Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

be a hardwired digital processor configured to perform a specified set of operations on the input
signal.
• In applications where the digital output from the digital signal processor is to be given to the
user in analog form, we must provide another interface from the digital domain to the analog
domain, called a digital-to-analog converter.
• In some cases, DAC is not needed, as the information will be given to the user in digital form.

1.1.2 Advantages of Digital over Analog Signal Processing

• A digital programmable system allows flexibility in reconfiguring DSP operations.

• Accuracy is much better controlled by digital systems; analog circuit components have tolerable
parameters which make it difficult for designers to achieve high accuracy.
• Digital signals are easily stored on magnetic and solid-state media, making it possible for easier
transport and access.
• DSP allows performance of more sophisticated mathematical operations on signals.
• In some cases, DSP systems are cheaper than their analog counterparts, mainly because of
flexibility or availability of cheaper processors.

1.2 Classification of Signals

1.2.1 Multichannel versus Multidimensional Signals

• Signals that are generated by multiple sources are called multichannel signals. Example: ECG,
EEG, ground acceleration due to an earthquake.
• Multichannel signals can be expressed as vectors. For instance, the ground acceleration due to
an earthquake has three components: primary wave travelling longitudinally, secondary waves
travelling transversely, and surface waves travelling near the surface of the ground. Thus, this
signal can be expressed as the vector
s  t

 = s  t
s  t

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 4

Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

Figure1.4. Three components of ground acceleration due to an earthquake nearby

• Signals that are dependent on two or more variables are called multidimensional signals.
Example: images, video signal.
• Image signals are two-dimensional signals; i.e. dependent on two variables. The intensity or
brightness of a picture element is a function of its coordinates x and y on a rectangular
coordinate scale.
• Black-and-white television signals, on the other hand, are three-dimensional signals; i.e.
dependent on three variables. The intensity of each picture element, aside from its space
coordinates, is also dependent on the time (since video are considered “moving” pictures).

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 5

Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

• A color TV picture may be described by three intensity functions corresponding to the brightness
of the three principal colors (red, green, blue) as functions of space-time coordinates. Hence it is
a three-channel, three-dimensional signal.

Figure 1.5. Image as a two-dimensional signal

1.2.2 Continuous-Time versus Discrete-Time Signals

• Continuous-time signals are defined for every value of time (and hence, take on any possible
values). These signals can be described by functions of continuous variables. Examples: speech
waveform of Figure 1.1, x t = cos πt, x t = e for −∞ < t < +∞.
Discrete-time signals are defined only at specific values of time. Example: xt   = e| | for
n = 0, ±1, ±2 … . If we use the index n of the discrete-time instants as the independent
•

variable, the signal value becomes a function of an integer value, that is, it becomes a sequence
of numbers.
• In this course, we shall denote x(t) as a continuous-time signal and x(n) as discrete-time signal.
In later sections, we shall establish important relationships between the continuous-time index t
and discrete-time index n.

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 6

Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

Figure 1.6. (a) Continuous-time signal; (b) Discrete-time signal

• In applications, discrete-time signals may arise in two ways:

o Through sampling, or selecting values of an analog signal at discrete-time instants.
o By accumulating a variable over a period of time. Example: Wolfer sunspot numbers.

Figure 1.7. Occurrence of sunspots is an example of discrete-time data

1.2.3 Continuous-Valued Versus Discrete-Valued Signals

• If a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range, it is said to be continuous-
valued signal.
• If a signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values, it is said to be discrete-valued
signal.

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 7

Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

• Note that:
o A continuous-time signal is automatically continuous-valued signal. This signal is
considered an analog signal.
o A discrete-time signal is obtained by the process called sampling the analog signal.
Sampling the analog signal, however, does not make the signal discrete-valued. To make
a discrete-time signal discrete-valued, an additional process called quantization must be
done.
o A discrete-time, discrete-valued signal is the one considered a digital signal.

Figure 1.8. Digital signal

1.2.4 Deterministic Versus Random Signals

• The mathematical analysis and processing of signals requires the availability of a mathematical
description, called the signal model, for the signal itself. Thus, we can describe signal the way
they are mathematically modeled.
• Deterministic signals are any signals that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical
expression, a table of data, or a well-defined rule. This term is used to emphasize the fact that
all past, present and future values of the signal are known precisely, without any uncertainty.
• Random signals are signals that evolve in time in an unpredictable manner. Most of the
practical signals fall under this category, as these are cannot be described to any reasonable
degree of accuracy by explicit mathematical formulas, or such description is too complicated to
be of any practical use.

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 8

Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing

Figure 1.9. Two random signals with almost the same histogram

• The analysis and description of random signals are accomplished using statistical techniques
instead of explicit formulas. The mathematical framework for the theoretical analysis of random
signals is provided by the theory of probability and stochastic processes.

• Example:Classify the following signals according to whether they are (1) one – or multi –
dimensional; (2) single or multichannel; (3) continuous – time or discrete-time and (4) analog or
digital. Give a brief explanation.
• A color movie
• Weight and height measurements of a child taken every month
• Speech signal
• Image on an LCD monitor
• Stereo sound
• White Gaussian Noise
• Gold code

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Signal Processing Page 9