STUDY OF SUBSTATION MAINTANANCE 2023-2024

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Electric substation

An electric substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission and
distribution system where voltage is transformed high to low or the reverse using transformers.
Electric power may flow through several substations between generation plant and consumer,
and may be changed in voltage in several step. Between the generating station and consumer,
electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. Substations
include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages as shown in
figure 1.1 and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission
voltages. In generic terms, a receiving station receives electrical power from the generating
station via incoming transmission lines and delivers electrical power via the outgoing
transmission lines at a different voltage level. Substations are integral parts of a power system
and form important links between the generating stations, transmission line and distribution
systems and the load points [1].

Figure 1.1: Electric substation [1]

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Objectives

• Purpose of construction of substation.

• Understanding of layout drawing.
• Understanding and reading of single line diagram.
• Identification of all the equipment’s existing in the substation
• Uses of equipment’s installed in the existing substation

1.2 About 66/11kv MASTER UNIT SUBSTATION, RAMESHWARA

NAGARA , HASSAN.
Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited has taken several projects to improve the
system voltage and reduce line losses and to strengthen the Karnataka grid by reducing grid
disturbance and the block outs thus improve the system voltage there by giving quality power to
consumers. The figure 1.2 shows the 66/11kv MASTER UNIT B. KATIHALLI, Hassan.

Figure 1.2: 66/11kv MASTER UNIT B. KATIHALLI, HASSAN [1]

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Initially, there are one 66 kV incoming lines marked ‘I/C KIADB’ and one outgoing lines
marked ‘O/G-SHANTHIGRAMA’ connected to the bus-bars. Such an arrangement of one
incoming lines is called a Loop in Loop out.
Presently the station distributes 10 number of 11kV Feeder lines and Two capacitor bank
• KMF
• UDAYAGIRI
• RING ROAD
• GHANDIPURA
• BUVANAHALLI
• SERI CULTURE
• DODDAPURA
• SATHYAMANGLA
• F-1 STATION AUXILARY
• INTER LINK

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CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF SUB-STATION
The substation is the medium of transferring the power from generating unit to the consumer end.
It consists of different types of equipment like power transformer, isolator, circuit breaker, etc.
Power cable which helps in the power to the load. The sub categories of the electrical substations
are explained below. The substation which generates the power is known as the generating
substation. Similarly, the transmission substation transmits the power, and the distributing
substations distribute the power to the load. The subcategories of the electrical substations are
explained below [2].
The substations may be classified in numerous ways, such as
• Nature of duties
• Service rendered
• Operating voltage
• Importance and
• Design.

2.1 Classification of substations by nature of duties

• Step-up or Primary Substations.
• Primary Grid Substations.
• Step-down or Distribution Substations.

2.1.1 Step-up primary substation

A step-up primary substation receives electric power from a nearby generating station and uses a
large power transformer to increase the voltage for transmission to distant locations.
A transmission bus is used to distribute electric power to one or more transmission lines.

Figure 2.1 show the step-up primary substation. There can also be a tap on the incoming power

feed from the generation plant to provide electric power to operate equipment in the generation

plant [3].

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Figure 2.1: Step-up primary substation [3]

A substation can have circuit breakers that are used to switch generation and transmission circuits
in and out of service as needed or for emergencies requiring shut-down of power to a circuit or
redirection of power. The specific voltages leaving a step-up transmission substation are
determined by the customer needs of the utility supplying power and to the requirements of any
connections to regional grids [3].
Typical voltages are:

• High voltage (HV) ac: 66kV, 110 kV, 220kV, 400 kV

• Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV
• Ultra-high voltage (UHV) ac: 1100 kV, 1500 kV
• Direct-current high voltage (dc HV): ±250 kV, ±400 kV, ±500 kV

2.1.2 Primary gird substations

This substation lowers the value of primary stepped up voltage. The output of the primary grid
substation acts as the input of the secondary substation. The secondary substation is used for
stepping down the input voltage to more lowered for further transmission.

2.1.3 Step-down or distribution substations

The figure 2.2 shows Step down or distribution substation are located at switching points in an
electrical grid. They connect different parts of a grid and are a source for sub transmission lines
or distribution lines. The step-down substation can change the transmission voltage to a sub
transmission voltage, usually 66 kV /11 KV. The sub transmission voltage lines can then serve
as a source to distribution substations. Sometimes, power is tapped from the sub transmission

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line for use in an industrial facility along the way. Otherwise, the power goes to a distribution
substation.

In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the
transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically the points of voltage
regulator, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation
equipment may also be installed along the line [3].

Figure 2.2: Step down substation or distribution substation [3]

2.2 Classification of substation by service rendered

The service rendered substation are service rendered which includes:

• Transformer substation
• Switching substation and
• Converting substation.

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2.2.1 Transformer substations

A transformer substation is a location where electric power is converted from bulk power to local
power or vice versa. These drab gray stations sit at the center of many electrical wires, both above
and below ground. They generally contain various pieces of electrical equipment and enclosed
systems.

This equipment transforms the electrical current to allow it to keep moving through the bulk
power system or to move into the local grid, where it goes to consumers. In addition to converting
power for local use, a transformer substation will send bulk power back out into the system. Since
it is nearly impossible to store electricity of this type, the transformer takes excess power out of
the local system and converts it back to bulk power. In addition, whenever the local system has
enough power, the transformer substation will send any bulk power it receives back out into the
grid [4].

2.2.2 Switching substations

A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single voltage
level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes
they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for paralyzing circuits in case of failure.
A switching station may also be known as a switch yard, and these are commonly located directly
adjacent to or nearby a power station. In this case the generators from the power station supply
their power into the yard onto the generator bus on one side of the yard, and the transmission
lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the other side of the yard. The function of the
switching station is to isolate the faulty portion of the system in the shortest possible time.
Deenergizing faulty equipment protects it from further damage, and isolating a fault helps keep
the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability [4].

2.2.3 Converting substations

AC is used in each country’s transmission system, while DC is used or sending electricity long
distances along the substation cables. A substation is a point of connection to an electricity
network, changing the voltage of electricity so that it can be delivered to consumers via a
distribution network.

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2.3 Classification of substation by operating voltage

The substations, according to operating voltages, may be categorized as

• High Voltage Substations- Involving voltage between 11kV and 33kV.

• Extra High Voltage Substation- Involving voltages between 66kV,110KV,220kV and
400kV

• Ultra-High Voltage Substation- Operating voltage above 400kV.

2.4 Classification of substation by importance

The substations, according to importance are

• Grid Substations- This substation is used for transferring the bulk power from one point
to another. If any fault occurs on the substation, then the continuity of whole of the supply
is affected by it.
• Town Substations- These substations down the voltages at 33/11kV for more distribution
in the towns. If there are any faults occurs in this substation, then the supply of the whole
town is blocked.

2.5 Classification of substations by design

Classification of substations by their design are

• Indoor Substations.
• Outdoor type substations.
A. Pole Mounted Substations.
B. Foundation Mounted Substations.

2.5.1 Indoor type substations

A substation in which the apparatus is equipped inside the substation building is called indoor
substation. Such type of substation is mainly used for the voltage up to 11000 v, but when the
surrounding air is contaminated by impurities such as metal corroding gases and fumes,
conductive dust, etc., their voltage can be raised up to 33000 V to 220000V [5].

The indoor substation is subdivided into several compartments like control compartment,
indicating and metering instruments and protective device compartment main bus-bar

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compartment, current transformer and cable sealing box compartment as shown below in figure
2.3.

Figure 2.3: Compartments of indoor substations [5]

2.5.2 Outdoor substations

A substation which is used for all voltage levels between 11 KV to 765 KV is called outdoor
substation. Such type of substation requires less time for construction but uses more space. The
outdoor substations are mainly classified into two types, namely pole- mounted substation and
foundation mounted substations [6].
• Pole mounted substations
Such substations are used for supporting distribution transformers having the capacity up to 250
KVA/500KVA.Such types of transformers are the cheapest, simplest, and smallest of
distributions. All equipment is outdoor type and mounted on the supporting structures of
hightension distribution line. Triple pole mechanically operated switch used for switching on and
off the high-tension transmission line. HT fuse is used for protection of the high-tension
transmission line. For controlling the low-tension lines, low tension switches along with fuses is
equipped. Lightning arresters are equipped over the high-tension line for the protection of the
transformers from the surges. Pole Mounted Substations are earthed at two or more places as
shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Pole mounted substation [6]

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The transformers having a capacity up to 500 KVA are mounted on the double pole structure and
for the transformer having a capacity between 25 to 250 KVA 4-pole structure with the suitable
platform is used. Such types of the substation are placed in very thickly populated location. Their
maintenance cost is low, and by using a large number of the substation in a town, it is desirable
to lay the distributors lower cost.

• Foundation mounted substations

These substations are built entirely in the open and in such substations all the equipment is
assembled into one unit usually enclosed by a fence from the point of view of safety. Substations
for primary and secondary transmission and for secondary distribution, (above 500 kVA) are
foundation mounted outdoor type. The figure 2.5 shows foundation mounted substation. Since
equipment required for such substations is heavy, therefore, site selected for these substations
must have a good access for heavy transport. Again, owing to exposed bus-bars and other
associated equipment the clearances and spacing are not only to be governed by the operating
voltage but also from the considerations of the encroachment from outside. Low level types of
substations are designed except when the space available is limited as these provide facility of
easy inspection, cleaning and maintenance. The switch gear consists of circuit breakers of
suitable type on both the sides but with the increased reliability of the modern transformers, the
practice is to dispense with the circuit breaker on the incoming side form the economic
consideration. The isolating switches thus serve the purpose. Figure 2.5 shows the foundation
mounted substation.

Figure 2.5: Foundation mounted substation [6]

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CHAPTER 3

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 66/11kV SUBSTATION

Figure 3.1: Single diagram of 66/11kv MASTER UNIT, Hassan [7]

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A single line diagram also called the one-line diagram is a symbolic or graphical representation
of a three-phase power system. It has a diagrammatic representation of all the equipment and
connections. The electrical elements such as circuit breakers, transformers, bus bars, isolator and
conductors, are represented using standardized schematic symbols so that they can be read and
understood easily. In a single line diagram, instead of representing each of three phases with
separate lines, only a single conductor is represented using a single line. A single line diagram
makes it easy to understand an electrical system, particularly in the case of complicated systems
in substations. It helps in a detailed study and evaluation of the system and its efficiency [7].

The figure 3.1 represent single line diagrams of typical power substation 66/11kV and their power
flow, principles of incoming lines (incomers) and outgoing lines (feeders), bus bar arrangement
functionality and so on.
There are one 66 kV incoming lines marked ‘I/C KIADB’ and one outgoing line marked ‘O/G-
SHANTHIGRAMA’ connected to the bus-bars. Such an arrangement of one incoming line is
called a Loop in Loop out. Figure 3.2 shows the symbols used in single line diagram.

3.1 Elements of single line diagram

High voltage substations are pretty complex to understand since they have too many elements
and each element is complex for itself and it depends on many system parameters and other
elements.

• The substation elements are

• Bus bars
• Circuit breaker
• Isolating switch (single break, double breaker and on load)
• Lightning arrester. (Active gap and valve gap)
• Three phase Transformers.
• CT and PT [Current transformer and Potential transformer]
• Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT)
• Earth fault relay.

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3.2 Symbols of elements

Substations are usually presented using various elements (e.g., power transformer, circuit
breaker, isolators, instrument transformer CTs, VTs etc.) by their graphic symbols in the schemes.
Symbols are the most important equipment’s in transformer substation are given as shown figure
3.2. Note that these symbols might not look the same depending on the standard applied (NEMA
or ANSI).

Figure3.2:Symbols used in single line diagram [8]

3.3 Advantages
• Gives an overall understanding of the system and eases evaluation.
• It simplifies the trouble shooting process and makes it faster.
• It further ensures the safety of personnel and makes maintenance more convenient.
• It ensures a safer and more reliable operation of the system.
• Help identify fault locations and simplifies troubleshooting.

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CHAPTER 4
CONTROL PANEL
An electrical control panel is an enclosure, typically a metal box or plastic molding which
contains important electrical components that control and monitor a number of mechanical
processes. They are energized systems that require maintenance, with planned preventative
maintenance and condition-based monitoring being the most effective methods. Electrical
personnel will need to gain access within control panels for fault finding, adjustments, and
electrical safety testing [9].

Operators will interact with the control of the panel to operate and control the plant and process.
Components within the control panel will facilitate many tasks, for example, they may monitor
flower of power in Substation.

There are three types of electrical control panels.

• Power control center (PCC Panel)

• Motor Control center (MCC Panel)
• Automation Panel (SCADA PLC Panel)

An Electrical control panel is a CRCAM sheet enclosure that contains electrical switch gear that
controls and monitors a mechanical process electrically.

4.1 Power control centre (PCC panel)

PCC (Power Control Centre) is shown in figure 4.1. The panels are used to supervise and control
the voltage and power of the power system. These panels are made of high-quality raw material
and are extremely sturdy in fabrication. Main power instrument panel which consists of feeder
breakers and provide breakers, monitoring devices and control devices [10].

The figure 4.1 shows the power control center. A reputed PCC panel manufacturer read all field
data received for electrical power panels are designed. Power control center Panels are the most
essential part of electrical system. An industry from where the power of the industry is controlled.
All the base plates are neatly mounted with necessary electrical components to ease the wire
routings & wherever necessary PVC ferrules provided. The component Identification stickers are
provided both on the components & base plates. Main power control board which consists of
feeder breakers and provide breakers, monitoring devices and control devices.

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Figure 4.1: Power control center (PCC panel) [10]

4.2 Motor control centre (MCC panel)

A motor control center (MCC) shown in figure 4.2, is an assembly to control some or all electric
motor in a central location. It consists of multiple enclosed sections having a common power bus
and with each section containing a combination starter, which in turn consists of motor starter,
fuses or circuit breaker, and power disconnect A motor control center can also include push
buttons, indicator lights, OSR, variable-frequency driver, programmable logic controllers, and
metering equipment. It may be combined with the electrical service entrance for the building.
MCC's are typically found in large commercial or industrial buildings where there are many
electric motors that need to be controlled from a central location, such as a mechanical room or
electrical room. A motor control center consists of one or more vertical metal cabinet sections
with power bus and provision for plug-in mounting of individual motor controllers. Very large
controllers may be bolted in place but smaller controllers can be unplugged from the cabinet for
testing or maintenance. Each motor controller contains a contactor or a solid-state motor
controller, overload relays to protect the motor, fuses or a circuit breaker to provide short-circuit
protection, and a disconnecting switch to isolate the motor circuit. Three-phase power enters each

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controller through separable connectors. The motor is wired to terminals in the controller. Motor
control centers provide wire ways for field control and power cables [10].

Figure 4.2: Motor control center (MCC panel) [10]

4.3 Automation panel (SCADA PLC panel)

A substation automation system is a collection of hardware and software components as shown
in the figure 4.3, that are used to monitor and control an electrical system, both locally and
remotely. A substation automation system also automates some repetitive, tedious and error prone
activities to increase the overall efficiency and productivity of the system.

Figure 4.3: Automation panel (SCADA PLC panel) [10]

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CHAPTER 5

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTS
For transferring of electrical power from generating unit to distributing unit’s various types of
electrical equipment are required. The equipment like bus bars, isolator, power transformer etc.,
are assembled together in the electrical substation through which consumers get electrical supply.

5.1 Lightning arrester

Figure 5.1 shows the Lightning Arrester is the first member of the electrical substations. It
protects the substation equipment from transient high voltage and also limits the duration and
amplitude of the flow of current. The Lightning arrester is connected between line and earth, i.e.,
in parallel with the equipment under protection at the substation. The lightning arrester diverts,
the current of the surges to the earth and hence protects the insulation and conductor of the system
from damage. The lightning arresters are several types and they are classified on the basis of the
duties they perform [11]. The lightning arrester usually located near the transformer in the
substation.

Figure 5.1: Lightning arrester [11]

Working principle
The lightning arrester working principle is, once the voltage surge travels throughout the
conductor then it reaches the location of the lightning arrester where it is installed. So, it will
breakdown the insolation of the lightning arrester for a moment, so voltage surge can be discharge
towards the ground.

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Once the voltage of the system falls under the fixed value, then the insulation will be restored

among the ground and conductor. Further, the current flow towards the ground will be stopped.

5.2 Isolator
It is a type of switches which is employed only for isolating the circuit when the current has only
been interrupted. The isolator is called disconnected switches operates under no load condition.
They are not equipped with arc-quenching devices. They do not have any specified current
breaking capacity or current making capacity. In some cases, it is used for breaking the charging
current of the transmission line [11].

Electrical Isolator is used to separate any type of electrical component from the system while the
system is offline/ online. Isolator doesn’t include any kind of system for avoiding arching
throughout disconnection. As in an electrical substation, an electrical isolator switch is mainly
used for disconnecting a power transformer once it is in a no-load situation otherwise a little load
is there. In full load condition, isolators don’t operate. Figure 5.2 shows the single break isolator
whereas Figure 5.3 shows the double break isolator.

Figure 5.2: Single break isolator [11] figure 5.3: Double break isolator [11]

Working principle
An electric isolator working principle is extremely easy as it operates in different ways like
manually operated, semi-automatic, and fully-automatic. Sometimes, these are used like switches
so-known as electrical isolator switches. This switch can be opened or closed depending on the
necessity. However, several times, these are arranged in a fixed position permanently to maintain
isolation like transformers, in electrical transmission lines, grid stations.

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An electrical isolator switch is one kind of device used to isolate a specific circuit by maintaining
as well as preventing flowing currents. These switches are used in electrical appliances like
kitchen tools, power grids, etc. Isolator switches are available in different types like a single-
pole, double-pole, 3-pole, 4-pole, fused, and battery isolator switches.

5.3 Circuit breaker

The circuit breaker is a type of electrical switches which is used for opening or closing of
electrical circuit whenever faults occur in the system. It consists of two moving contacts which
are normally closed. Whenever the fault occurs in the system, the relay sends the tripping
command to the circuit breaker and hence their contacts are moved apart. Thus, the fault occurs
in the system becomes clear [11].

According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker.

• Oil circuit breaker.

• Air circuit breaker.
• SF6 circuit breaker.
• Vacuum circuit breaker.
5.3.1 Oil circuit breaker
Oil circuit breaker is such type of circuit breaker which used oil as a dielectric or insulating
medium for arc extinction. In oil circuit breaker the contacts of the breaker are made to separate
within an insulating oil as shown in figure 5.4. When the fault occurs in the system the contacts
of the circuit breaker are open under the insulating oil, and an arc is developed between them and
the heat of the arc is evaporated in the surrounding oil.

Figure 5.4: Oil circuit breaker [11]

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Working principle
During the normal operating conditions, the contact of the oil circuit breaker is closed and carry
the current. When the fault occurs in the system, the contacts of the breaker are moving apart,
and an arc is struck between the contacts. Due to this arc, a large amount of heat is liberated, and
a very high temperature is reached which vaporizes the surrounding oil into gas. The gas, thus
liberated surrounds the arc and its explosive growth around it displace the oil violently. The arc
is extinguished when the distance between the fixed and moving contact reaches a certain critical
value, depends on the arc current and recovery voltage.

5.3.2 Air circuit breaker

An Air Circuit Breaker (also known as an Air Blast Circuit Breaker or ACB) is an automatically
operated electrical switch that uses air to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
excess current from an overload or short circuit. Figure 5.5 represent the air circuit breaker. Its
primary function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. When this happens, an arc
will appear between the contacts that have broken the circuit. Air circuit breakers use compressed
air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed
chamber, the escaping of the displaced air, thus blowing out the arc. This type of circuit breaker
operates in air at atmospheric pressure. After the development of the oil circuit breaker, the
medium voltage air circuit breaker has been largely replaced by oil circuit breakers worldwide.

Figure 5.5: Air circuit breaker [11]

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit
breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing

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after current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system
recovery voltage.

• It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc
plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence more
voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc.
• It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is
increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc
current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage
is increased.

• Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

5.3.3 SF6 (Sulphur hexafluoride) circuit breaker

A circuit breaker in which SF6 under pressure gas is used to extinguish the arc is called SF6
circuit breaker it is shown in figure 5.6. SF6 (Sulphur hexafluoride) gas has excellent dielectric,
arc quenching, chemical and other physical properties which have proved its superiority over
other arc quenching mediums such as oil or air.

Figure 5.6: SF6 circuit breaker [11]

• In the normal operating conditions, the contacts of the breaker are closed. When the fault
occurs in the system, the contacts are pulled apart, and an arc is struck between them. The
displacement of the moving contacts is synchronized with the valve which enters the
high-pressure SF6 gas in the arc interrupting chamber at a pressure of about 16kg/cm^2.
• The SF6 gas absorbs the free electrons in the arc path and forms ions which do not act as
a charge carrier. These ions increase the dielectric strength of the gas and hence the arc is

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extinguished. This process reduces the pressure of the SF6 gas up to 3kg/cm^2 thus; it is
stored in the low-pressure reservoir. This low-pressure gas is pulled back to the high-
pressure reservoir for re-use.

• When the fault occurs in the system, the contacts of the breaker are moved apart and
hence the arc is developed between them. When the current carrying contacts are pulled
apart, the temperature of their connecting parts is very high due to which ionization
occurs. Due to the ionization, the contact space is filled with vapour of positive ions
which is discharged from the contact material.

• The density of vapour depends on the current in the arcing. Due to the decreasing mode
of current wave their rate of release of vapour fall and after the current zero, the medium
regains its dielectric strength provided vapour density around the contacts reduced.
Hence, the arc does not restrike again because the metal vapour is quickly removed from
the contact zone.

5.3.4 Vacuum circuit breaker

A breaker which used vacuum as an arc extinction medium is called a vacuum circuit breaker it
is shown in figure 5.7. In this circuit breaker, the fixed and moving contact is enclosed in a
permanently sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc is extinct as the contacts are separated in high
vacuum. It is mainly used for medium voltage ranging from 11 KV to 33KV. Vacuum circuit
breaker has a high insulating medium for arc extinction as compared to the other circuit breaker.
The pressure inside the vacuum interrupter is approximately 10-4 torrent and at this pressure,
very few molecules are present in the interrupter.

Figure 5.7: Vacuum circuit breaker [11]

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5.4 Conductors
In the early days conductor used on transmission lines were usually Copper, but Aluminum
Conductors have Completely replaced Copper because of the much lower cost and lighter weight
of aluminum conductor compared with a Copper conductor of the same resistance. The fact that
Aluminum conductor has a larger diameter than a Copper conductor of the same resistance is
also an advantage. With a larger diameter the lines of electric flux originating on the conductor
will be farther apart at the conductor surface for the same voltage. This means a lower voltage
gradient at the conductor surface and less tendency to ionize the air around the conductor.
Ionization produces the undesirable effect called corona.

The symbols identifying different types of Aluminum conductors are as follows:

• AAC: All Aluminum conductors.

• AAAC: All Aluminum Alloy conductors
• ACSR: Aluminum conductors, Steel-Reinforced
• ACAR: Aluminum conductor, Alloy-Reinforced

5.5 Batteries
In electric power stations and large capacity substations, the operation and automatic control
circuits the protective relay system, as well as emergency lighting circuits, are supplied by
station batteries. Station battery is assembled of a certain number accumulator cell depending
on the operating voltage of the respective DC circuit.
Storage batteries are two types lead acid battery and acid- alkaline batteries. Lead acid battery is
most commonly used in power stations and substations because their voltage is high and very
cheap low voltage.

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5.5.1 Battery room

Figure 5.8: Battery set [11]

A battery room is a room that houses batteries for backup or uninterruptible power systems. The
rooms are found in telecommunication central offices, and provide standby power for computing
equipment in data centers. Batteries provide direct current (DC) electricity, which may be used
directly by some types of equipment, or which may be converted to alternating current
(AC) by uninterruptible power supply (UPS) equipment. The batteries may provide power for
minutes, hours or days, depending on each system's design, although they are most commonly
activated during brief electric utility outages lasting only seconds.

5.6 Transformer
A transformer that is used to measure electrical quantities like current, voltage, power, frequency
and power factor is known as an instrument transformer. These transformers are mainly
used with relays to protect the power system. The Purpose of the instrument transformer is to
step down the voltage & current of the AC system because the level of voltage & current in a
power system is extremely high. So, designing the measuring instruments with high voltage &
current is difficult as well as expensive. In general, these instruments are mainly designed for 5
A & 110 V or 1A & 110V.

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Types of Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers are classified into two types such as

• Current Transformer
• Potential Transformer

5.6.1 CTs [current transformer]

This type of transformer can be used in power systems to step down the voltage from a high
level to a low level with the help of a 5A /1A ammeter. This transformer includes two windings
like primary and secondary. The current in the secondary winding is proportional to the current
in the primary winding as it generates current in the secondary winding. In this transformer, the
primary winding consists of few turns and it is connected with the power circuit in series. So, it
is called a series transformer. Likewise, the secondary winding includes a number of turns and
it is connected to an ammeter directly because the ammeter includes small resistance [12].

Thus, the secondary winding of this transformer works almost in the condition of a short circuit.
Referring to figure 5.9, this winding includes two terminals where one of its terminals is
connected to ground to evade the huge current. So, insulation breakdown chances will be
reduced to guard the operator from huge voltage.

Figure 5.9: CTs [current transformer] [12]

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5.6.2 PTs [potential transformer]

This type of transformer can be used in power systems to step down the voltage from a high
level to a lower level with the help of a small rating voltmeter which ranges from 110 Volts to
120 Volts. A potential transformer typical circuit diagram is illustrated in figure 5.10 . This
transformer includes two windings like a normal transformer like primary & secondary. The
primary winding of the transformer includes a number of turns and it is connected in parallel
with the circuit. So, it is called a parallel transformer [12].

Figure 5.10: PTs [potential transformer] [12]

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CHAPTER 6

TRANSFORMER

The transformer is the heart of the substation. The transformer changes the relationship between
the incoming voltage and current and the outgoing voltage and current. Substation transformers
are rated by their primary and secondary voltage relationship and their power carrying capability.
For example, a typical substation transformer would be rated 60-11 kV and 20 MVA; meaning
the primary or high voltage is 66 kV, the secondary or low voltage is 11 kV and the transformer
has a power rating of 20 MVA or 20,000 KVA. Substation transformers, like most utility
transformers, consist of a core and coils immersed in oil in a steel tank. The oil serves both as
an insulator and as a coolant to keep the core at reliable operating temperatures. Some large
transformers have fins for the oil to circulate through and thus dissipate heat. Some add fans to
force air across the fins. Others add pumps to forcibly circulate oil. And in some situations, a
utility may even add water spray systems which sprays the transformer case with cooling water
on hot days and high load conditions [13].

Not all transformer substations have the same capabilities. Some may only convert power for
local use, while others may only retransmit power. This allows the power company to both
reduce the amount of its machinery in any one spot and lessen the likelihood that a single
accident will disrupt the entire local system. Outside of the basic transformer substation
functions described above, some stations have specific specialized functions. Collector
substations connect to a power generation system that relies on sporadic or uneven factors such
as wind or water power.

6.1 Parts of transformer

A transformer is made of several different parts as shown in figure 6.1 that function in their own
different ways to enhance the overall functioning of a transformer. The core, windings, insulating
materials and transformer oil are seen in almost every transformer, while the other components
are seen in transformers that are more than 50 KVA [14].

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The followings are the list of the transformer parts:

• Laminated core
• Windings
• Insulating materials
• Transformer oil
• Conservator tank
• Buchholz relay
• Breather
• Cooling tubes
• Tap changer
• Explosion vent
• HV & LV Bushings

Figure 6.1: Parts of a transformer [14]

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6.1.1 Laminated core

A transformer comprises a primary and a secondary coil that are electromagnetically linked. This
means that alternating current passed through the primary creates a varying magnetic field
around it, which in turn induces an alternating current in the secondary. This implementation of
Faraday’s law of induction is valuable because the ratio of input to output voltages – and currents
– can be set by adjusting the ratio of primary turns to secondary turns. Transformers are
according widely used as step- up or step-down devices in alternating-current circuits. They are
also useful for safety isolation. Within practical transformers, primary and secondary coils are
wound around a common iron core to maximize energy transfer efficiency between them [14].
Figure 6.2 shows the laminated core.

Figure 6.2: Laminated core [14]

6.1.2 Windings
Windings consist of several copper coil turns bundled together; each bundle connected to form
a complete winding. Windings can be based either on the input-output supply or on the voltage
range. Windings that are based on supply are classified into primary and secondary windings,
meaning the windings to which the input and output voltage is applied respectively. On the other
hand, windings based on voltage range can be classified into high voltage and low voltage
windings. Figure 6.3 represents the transformer winding.

Figure 6.3: Transformer winding [14]

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6.1.3 Insulating material

The figure 6.4 shows insulating materials like papers and card boards are used to isolate primary
and secondary windings from each other as well as the transformer core. These windings are
made of copper due to high conductivity and ductility. High conductivity minimizes the amount
of copper needed and minimizes losses. Moreover, high ductility results in easy bending of
conductors into tight winding around the core that also minimizes the amount of copper and
volume of winding [14].

Figure 6.4: Insulating material [14]

6.1.4 Transformer oil

The transformer oil insulates as well as cools the core and coil assembly. The core and windings
of the transformer must be completely immersed in the oil that normally contains hydrocarbon
mineral oils. Transformer oil is most often based on mineral oil, but alternative formulations
with different engineering or environmental properties are growing in popularity.

6.1.5 Conservator tank

The conservator is an airtight metallic cylindrical drum fitted above the transformer that
conserves the transformer oil. It is vented at the top and is filled only half with the oil to allow
expansion and contraction during temperature variations. However, the main tank of the
transformer with which the conservator is connected is completely filled with the oil through a
pipeline. This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof of the
transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of transformer is to provide
adequate space for expansion of oil inside the transformer.

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Function of Conservator tank of a Transformer : When transformer is loaded and when ambient
temperature rises, the volume of oil inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of
transformer shown in figure 6.5 provides adequate space to this expanded transformer oil. It also
acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil [14].

Figure 6.5: Conservator tank [14]

6.1.6 Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay shown in figure 6.6 is a safety device mounted on (some) oil-filled power
transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a
“conservator”. Buchholz relays are used as a protective device, as they are sensitive to the effects
of dielectric failure that can occur inside the equipment they protect. Buchholz relays are a type
of gas detection relay. Buchholz relays have two main elements. The upper element consists of
a float. The float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it can move up and down depending
upon the oil level in the Buchholz relay container.

Figure 6.6: Buchholz relay [14]

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6.1.7 Breather
The breather shown in figure 6.7 is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel, which is used to
keep the air that enters the tank moisture-free. This is because the insulating oil when reacts with
moisture can affect the insulation and cause internal faults. which is why it is a must to keep the
air free from moisture. In the breather, when the air passes through the silica gel, the moisture
contents are absorbed by the silica crystal [14].

Figure 6.7: Breather [14]

6.1.8 Cooling tubes

As the name suggests, cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The circulation of oil
within the transformer may be natural or forced. In the case of natural circulation, when the oil
temperature rises, the hot oil naturally moves to the top and cold oil moves down, while in case
of forced circulation, an eternal pump is used.

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6.1.9 Tap changer

Figure 6.8 shows the top changer. To balance voltage variations within the transformer, tap
changers are used. There are two types of tap changers – on load and off load. In on load tap
changers, tapping can be changed without isolating transformer from the supply, while in off
load, the transformer needs to be disconnected from the supply [14].

Figure 6.8: Tap changer [14]

6.1.10 Explosion vent

The boiling hot oil from the transformer is expelled during internal faults through the explosion
vent to avoid explosion of the transformer. This is generally placed above the level of the
conservatory tank.

6.2 Transformer protection

Transformers are one of the most critical and expensive components of any distribution system.
It is an enclosed static device usually drenched in oil, and hence faults occurring to it are limited.
But the effect of a rare fault can be very dangerous for the transformer, and the long lead time
for repair and replacement of transformers makes things even worse. Hence power transformers
protection becomes very crucial [15]. All protections controlled by on single control panel is
shown in figure 6.9.

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Common Types of Transformer Protection

• Overheating protection
• Over current protection
• Differential Protection of Transformer
• Earth Fault Protection (Restricted)
• Over-fluxing protection

Figure 6.9: Transformer protection control panel [15]

6.2.1 Overheating protection

Transformers overheat due to the overloads and short circuit conditions. The allowable overload
and the corresponding duration are dependent on the type of transformer and class of insulation
used for the transformer. Higher loads can be maintained for a very short amount of time if it is
for a very long, it can damage the insulation due to temperature rise above an assumed maximum
temperature. The temperature in the oil-cooled transformer is considered maximum when its
95*C, beyond which the life expectancy of the transformer decreases and it has detrimental
effects in the insulation of the wire. That is why overheating protection becomes essential.

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6.2.2 Overcurrent protection

The overcurrent protection system is one of the earliest developed protection systems out there,
the graded overcurrent system was developed to guard against overcurrent conditions. power
distributors utilize this method to detect faults with the help of the IDMT relays. that is, the
relays having:

• Inverse characteristic, and

• Minimum time of operation.

The capabilities of the IDMT relay is restricted. These sorts of relays have to be set 150% to
200% of the max rated current, otherwise, the relays will operate for emergency overload
conditions.
Therefore, these relays provide minor protection for faults inside the transformer tank [15].

6.2.3 Differential protection of transformer

The Percentage Biased Current Differential Protection is used to protect power transformers and
it is one of the most common transformer protection schemes that provide the best overall
protection. These types of protection are used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA. The
transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected the other side. The CTs on the star
side are deltaconnected and those on the delta-connected side are star- connected. The neutral of
both the transformers are grounded.

6.2.4 Restricted earth fault protection

A very high fault current can flow when a fault occurs at the transformer bushing. In that case,
the fault needs to be cleared as soon as possible. The reach of a particular protection device
should be only limited to the zone of the transformer, which means if any ground fault occurs in
a different location, the relay allocated for that zone should get triggered, and other relays should
stay the same.
So, that is why the relay is named Restricted earth fault protection relay [15].

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6.2.5 Buchholz (gas detection) relay

The Buchholz relay is fitted in between the main transformer unit and the conservator tank when
a fault occurs within the transformer, it detects the dissolved gas with the help of a float switch.
When a fault condition occurs, we have sparks between the windings, or in between windings
and the core.

These small electrical discharges in the windings will heat the insulating oil, and the oil will
break down, thus it produces gases, the severity of the breakdown, detects which glasses are
created [15].

6.2.6 Over fluxing protection

A transformer is designed to operate at a fixed flux level. If exceed that flux level and the core
gets saturated, the saturation of the core causes heating in the core that quickly follows through
the other parts of the transformer that leads to overheating of components, thus over flux
protection becomes necessary, as it protects the transformer core. Over-flux situations can occur
because of overvoltage or a reduction in system frequency. To protect the transformer from over-
fluxing, the over-fluxing relay is used [15].

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION
The power system establishing the substations near load centers makes it possible to supply

quality and reliable power by the utilities at competitive prices by minimizing losses in the initial

cost of transmission and distribution network. The following aspects play a vital role in

providing reliable and quality power to the consumers by the substations. Establishing receiving

stations and substations near the load center makes it possible to supply quality and reliable

power by the utilities competitive prices by minimizing losses in transmission and distribution.

Proper design of receiving stations and substation by the use of efficient equipment provides a

high level of service continuity and flexibility of operation reducing the cost of operation and

maintenance. Planned maintenance schedule keeps the substation equipment in proper

conditions to provide efficient operation with reduced down time. Selection of site plays a very

important role in construction of substation. We also got to know the real time monitoring of

power and its distribution.

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REFERENCES

[1] VidyutBodha: https://vidyutbodha.com/electrical-substaion/

[2] Circuit Globe: https://circuitglobe.com/classification-of-substaions.html
[3] OSHA: https://www.osha.gov/etools/electric-power/illustated-glossary/sub-station
[4] About Mechanics: https://www.aboutmechanics.com/what-is-a-transformer html.
[5] Circuit Globe: https://circuitglobe.com/indoor-substation.html
[6] Circuit Globe: https://circuitglobe.com/outdoor-substation.html
[7] Axis Electricals: https://axis-india.com/single-line-diagram-for-substation-detailed-explaination/
[8] Electrical Engineering Portal: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/hv-substation-elements
[9] Electrical Safety UK: https://elecsafety.co.uk/electrical-control-panels/
[10] Acupanel: https://www.accupanels.com/blog/types-of-electrical-controlpanel
[11] Circuit Globe: https://circuitglobe.com/electrical-substaion-equipment.html
[12] ELProCus: https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-an-intrument-transformer-types/
[13] HESRoot: https://c03.apogee.net/contentplayer/?coursettype
[14] Miracle Electronic Devices Pvt. Ltd.: https://www.micracle.net.in/blog/parts-of-a-transformer/
[15] Circuit Digest: https://circuidigest.com/article/all-about-transformer-protection
[16] “Electric Power Substations Engineering” by John D. McDonald | 2nd Edition, published by
CRCPRESS, 30 May 2017.
[17] “Modern Power System Analysis” by D.P. Kothari | 5th Edition, published by Mc Grow Hill, 29
June 2017.

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