the preparation of emulsion products such as meat
loaves and frankfurters.

Pale, soft, exudative (PSE) and dark, firm, and dry (DFD) meats are not good materials for
processing. PSE is observed in pork while DFD is common in beef but may also be found in pork.
These two conditions are results of rapid pH drop. If glycogen in the muscles is partially burned, the
result is PSE while completely-burned glycogen results in DFD.

The development of PSE and DFD is related to the rate of pH drop in the muscles which in
turn is affected by the rate of glycolysis. Sudden stress immediately before slaughter causes rapid
glycolysis. Thus, meat from stressed animals before slaughter has PSE or DFD condition depending on
the severity of the stress factor.
PSE condition is not observed in beef. The phenomenon causing PSE can occur in beef in a
similar manner as in pork. However, beef has high concentrations of myoglobin, hence, the pale
appearance of the meat cannot be observed. High- stressed cattle before slaughter results in total
consumption of the glycogen in the muscles. This condition results in DFD. DHD meat has a pH of
about 7 while PSE meat has about 6.5 - 6.8 pH. Both types of meat have a very low water-holding
capacity and minimal solubility of the proteins.

Meat Preservation Techniques

Meat preservation should always be accompanied with good handling practices.

Preservation effort is not bringing spoiled meat to freshness but rather an effort to maintain its
freshness or minimize the loss of freshness.

Meat is a highly nutritious product. Being so, microorganisms thrive on meat luxuriantly,
hence, it spoils rapidly. To be able to intelligently handle and preserve meat, one must know the
causes of meat deterioration. These may be divided into biological, chemical and physical forces.
Biological deterioration is the most destructive among these forces.

Biological spoilages are brought about by microorganisms, flies, rodents, and cockroaches.
Among the biological forces, microbiological spoilages are the most severe and account for almost
99.9% of all the biological deteriorations. Spoilages by other biological forces are easier to control
than the microbiological spoilages since these maybe screened out from the rooms or cabinets.

Oxidation is a common chemical cause of meat deterioration. Oxidation of the fats causes
rancidity while oxidation of myoglobin causes color darkening. There are other chemical meat
deteriorations aside from oxidation, these, however, are not as prevalent as oxidation.

Dehydration and enzymatic action are physical processes causing food deterioration. These
two are expensive to minimize and impractical to completely stop or control.

For effective preservation method, the method must be sound and must contain low
microbial load. The method must be practical, usable, and should not render the product
unpalatable or destroy its appearance. It should counteract or stop the action of forces of meat
deterioration.

Meat Preservation Approaches

There are a number of ways by which the shelf life of meat is lengthened. The common methods
include:

Cold storage. Cold storage maybe divided into chilling and freezing. Chilling is subjecting meat to a
temperature of 0° - 4°C. In this process, the meat becomes cold but remain soft. Freezing, however, is
cooling of meat below the freezing temperature. Meat juices start to harden when the temperature
is lower than -3°C.

Freezing meat is done either by slow or quick freezing. In quick freezing, the whole meat must be
hardened in less than 30 minutes. If time needed to harden meat is longer than 30 minutes, it is
already considered slow freezing.
 Quick freezing maybe accomplished by blast, deep, cryogenic, direct immersion, indirect
contact, or spray freezing. Quick freezing is advantageous over slow freezing because there is less
destruction of muscle fibers, less drip, minimal loss of water-holding capacity and flavor of product.
Moreover, ice crystals formed between muscle fibers are small.

Frozen and/or chilled meat have specific shelf life. The length of time the meat can be kept
depends on any factors. Initial microbial load, size of cuts, and temperature of the freezer/chiller are
three of the most important factors. Chunks have longer shelf life than ground meat. Colder cabinets
can maintain freshness of meat longer. Normal intact meat can be kept in the chiller for about 5 days,
however, it will stay fresh for 2-3 weeks if kept in a freezer.

Dehydration. Drying meat is reducing its available water content. This can be done by
withdrawing the water, or by binding the water, and making it unavailable for microbial growth. For
most bacteria, their growth is inhibited at 18% or lower available water. Molds and other fungi can
tolerate lower available water and most of them are inhibited only when the available water is 13%
or lower. Conventional drying is accomplished by exposing meat in the sun for several days.

Salting. This maybe accomplished by the addition of common table salt, hypochlorites of
calcium, and/or other salts. Through osmosis, salt withdraws water from the meat and causes
plasmolysis of bacterial cells. Salt also ionizes to yield chlorine ion which is harmful to organisms.
Other actions of slat include reducing solubility of oxygen in the moisture, sensitizing bacterial cells
to carbon dioxide, reducing the action of proteolytic enzymes, and retarding the development of
rancidity.

Curing. Curing started as a method of meat preservation. However, as time went by, people
developed the liking for cured flavor. At present, curing is done more for the cured meat flavor than
for its preservative effects.

Smoking. This is the process of subjecting meat to the action of smoke and heat generated
by burning hardwood or sawdust. Traditionally, smoking is applied to meat products for preservation
purposes.
Smoke has high antimicrobial properties. A film of creosote formed on the meat surface acts
as a barrier against the evaporation of moisture as well as the entry of insects and microorganisms to
the product. The drying effect of the heat produced during smoking also aids in inhibiting and killing
the microorganisms in the products.

Canning. This is a method where meat and meat products are preserved through reduction
of microbial growth or inactivation of microorganisms by a thermal process.
This is done by heating canned meat under pressure (pressure cooker, or autoclaves) to
reach temperatures above 110°C (sterilization). After thermal treatment, the product must be cooled
as quickly as possible to avoid over cooking.
Canning is the most important and efficient type of meat treatment because food free from
viable microorganisms can be obtained and products can be stored without refrigeration.

Basic Non-Meat Ingredients

Salt (sodium chloride). A primary ingredient used in meat curing. It is the main flavoring
agent used in meat processing. It also contributes to basic characteristics taste of the final product
and makes up the bulk of the curing mixture.
 Salt also plays a role in the binding of meat products. Together with mechanical agitation
such as chopping and mixing, salt exposes and extracts the salt soluble protein (myosin) which helps
“glue” the chunks of meat together and coagulates the protein upon heating.

Three kinds of salt available locally are the following:

● Solar or course salt
● Fine or “Pangasinan” salt
● Industrial or refined salt. This type of salt has the least amount of impurities that
may cause oxidative rancidity in meat products.

Recommended amount of salt use: 2.5-3% of the total meat volume.

Sugar. This is a secondary ingredient in meat curing. It counteracts the astringent quality of
salt and enhances the flavor of the product. Furthermore, it aids in the lowering of pH of the cure by
providing food for some of the lactic-acid fermenting bacteria that give the characteristic flavor of
some dry-cured products.
Sugars can reduce the shelf life of cured meats by providing food for spoilage bacteria, yeast,
and molds. Most sugars increase the browning of meat during subsequent cooking, thus, use of
brown sugar is limited because it caramelizes under low temperature. Artificial sweeteners have
been used to provide the flavor advantage without the accompanying browning problem.

Nitrates and nitrite (food grade). These act as preservatives. They are effective inhibitors of
the growth of Clostridium botulinum (causative agent for botulism) particularly in canned goods.
These are also responsible for the development of the desired cured color of the cured meat.
Nitrite provides the ultimate source of the nitric oxide that combines with the myoglobin
pigment producing pink meat.
Nitrate in itself is not effective in producing the color reaction until it is broken down into
nitrite. However, this process is slow and requires bacterial action. Rapid-curing reaction is produced
by adding nitrite directly.
Nitrates and nitrite also produce pronounced effects in flavor. Cured ham and other cured
products would only taste like salty pork roast without these “curing ingredients”. They act as
powerful antioxidants that prevent the development of oxidative rancidity.
However, nitrates and nitrite must be used with caution during curing because of the
following negative effects:

● Hazardous to health. These curing compounds have been implicated in the formation of
cancer-producing substances (called nitrosamines) in meat under certain circumstances.
The formation of nitrosamines is weighed against protective effects of nitrite against
botulism. No substitute has been found for nitrite to produce a typical cured meat
color and flavor.
● Nitrite burn. A green or white discoloration of the cured meat.

Hence, use of nitrates/nitrite must not exceed 156 ppm residual nitrite.

Ascorbates/Erythorbates. Ascorbates speed up the curing reaction. There are two primary
reactions that occur after the curing ingredients are introduced into the meat. These are:
a. the reduction of meat myoglobin.
b. the reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide
 The nitric oxide is then available to combine with myoglobin to form nitrosomyoglobin that
causes pink cured meat. To speed up these reactions to shorten the curing time,
ascorbates/erythorbates, being strong reducing agents, are added into the brine. Aside from
accelerating the reduction of metmyoglobin to myoglobin and nitrite to nitric oxide, these reducing
agents prevent the reverse actions, and eventually completing the conversion of muscle pigment to
the cured pigment form.
Ascorbates also act as stability agents. Residual amounts of ascorbates/erythorbates add
stability to the cured meat pigment by reducing the deterioration of the nitrosohemochrome thus,
giving the color a longer shelf life.
Caution should be observed when ascorbates in curing brine. These reducing agents may
convert nitrite to nitric oxide prematurely if the brine is held for long periods of time or at elevated
temperature. The nitric oxide escapes in the air as gas and is hazardous to health. Nitrite level in the
brine decreases thus, reducing its effectiveness for the meat. The recommended amount of
ascorbates/erythrobates is 500 mg/kg cured meat.

Phosphate adjusts. These are used to increase the water-holding capacity of the meat.
Polyphosphates help solubilize muscle proteins and lower the acidity (raise pH) of the meat. This
increases the number of positive charges on the proteins thus, increasing its water- holding capacity.

Use of phosphates results in:

● Increase in product yields
● Drier and firmer product surfaces
● More stable emulsion at higher temperature
● Improved color and flavor stability
● Improved binding quality of meat

Phosphates also reduce the prooxidant activity of metals in the salt. In the brine, they act as
buffer and help prevent the development of an acid brine. They sequester captions (-) and raise the
ionic strength of the solution.
Phosphates are not easily dissolved in most brines particularly once the salt has been added.
If the salt concentrations are too high, they may precipitate out of solution which lowers their
effectiveness. Therefore, it is important to dissolve the phosphates in water first before adding these
to the brine.
As cured products containing phosphates loss moisture after processing, the phosphates may
precipitate out on the surface forming “whiskers” or phosphate crystal. Also, excessive levels have
been accused of causing a “soapy” taste. Alkaline phosphates should be used for phosphate
containing brines.
The recommended amount of phosphate must not exceed: 1 tsp dissolved in ¼ cup water/ kg
meat or 3.0 g dissolved in 60.0 g water.
Coloring agents. Color is a very important attribute of meat and is subject to great changes
during processing. Therefore, addition of artificial food colors or natural pigments is often required to
make meat products attractive to the consumers.
After the FD and C Red #3 (Erythrosine), which was once described by the industry as “purest
red” and “hot pink” was banned by the U.S F.D.A. on January 29, 1990, to comply with the Delaney
clause of the Food and Drug and Cosmetic Act, replacement colors have been sought:
 ● FD and C Red # 40 (Allura red AC). # 40 provides a brick or orangish-red shade, but
not pink. This color is stable throughout a wide pH range, but has an unsatisfactory
heat stability and is prone to reduction and oxidation.
● Carmine/Cochineal. This is extract derivatives of Coccus cacti insect, (Dactylopius
coccus costa). Carmine is a magenta-red shade while Cochineal is a purple-red shade.
Both have excellent heat stability, good light stability, and resistant to
oxidation/reduction.
● Red beet concentrate. This is extracted from the red beet (Beta vulgaris) and is
available as purple-red liquid or as a reddish-purple powder. Beet concentrate is light
stable but has poor heat stability and is susceptible to reduction/oxidation. This color
requires a high usage rate and is expensive.
● Annatto. A natural color extracted from the seeds of the Annatto tree or Atsuete
(Bixa orellana). Its natural color is mainly carotenoid which ranges from pale yellow
to dark orange. Like all carotenoids, the color fades upon prolonged exposure to
strong light. The colorants are stable at temperature of 125° C, but precipitate at pH
less than 4.0.
● Paprika. This is used both as a flavorant and a colorant. Paprika is derived from the
dried fruit of Sweet Red Pepper (Capsicum annum L.). It has a deep red- brown
shade and is moderately stable to heat and light, but it may fade on prolonged
exposure to bright sunlight. The water soluble emulsion is stable to changes in pH.

Spices. Although flavorings are naturally present in many foodstuffs, palatability is further
enhanced by adding various substances which improve the zest and produce variety to the diet.
These substances, though lacking in nutritional value, stimulate the flow of digestive
secretion/enzymes thereby materially aiding digestion.
Spice, according to the food and Drug Administration (FDA), is an “aromatic vegetable
substances used for the seasoning of food. “Spices vary greatly in composition, but aromatic and
pungent principles which render them variable probably reside in volatile oils and resins.
Spices (whole or ground, natural or extracts) can be stored without too much loss of flavor if
tightly sealed and kept in a cool, dry place.
Spice extracts offer the advantages of being easier to control for flavor intensity and of not
being visible in the product as spice particles would be. The extracts are easier to store because
they are less bulky than natural spices. A list of recommended spices is presented in Appendix A.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG). This has been increasingly used in many food products.
Glutamate has no flavor of its own when in purified form, but merely enhances the natural flavor of
the product in which it is added. It acts by lowering the flavor perception threshold of persons
eating product.
However, too much use of MSG may cause dizziness, nausea, and headache commonly called
“Chinese restaurant syndrome.” To avoid its negative effects, used of MSG should not exceed ½ tsp
or 2.0 g/kg meat or 0.20% of meat.

Binders/Fillers/Emulsifiers/Extenders
These are nonmeat ingredients included in meat products usually in sausage formulation by many
manufactures.

Binders are proteinaceous agents that improved water-binding properties of comminuted

meat products. Binders also contribute to fat emulsification.
 Examples of binders are the following:
● Sodium caseinate (90 % protein)
● Soy protein isolate (90 % porotein)
● Wheat gluten (80 % protein)
● Soy protein concentrate (70 % protein)

Fillers are carbohydrate products which absorbed extensive quantities of water. However,
they are not good emulsifiers.

Good examples of fillers are:

● Cereal flour
● Starches

Extenders are nonmeat materials, added in an amount that they are able to increase the bulk
or modify the quality of sausage or meat loaf products. Extenders are usually plant protein.

Meat Product Packaging

Packaging is an important step or process in the distribution or sale of meat and meat
products. In the Philippines, It can be a traditional packaging method which involves the use of local
materials without preliminary treatment, or the mechanized- packaging process adopted from
industrialized countries. Since its introduction, meat packaging has own grown into a big industry. It
covers a wide range of packaging materials and processes.

Functions of Packaging
Packaging can be defined by the four functions it performs. These are as follows:
● Protection
- from physical damages
- from quality deterioration
- from health hazards
- from pests, microorganism, and other contaminants
● Production specification
- weight of product
- brand name, ingredients, and nutrients
- directions on how to use ot store the product
● Handling aid for convenience
- cartons- easy to transport or display on shelves
- plastic bags
● Advertising medium
- gets attraction
- helps/adds to the total value of the product
- aesthetic value

SELECTION OF PACKAGING MATERIALS FOR MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Basic Principles in the Selection of a good Packaging Material

● Protecting the products against physical damage, chemical changes, and microbial
contamination.
● Presenting the products to the consumers in the most attractive manner to display, promote,
communicate, motivate, and glamorize.
● Handling the products during transport in the most hygienic way so as to maintain their
quality.

Characteristics of a Good Packaging Material

The packaging requirements of fresh, frozen, and cured meats differ primarily due to the
chemical nature of the pigments that are present. However, they are also affected to some degree by
the processing methods used, and the nature of the microorganism that limit their shelf life.

Fresh Meat
For fresh meat merchandising, the following are the characteristics of a good packaging materials:

● It must allow sufficient oxygen to pass through them to maintain an

optimum color (by maintaining a predominantly oxymyglobin pigment).
● It must be moisture proof to prevent product dehydration and surface
discoloration.
● It must protect the product from further microbial contamination during
subsequent storage, handling, and merchandising.
● It must not impact any odor or flavor to the product and should retain
the natural flavors and odors that are inherent to the product.
● It should have tensile strength and resistance to tearing and scuffing to
withstand normal handling.
● It must be grease proof to prevent the absorption of fat that will reduce
the strength and moisture vapor transmission of the material.

Frozen Meat
The packaging requirements for frozen meat include the following:
● It should have low moisture vapor transmission to prevent product dehydration and surface
discoloration during storage.
● It must possess pliability and flexibility.
● It must possess strength which includes tear and puncture resistance, temperature
resistance, and storability.
● It must be grease proof or grease resistant.

Cured Meat Products

In contrast to fresh meat, the retention of a stable color in cured meat products depends on
the absence of oxygen. Exposure to light also causes color change known as light fading.
Thus, the packaging material used for cured meat products must possess the following
characteristics:
● Oxygen impermeable. Some cured meat products are vacuum-packaged. Others are placed
in opaque packages with only a limited portion of the product visible through a “window” in
the package to minimize light fading.
 ● It must be moisture proof so that the products remain moist or retain the characteristics
juiciness during handling and storage.
● It must protect the product from further microbial contamination during subsequent storage,
handling, and merchandising.
● It must not impact any odor or flavor to the product and the natural flavors and odors that
are inherent to the product must be retained.
● It must have sufficient tensile strength and resistance to tearing and scuffing to withstand
normal handling.
● It must be grease proof so that the meat fat will not be absorbed and the strength or
moisture vapor transmission properties will not be reduced.

Recommended Packaging Materials for Fresh and Cured Meat Products

Fresh Meat
Paper is still extensively used for wrapping fresh meats. Paper meat wrappers include the following:
● Bleached and unbleached kraft. Used for wrapping wholesale cuts of beef.
● Oiled wet- strength bleached sulfite paper. Used for wrapping wholesale cuts of pork.

Plastic is the most popular packaging materials for fresh meats. It has many desirable
characteristics such as light weight, inertness, clarity, flexibility, rigidity, and a wide range of
barrier properties, Plastics include cellophane, polyethelene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and nylon.

● Fresh meat cellophane is coated with a special nitrocellulose or polyethylene coating on one
side. The uncoated side is in direct contact with the moist, fresh meat to have continuous
transmission of oxygen. The outside coating restricts transmission of moisture from the meat
to prevent shrinkage and desiccation.
● Polyethylene (PE). Low-density polyethylene film is used for both fresh and frozen meats. It is
particularly a useful packaging material for frozen stored meat because it retains its flexibility
at temperatures as low as -51°C. It is also used for laminating packaging materials for
vacuum and gas packaging meats.
● Polypropylene (PP) has very good transparency, has fair resistance, but has very poor cold
resistance. Thus, it may only be used for fresh meats but not for frozen ones.
● Nylon is a polyethylene tubular, stock used in the form of casings and contour bags for
packaging fresh, frozen, and cooked boneless beef and other meats.

Processed/Cured Meats

Paper
Paper packaging materials such as glassine, greaseproof, and vegetable parchment are used
for wrapping fat meats such as ham and bacon.

Plastics
Plastics include regenerated cellulose, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyesters,
nylon, saran, aluminum foil, and laminate.
 ● Regenerated cellulose casing is used as mold and containers of smoked and processed
meats.
● Polyethylene (PE). Low- density polyethylene film is useful for packaging frozen stored meat
and processed meats. Bio-oriented polyethylene film is used for shrink packaging meat
products.
● Polypropylene (PP) is used in film lamination for vacuum and gas packaging processed meats
to minimize leaker packages caused by flex failure.
● Polyesters is suitable for packaging meat and ready- to- serve convenience foods. It is
available in (a) uncoated forms, (b) heat shrinkable types, (c) polymer coated types for
heat-sealed packages, and (d) polymer coated thermoformable and nonthermoformable
types for vacuum packaging.
● Nylon is used for different meat packaging applications especially in thermoforming deep
draw vacuum package of processed meats. Typical applications are in packaging luncheon
meat or frankfurters.
● Saran film is heat-sealed and tends to shrink on exposure to heat. Saran casings are resistant
to moist heat up to 132°C. They are used as a heat processing package as well as consumer
package for liver sausage and other sausage products.
● Aluminum Foil is the most often used foil in meat packaging. It is opaque, has moderate
dimensional stability and high degree of heat transfer. It is not also sensitive to moisture and
has zero permeability to water and gas vapors. Aluminum foil for packaging applications is
available in gauges of a quarter mil to six mil. In gauge of less than one mil, the foil is
generally laminated with paper, paperboards, cellophane, and plastic film to make flexible
pouches for gas packaging, decorative overwraps, and packages for cured, smoked, and
processed meats. In gauges of one mil or more, the unsupported foil is pressure-formed into
rigid trays.
● Laminate is a combination of two or more single sheets of papers, films, and foils which are
bonded together. Lamination results in a number of possibilities to develop films or wrapping
material of greater durability for packaging. In addition to laminating paper, many different
coating process are also employed to change the make-up of films to improve their
packaging qualities. Coating is used to increase the protective function of wrapping materials
against water, water vapor, gases, odors, greases, chemicals, or organic solvents. It also
increases the natural heat- sealing properties, optical properties, release properties, and the
durability of the film.

Metal Cans
Metal cans are containers utilized for thermal processing and for merchandising shelf-stable,
heat-processed meat products.

● Tin cans. These are the most rigid and most protective containers ever produced for
preserved foods. Tinplate is the principal material used for metal cans. It is a mild steel
coated on both sides with tin. The tin is normally applied in a very thin coating by
electrolytes deposition.
● Aluminum cans. These replaced the tin cans for canned sausage and luncheon meat.
Aluminum can have lighter weight and greater resistance to chemical interaction with
products.

Glass Containers
 Glass, as a packaging material, has chemical inertness, clarity, rigidity, resistance to internal
pressure, and resistance to heat. However, it is fragile (hazard for breakage) and heavy weight.

Advantages of Combining Packaging Materials

Combining packaging materials, e.g., aluminum foil and laminate have various advantages. These are
the following:

● Improves the strength of the package.

● Improves the resistance to loss of volatile components of the packaged product. Reduces
transmission of water vapor, oxygen, and other gases.
● Improves fat resistance.
● Provides heat- sealing.
● Eliminates fractures at low temperature and measures package integrity at high
temperatures.
● Improves flex endurance.
● Improves packaging machine performance.
● Provides sandwich printing and other graphics improvement.
● Improves the package appearance.
● Supplies merchandising and convenience features.

Packaging Processes

Packaging consists of bagging the product, evacuating the air, and heating or clip-sealing the
bag.

Modern Methods of Packaging Meat

There are three modern methods of packaging meat. These include shrink packaging,
vacuum packaging, and controlled- atmosphere packaging.

● Shrink packaging. The product is bagged, and air- evacuated. The header portion of the bag is
heat-sealed, or twisted, and clip-sealed.
● Shrink packaging has the following advantages:
✔ Contour fit
✔ Good meat appearance
✔ Package rigidity
✔ Crystal-clear display
✔ Vacuum packaging. The meat is bagged in a relatively impermeable plastic bag with
the minimum volume of air, A special vacuum-packaging machine is used to expel
excess air and seal the package
✔ Controlled atmosphere packaging. In this process, air is completely evacuated by
vacuum process and then replaced by a protective atmosphere such as nitrogen or
carbon dioxide. This is recommended for water or thinly-sliced processed meat as
the slices are difficult to separate if vacuum-packaged.
Packaging Waste Materials

Packaging waste materials constitute an important and growing portion of solid waste
accumulation. Packaged products are highly consumer-oriented and packaging waste materials,
therefore, predominantly appear in the solid wastes. The disposal of the accumulated solid waste is
becoming a problem.
Characteristics of an “ ideal disposable” packaging material maybe summarized as follows:

● Lightweight
● Low volume
● Easily crushable
● Easily separable
● High-material value
● Minimum of different materials
● Biologically and chemically inert
● Highly degradable
● Highly combustible

Quality Control Guidelines

Quality of a product means fitness for use which includes conformity to all aspects of the
manufacturing, availability and consumer service. To ascertain product quality, a meticulous
examination of product received or produced is required. However, 100% inspection is seldom done
(especially in large-scale operation) as it may be too expensive. Total testing maybe destructive in
nature and has the possibility to overlook articles. To test the quality of the product, acceptance
sampling must be utilized. In this technique, usually taken at face value, the quality of a product is
ascertained by the result of the inspection/analysis done on the randomly-selected samples. The
sample size has to be defined in the sampling plan. This plan, as commonly practiced in the industry,
follows the military Standard 105 D. (For details, please refer to Kramer and Twigg, 1982. Quality
control for the meat industry. 3rd ed. Vol.1.)
Quality is commonly thought of as degree of excellence. In a broader sense, it is a set of
specifications which are to be met within given tolerance or limits. These specifications are
determined through inspection by attributes and by variables. Inspection by attributes consists of
classifying a unit of a product simply as acceptable or unacceptable, go or no-go. Inspection by
variables refers to the actual values obtained in terms of some scale used to establish a level of
quality.
Quality examination is normally aimed at identifying the defects in relation to the de4sired
product characteristics.
A sample defect classifications are presented below:

● Critical. In food, this may be defined as one which constitutes a health hazard to consumer,
e.g., presence of toxic substances.
● Major defect. This maybe one which may not be directly hazardous to health, but may cause
the product to be unsuitable for human consumption, e.g.’ presence of insect materials.
● Minor defect. This maybe one which may cause a change in the economic value of the
product which is fit for human consumption. Defective products may be sorted out or
trimmed off.

A control system must be developed to ensure that all manufacturing processes are
regulated so that the final product conforms to specifications required at the most economical levels
allowing full-customer satisfaction.
Steps in developing a good- quality control program are the following:

● Establish the final specification of processed product which satisfies a given market outlet.
 ● List the manufacturing operations and define the series of operational specifications for each
stage.
● Monitor continually all specifications established and review specifications from time to time
to check if these are still applicable.

Two Aspects of Quality Control

Control of quality. This is done to achieve uniformity of quality and prevent too many
defective products. This can be achieved by:

● Controlling the purchase and storage of raw materials.

● Controlling the manufacturing process.
● Controlling the finished products.
● Controlling the measuring instruments and test equipment.
● Controlling the corrective action.

Improvement of product quality. This refers to specific improvement in the manufacturing

process where quality and production difficulties are looked into.
This can be achieved by:

● Determining the magnitude of defects, rejects, reworks, or other characteristics of

undesirable conditions.
● Separating or breaking down data on the above characteristics by making comparisons on
various production paths.
● Critically analyzing defects, rejects, and reworks.
● Determining the causes of undesirable conditions.
● Collecting data for process performance studies.
● Taking the necessary corrective action.

A well-planned and well-implemented quality control program provides the following returns:

● Better control of processes resulting in corrective action whenever necessary and

subsequently fewer losses.
● Longer storage life of products.
● Less waste from purchased raw materials, more economical use of raw materials, less waste
from processes, and less return of detective products.
● Consumer satisfaction.
● Fewer problems involving compliance with the government food regulations.

Quality Control Measures in the Selection of Materials and Products

Raw Materials

Meat
Meat is the most important raw material in meat processing. The following measures should be used
to determine good quality meat:

● Color. The meat material must possess bright color. Pale color may mean a stressed animal
before slaughter.
● Odor. The meat must not possess unusual/undesirable odor.
 ● Touch and feel. The meat material must be firm to touch and must not be exidative.
● Size and shape. The meat must conform to the specifications needed for specified products.
Thickness of fat should conform to the specifications required.
● Defects. The meat material should not show defects, such as bruises, blood clots, and PSE
(pale, soft, and exidative) meat which adversely affect the quality of the processed products.

Nonmeat ingredients

For nonmeat ingredients (spices, extenders, etc.) acceptance depends on the conformity to
the following specifications mutually agreed upon by the supplier and the user:

Delivery specifications:
● Quality/container, e.g., weight/bag
● Product identification
Supplier’s name
Country of origin
Production date/expiry date
Deliver date
Lot number
Chemical analysis (preservative used, ash content, etc.)
● Manner of delivery

Product Specifications:
● Organoleptic properties
● Taste/flavor
● Texture (granulation, caking, etc.)
● Color
● Odor
● Absence of insect infestation and other foreign materials

Chemical test
● Methods of analysis are in accordance with the methods of the Association of Official
Analytical Chemist or any other standard method deemed advisable as it is widely in use.
● Fat analysis- Bobcock method/Hobart method
● Protein analysis-Kjeldahl method/Kjeltec method
● Moisture- dry and weigh method
● Volatile oils-gas chromatography
● Minerals- salts, etc.

Microbiological test
● Total count
● Count for yeasts and molds
● Count for enteric organisms

Packaging Materials

For packaging materials (bags, can’s, labels, etc.). Acceptance depends on the conformity to
the following specifications mutually agreed upon by the supplier and the user:
Delivery Specifications:
● Quantity/box, bundle
● Presence of secondary packaging (wrappers for adequate protection)
● Production identification
● Supplier’s name
● Production date
● Delivery date
● Lot number

Manner of delivery
● Delivery truck/vans follow certain sanitary levels tp provide protection from dirt, heat,
moisture, etc.

Product Specifications:
● Physical dimensions
● Length
● Width, etc.
● Absence of product defects
● Pinholes
● Tears, etc.

Others
● Workmanship
● Printing quality
● Sealability, etc.

Finished Products

The following measures can be used to determine the quality based on specific finished
products:

Physical Evaluation:
● Appearance factors
● Color
● Size and shape
● Defects
● Kinesthetic factors
● Odor
● Consistency/uniformity
● Touch and feel (texture)

Organoleptic Test
● Taste and flavor
● Texture
● Odor
● Color
● Acceptability or preference of the product
 Other test that can be used to determine quality of products which are employed by big meat
plants are the following:

Microbiological Test
● Total microbial count
● Test for spoilage organisms
● Test for post-processing contaminants
● Count for yeasts and molds for dry products

Chemical Test:
● Chemical properties like pH, total acidity
● Test for spoilage like proteolysis (mabaho), rancidity (manta)
● Other tests like % salt, % fat, % protein, if needed acidity test

Small meat processors can also avail of the abovementioned tests at minimal fees from
government offices like the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFD) and National Meat Inspection
Commission (NMIC) for the assessment of their products and solutions of their problems correlated
to spoilage, returns, and reworks.

Marketing Channels for Live Animals, Meat, and Meat Products

At present, marketing practices in three major distribution outlets for meat and meat
products in the Philippines are identified. These are the following:

● Meat vendors/retailers. They sell fresh (warm) meat and meat products in public markets.
● Cottage-level processors. They process and distribute home cured/processed meat products.
● Supermarkets and deli counters. They distribute fresh meat (in chilled or frozen form) and
processed meat products in various forms (chilled, dried, fermented, canned, etc.) from
large-scale meat processors.

Of the three meat outlets, the market vendors/retailers are considered the most important
because they cater to a large majority of the meat consumers in the country. However, before
reaching the final distribution outlets, slaughter animals or meat and meat products pass through
several marketing intermediaries or middlemen. These intermediaries perform important marketing
functions which include moving live slaughter animals from the farms to slaughter house (in big
cities) where animals are dressed, and then the clean carcasses are distributed to the fresh meat
retailers or meat processors.

Four Marketing Channels

Four marketing channels involving several intermediaries are used in moving livestock from
the farms to the final distribution outlets. A schematic diagram on the market flow of livestock, meat,
and meat products is presented in Figure 16. These channels offer options or alternative market
outlets for both small and large commercial livestock raisers near or distant from major market
centers such as Metro Manila, Cebu, etc. The four channels are the following barrio agents,
viajeros/shippers, livestock “oksyon” (auction) markets (LOMs), and processors.

Barrio Agents
 These are usually employees of livestock viajeros/shippers. They go to remote or less
accessible areas to buy livestock mostly from backyard farmers.

Barrio agents generally offer lower prices, however, many farmers especially those in remote
areas, sell their animals to them to avoid the risks and problems associated with livestock marketing
Problems include unavailable or inefficient transport facilities, high transport costs, losses due to
weight shrinkages or death of the animals on transit, and other transport related problems. Small
farmers prefer barrio agents because they pay in cash.

Viajeros/Shippers

These are buyer/traders of livestock stationed in the provinces of the Visayas and Mindanao
and other regions far from Metro Manila. They collect livestock from barrio agents and commercial
farms in the provinces. Then, large volumes of these livestock are transported or shipped from
distant regions to the major distribution centers in Metro Manila and other big cities. Like barrio
agents, viajeros/shippers pay their clients on a cash basis. They also offer relatively higher prices to
the farmers. However, they are not accessible to most of the backyard farmers.

Livestock “Oksyon” (Auction) markets (LOMs)

LMOs have been established through the Marketing Development Division of the Bureau of
Animal Industry (MDD-BAI). At present, there are 115 accredited LOMs throughout the Philippines.
These LOMs have facilities like sheds, corals and weighing scales which allow proper livestock
handling and objective determination of the animal’s value.
The LOMs serves as a venue for a more efficient trading/marketing of livestock usually from
small-scale farms. However, the LOM is available only to farmers living near auction market, and
those who have access to transport facilities.

Processors

Processors are those who buy either live slaughter animals or meat and process them to
produce various meat or meat-based product lines. Processors are grouped into large-medium-
small-scale. Generally, they buy meat from either meat brokers/dealers or wholesalers. However,
some large-scale processors, especially those who have slaughter facilities buy slaughter animals
directly from livestock raisers (normally commercial scale).

Other Marketing Intermediaries

Other marketing intermediaries of live animals, meat and meat products and their respective
functions are as follows: meat dealers/brokers, wholesale dealers, institutional buyers, and retailers.

Meat Dealers/Brokers

These are city- based livestock buyers who buy livestock in large volumes from
viajeros/shippers. They slaughter and distribute meat carcasses to meat wholesalers, processors, and
fresh meat retailers in public market.
 Meat dealers/brokers are the preferred sources of meat by both large-and small-scale meat
processors. They are preferred by large-scale meat processors because of their capability to supply
meat in the desired volumes regularly. Small- and medium-scale meat processors, on the other hand,
prefer them because of their capability to supply specialized cuts required for processing in right
quantities.
Meat dealers/brokers also supply fresh meat to retailers in public markets on consignment
basis. These capabilities make meat dealers/brokers more favored meat supplies by both large and
small retailers and processors.

Wholesale Dealers

Wholesalers but fresh meat products from the meat brokers and/or meat processors and
then distribute them to the retailers on consignment basis.

Institutional Buyers

These include restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and the like who buy specific cuts and kinds of
meat in volumes so required by their operations. Institutional buyers most often enter into an
agreement with meat wholesalers to ensure regular supply of meat and meat products to their
clientele.

Hotels and specialty restaurants normally pay a premium price for the quality of the product
they get. Generally, they pay their suppliers on a cash on delivery (COD) basis.

Retailers

Retailers function as the final distribution outlets for both fresh (warm, chilled, or frozen)
and processed meat products. Generally, their source of meat and meat products are the
brokers/dealers or wholesalers. A large percentage of retailers sell their products in public markets.
Most of them sell only small volume of meat daily due to the insufficiency of cooling or storage
facilities. On the other hand, supermarkets also serve as the final outlets of meat and meat products.
Compared with the retailers, supermarkets sell large volumes of meat and meat products because
they have enough space and facilities for storage.
The function of the different intermediaries in marketing livestock and meat products are
vital to the local meat industry. However, it must be noted that each intermediary involved in the
flow of the commodity from the farm to the final distribution outlets has spent his share of the
marketing costs and labor required by the activity. Hence, the intermediaries are expected to impose
a mark-up on the prices of the commodity to recover their expenses and realize profit out of the
activity. Based on this premise, it would be expected that addition of one market intermediary in the
marketing process would mean an increase in the price of the final product. Furthermore,
participation of more intermediaries in the marketing process would create a longer flow channel
which may cause more stress to the animals or a delay in the processing or utilization of the meat.
This may result in spoilage or rapid deterioration of meat and meat products. Thus, it is
recommended that whenever economically possible, a shorter marketing channel should be opted.