UNIVERSIDAD POLITECNICA DE

CUAUTITLAN IZCALLI

PHYSICS IBM

LEADING SCIENTISTS IN
PHYSICS
PROFESOR: ING. MIGUEL ANGEL VILLAR
RAMIREZ

STUDENT: MICHELLE CERON CRESPO

CAREER: BIOMEDIA ENGINEERING

GROUP: 101 IBM 1ER TRIMESTER

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 INDEX:
Introduction………………………………….

Archimedes of Syracuse………………………………….

Ibn al-Haytham………………………………….

Galileo Galilei………………………………….

René Descartes………………………………….

Blaise Pascal ……………………………..

Robert Hooke……………………………..

Isaac Newton……………………………..

Benjamin Franklin ……………………………..

Alessandro Volta……………………………..

Louis Gay-Lussac……………………………..

George Simon Ohm……………………………..

Michael Faraday……………………………..

Nikola Tesla

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 INTRODUCTION:
It is the science that studies the properties of nature with the support of
mathematics, it is a term that comes from the Greek physis and means "reality" or
"nature" and that is why we can also define it as the science that studies the
properties of space, time, matter, energy and their interactions.

It is responsible for analysing the characteristics of energy, time and matter, as well
as the links established between them.

Physics is classified as a fundamental science. This scientific discipline can be

dedicated to describing the smallest particles or explaining how a star is born, to
name a few possibilities

The most famous physicists in history have this recognition due to the magnificent
contributions that have resulted from their research and theories, without which the
world would not be as we know it today.

Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein have been some of the most
renowned physicists in history. The original development of physics, however, was
left in the hands of the Greek philosophers

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 The Most Important Physicists in History
Archimedes of Syracuse (287 BC – 212 BC)
Archimedes of Syracuse was a physicist, engineer, astronomer and mathematician,
born in the city of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. His life spanned from 287 to 212
B.C. Thanks to his contributions to the sciences, especially physics and
mathematics, he is considered one of the most important scientists of antiquity.

 Archimedes' Principle
Also called "Hydrostatic Thrust", it is one of Archimedes' most important
contributions, it is considered a legacy of antiquity for modern science. This
principle states that: every body totally or partially immersed in a fluid
receives an upward thrust, equal to the weight of the fluid dislodged by the
object.
Through the use of this principle, the phenomenon of flotation can be
explained, which is why it has been applied to study this action in different
objects, such as ships, submarines, hot air balloons, among others. This is
because when Archimedes speaks of "fluids", he is referring to liquids and
gases
 Laws of Levers

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 But it was this brilliant scientist who took on the task of establishing principles
that described the operation of a lever by placing two bodies on each of its
ends.
In this sense, he points out that the balance of these bodies on the lever will
depend on their mass and the distance they have to the point of support.
When the distance is inversely proportional to its weight, then an equilibrium
will be reached

 Pi Number Value
the shows an approximation of the value of the number Pi. This number has
been used even to the present day.
To achieve this approximation, he relied on calculations made when knowing
the diameter of a circle. Their conclusion was that the number pi has an
approximate value of 3.1415
 The most important works
The researches of this character represent a basis for modern science in
different areas of study, such as mathematics, geometry, arithmetic, physics,
hydrostatics, mechanics, among others. He took the simplicity of some
machines to something much more practical, when he decided to analyze
their mechanism, he made it possible to measure figures by approximation
with known magnitudes. Some of his most outstanding works are:
1. Of the Sphere and the Cylinder
2. The Measure of the Circle
3. Spheroids and Conoids

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 4. The Spiral Lines

Ibn al-Haytham (964 – 1040)

Called in the West Alhazen or Alhazen, he was an Arab Muslim physicist who was
an expert in astronomy. In addition to being considered the creator of the scientific
method, he made important contributions to the principles of optics and the

conception of scientific experiments.

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 He is considered "the father of optics" for his work and experiments with lenses,
mirrors, reflection, and refraction. He studied the anatomy of the eye in depth, which
led him to discard the so-called theory of emission or extromission, which was
believed in by great thinkers such as Plato and Ptolemy, as well as the great
second-century physician Galen. According to this theory, the eyes were active and
fired infinitely fast particles that illuminated everything in the environment and that is
why vision was possible. He showed that all natural light comes from the Sun,
travels in a straight line, and creates images when it reaches our eyes. He also
invented the pinhole camera

He wrote the first comprehensive treatise on lenses, where he describes the image
formed on the human retina due to the crystalline lens.

His research in cathooptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) focused on
spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the observation
that the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction does
not remain constant, and investigated the increase in power of a lens, he defended

the hypothesis that the light came from the Sun and that objects that do not have
their own light only reflect it, thanks to which it is possible to see them.

He also carried out several studies on the reflection and refraction of light, the origin
of the rainbow and the use of lenses, through the so-called camera obscura. He also
defended the idea of the finitude of the thickness of the Earth's atmosphere and by
observing the way sunlight diffracted through the atmosphere, he was able to
calculate a fairly good estimate for the height of the atmosphere, which he found to
be about 100 km.

Alhazen's contributions include his work on perfect numbers. In his Analysis and
Synthesis, he may have been the first to assert that every perfect even number is of
the form 2(2 − 1) where 2 − 1 is prime, but he was unable to justify this result

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 Alhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's
theorem. In his Booklet, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences,
and provides two general methods of resolution. His first method, the canonical
method, involves Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of
the Chinese theorem of the rest.

Galilei (1564 – 1642)

The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei made discoveries in physics and astronomy by
applying the scientific method, which is why he is considered one of the fathers of
the scientific revolution. Galilei formulated the first laws of motion in physics and in
astronomy, he confirmed the Copernican Theory with his telescopic observations.

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 However, his most valuable contribution was the introduction of experimental
methodology, an achievement that has earned him the recognition of the father of
modern science. Due to his revolutionary thought, he was condemned by the
Inquisition, an institution before which he had to defend his theory of heliocentrism.
Among his contributions to science is the demonstration of the falsity of the
Aristotelian postulate that the acceleration of the fall of bodies, in free fall, was
proportional to their weight, and conjectured that, in a vacuum, all bodies would fall
with equal speed.

 The Law of Free Fall

Galileo conducted experiments with objects falling from different heights and found
that all objects, regardless of their weight, fell at the same time. This finding led to
the formulation of the law of free fall, which states that all objects in free fall fall with
the same acceleration.

Galileo showed that the acceleration of gravity is constant and that its value is about
9.8 meters per second squared.

 The Law of the Pendulum

Galileo also conducted experiments with pendulums and found that the time it takes
for a pendulum to swing does not depend on the amplitude of motion or the mass of
the object hanging from the pendulum. This law of the pendulum was important to
the development of pendulum clocks, which were used to measure time for many
years.

 The Law of Gravity

This experiment showed that the speed of an object's fall does not depend on
its weight. Galileo concluded that all objects fall with the same acceleration
due to gravity. This idea was revolutionary at the time and laid the foundation
for the development of the law of gravity.

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 René Descartes (1596 – 1650)
The French-born philosopher, mathematician and physicist René Descartes
was one of the great figures in the history of humanity. One that managed to
cross the limits established at the time for each of these disciplines, leaving a
legacy that today is present in all kinds of events.
Descartes' contributions are recognized in fields as varied as modern

philosophy and analytic geometry, some of those contributions are:

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  "I think, therefore I am"
This phrase, which he included in the Discourse on Method (1637) and in the
Principles of Philosophy (1644), is probably the first thing that comes to mind
when we think of Descartes.
What the philosopher proposes is that in order to reach the conclusion of
something, it is essential to think and reflect on the fact in question, as well as
on any concern that affects it in any way. Therefore, being cannot exist
without thought, and therefore is not capable of coming to the conclusion of
anything.
The phrase is the main basis of modern Western philosophy, and it places
special emphasis on thought, search, and reflection as the fundamental
principles for the creation of new certainties.

 The Cartesian Law

Descartes contributed to the development of the law that allows the positive
and negative roots of algebraic equations to be revealed, or the "Cartesian
law of signs."
 Father of Analytic Geometry
He is also referred to as the father of analytic geometry, the discipline that
projected a definitive meeting point between algebra and geometry.
 Innate Ideas and Doubts
Like the psychologists of the time, Descartes began to wonder about human
behavior, concluding that many of our behaviors are "predetermined": they
are defined by the experiences we have throughout our existence.
 Descartes' Rule of the Sign
It aimed to find out the number of positive and negative roots for any
algebraic equation.
 Metaphysical Meditations

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 Originally written in French, the meditations present the philosophical system
introduced by Descartes in the Discourse on Method. Divided into six parts,
the book is the metaphysical explicitation of the Cartesian method of
hyperbolic doubt
He introduced the use of letters of the alphabet as variables: he distinguished
between the former (A, B, C...) for the known and the latter (X, Y, Z...) for the
unknown.

Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662)

In Physics he stood out for his contributions to the study of fluids, and
especially in terms of the concepts of pressure and vacuum. By an
experiment he demonstrated in 1648 that the level of the mercury column of a
barometer is determined by the increase or decrease of the surrounding
atmospheric pressure.
He invented the hydraulic press (which uses hydraulic pressure to multiply
force) and the syringe.

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 Pascal's important scientific contributions are the deduction of the so-called
"Pascal's principle" is a fundamental concept in hydraulics education. This
principle states that any change in the pressure of a fluid at one point is
transmitted evenly and without loss to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of
the vessel containing it.
The relevance of this principle in education lies in the fact that it allows us to
understand how hydraulic systems work, which are widely used in numerous
areas of our daily lives, such as industry, construction and transportation.
Thanks to Pascal's principle, we can understand how forces are transmitted in
these systems and how the initially applied force can be multiplied.
Pascal is credited with creating the first machine to perform arithmetic
operations, considered the first calculator in history.
He wanted to demonstrate the existence of the vacuum, a subject that gave
rise to famous controversies at the time.

Traditionally, it was not accepted that a vacuum existed in nature, but Pascal
used the experimental method to prove it, based on observation and
experimentation and not on the supposedly logical laws of thought; and in
three short writings he wrote his experiments on the vacuum up to the
formulation of the theory of hydrostatic equilibrium.

 The Existence of Emptiness

Pascal, in 1647, first demonstrated the existence of the vacuum. Contrary to the
thinking of Aristotle and Descartes, Pascal conducted a series of experiments with
the barometer and mercury, thus demonstrating what Evangelista Torricelli (1608-
1647) had theorized. In this way, he managed to prove what many thought
impossible: that the space that exists above a liquid inside a barometer is the
vacuum. This experiment laid the groundwork for his next study of atmospheric
pressure.

 Pascal's Principle

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 This principle states that when pressure is exerted at any point in a confined fluid,
this pressure will be exerted at all points in this fluid. This principle revolutionized the
world of hydraulics, which is the basis of all types of mechanics, from aeronautics to
fluids.

Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703)

Robert Hooke is one of the most important and forgotten figures. He was the first to
talk about the concept of "cell" and his contributions greatly marked the world of
physics and biology.
Hooke made great discoveries, not the least of which are those explained below.

 Law of Elasticity

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 This law was postulated with the aim of explaining that when a spring is stretched,
its elongation is directly proportional to the modulus of force with which it is carried
out.
This theory gave way to various scientific studies that today allow various predictions
to be made in the field of engineering and physics

 Capillarity
In his work published in 1665 under the name of "Micrography", Hooke explains his
discoveries about capillarity and states that in the outlet of water and other fluids
through narrow glass tubes, the height to which the water reached was directly
related to the diameter of the tube through which it passed

 Micrographia
"Micrographia" is the title given to the work published by Robert Hooke in 1665, in
which drawings of images taken with light microscopy are shown for the first time.
This is a piece of writing with an unconscionable impact, as it was the first relevant
publication of the Royal Society and also became, on its own merits, the first
scientific Best Seller in history. Of course, bringing such abstract ideas invisible to
the human eye to the general population is a titanic task that requires
communicative mastery
 Inventions
Hooke was also a prolific inventor. Among his inventions were the instruments he
designed to record changes in weather conditions: an alcohol thermometer, a dial
barometer, an improved chronometer, anemometer, a hygrometer clock, and a clock
that automatically recorded readings from meteorological instruments.
Over time, Robert Hooke had many ideas which turned into novel and very
interesting inventions. Some of his main inventions were the following:

Air pump that was one of his first inventions and was also known by the name of the
boylean machine. It was used to analyze the elasticity of air and its effects, aspects
that would later lead to the formulation of the Law of Gases.
He was responsible for discovering the planet Uranus through the observation of
comets and the formulation of several ideas regarding gravitation. To this end, he
also invented several types of instruments with the aim of being able to measure the
movements of the sun and stars.
He was an enemy of Isaac Newton because Newton did not give him due credit for
his ideas regarding gravity.

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 Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727)

Isaac Newton's main contributions are in the fields of physics, mathematics,

astronomy and mechanics. Newton was an English physicist, theologian,

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 mathematician, alchemist and inventor, author of important books for the history of
humanity, such as: Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica, better known as
Principia, a work awarded to this day, because in it he describes the principles of the
Law of universal gravitation, where the movement of the planets is mainly studied.
Isaac Newton's main contributions range from the principles of the Law of Universal
Gravitation to multiple inventions. Among the largest contributions we find:

 Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica

The Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica, better known as Principia, was
published on July 5, 1867, and is considered the most important scientific work in
history, as it marked a before and after in the way we conceive the world. It is said
that several years elapsed between its creation and its publication, as Newton was
wary of other people stealing his contributions.

 Newton's Laws
Newton's laws are one of his main contributions, or at least, one of the best known.
These appear in the work Principia and are three laws that delve into bodies and the
laws that influence them. These are still used today to explain how the motion of a
body is subject to three basic principles, namely:

1. Law of Inertia: Anybody is at permanent rest unless another force exerts

some kind of pressure on it.
2. Law of force: If a body is in a state of rest and something moves it with the
force necessary to generate its displacement, it will move.
3. Law of Action/Reaction: If one body exerts force on another, the body will also
exert the same amount of force, but in the opposite direction.

 Law of Universal Gravitation

Principia also explains the Law of Universal Gravitation, which states that
each body attracts others due to gravity. The force of attraction between the
two bodies depends on their mass and the distance between them.
In line with this, the level of attraction generated by a body on others will be
greater if its mass is greater and the distance between the two is smaller.
Through this knowledge, he was able to explain the trajectory of tides,
comets, and various astrophysical phenomena such as equinoxes.

 Reflection on the shape of the earth

Another of Isaac Newton's main contributions was his in-depth study of the
shape of the earth, taking into account that it was thought to be a perfect
sphere, however, through calculations made of the center of the earth
directed to different points of the equator, Newton discovered that the earth
actually had flattening’s in the area of the poles.

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  "Corpuscular Theory of Light"
The "Corpuscular Theory of Light" tells us about the composition and
trajectory of light. Here it is said that light is composed of corpuscles of
luminous particles, projected at high speed by the emitting body.

This discovery was in opposition to the theory that light was composed of
waves, and also explained that in terms of the path of light, it traveled in a
straight line and had the capacity for reflection.

 Light through the prism

Another of Isaac Newton's main contributions was his discovery that the light
that came from the sun is white, but can be broken down into different colors
when it goes through a prism.
This implies that light is not homogeneous, but consists of a multicolored
spectrum, which revolutionized the study of optics.

 Creating the Calculation

One of Newton's main contributions is the invention of differential calculus,
which came to fill the gaps in mathematics at the time, through the analysis of
things that are in constant change. This contribution managed to position
mathematics on Greek geometry, by means of the method of fluxions

 Tidal Theory
Based on the study of gravitational forces postulated by Galileo Galilei,
Newton came to the conclusion that tides arose from gravity, a product of the
interaction between the earth, the sun and the moon.

 Law of Thermal Convection

This law is now known as "Newton's Law of Cooling" and it is stated that the
transfer between a body and the environment depends on the temperature of
both. This means that the gain or loss of heat is directly proportional to the
difference in temperature of a body and its environment.

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 Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790)
Benjamin Franklin is one of the most significant representatives of the American
Enlightenment. A committed citizen, diplomat, writer and scientist, he participated in
the drafting of the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 along with
Jefferson and Adams. Franklin became interested in physics when he was forty
years old, mainly in matters related to electrostatics, and concluded that there is only
one type of electric fluid (glassy electricity), instead of two as had been previously
admitted, and two types of states of electrification, one like that of glass and the
other like that of amber. and called the first positive and the second negative. Thus,
if a body has an excess of electric fluid, it appears with positive electricity (glass),
and if it has a defect, it has negative electricity (resinous). When two bodies, one of
which has an excess and the other a deficiency of electric fluid, come together, the
electric current must flow from the first body, where it is in excess, to the second,
where it is lacking

Throughout his life, he made numerous scientific discoveries that contributed to the
advancement of science and technology.

Electricity and lightning rod

One of Franklin's most famous discoveries was his experiment with electricity. He
proved that lightning was a form of electricity and developed the lightning rod, a
device to protect buildings from lightning.

 The Phenomenon of Electric Charge

Franklin also made important advances in understanding the phenomenon of electric
charge. He proposed the theory that there were two types of electric charge, positive
and negative, and that they attracted or repelled each other.

 Inventor of the lightning rod

In addition to discovering the nature of lightning and developing the lightning rod,
Franklin invented other devices related to electricity, such as the umbrella-shaped
pointed lightning rod.

 Heat Research
Franklin also conducted research on heat and cooling. He showed that the
cooling of liquids occurred by evaporation and used this principle to develop
refrigeration systems.

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  Contributions to meteorology
Franklin also made important contributions to meteorology. He developed a system
for observing storms to predict their intensity and direction, and was a pioneer in the
study of atmospheric circulation.

 Other Scientific Contributions

In addition to his discoveries in electricity, heat, and meteorology, Franklin
conducted extensive research in other scientific fields, such as optics, acoustics, and
biology.

Among his most outstanding inventions are:

1. Lightning rod: Franklin is known for inventing the lightning rod, a device
that protects buildings from lightning by conducting electricity to the
ground

2. Bifocal lenses: Franklin also developed bifocals, which allow for clear
vision both near and far.

3. Franklin's Stove: This stove, designed by Franklin, significantly

improved the efficiency of the stoves used at the time.

4. Crystal Harmonica: Franklin invented this musical instrument, which

consists of a series of crystal goblets filled with water that produce
different tones when rubbed together with the fingers.

Benjamin Franklin was a man of many talents and accomplishments. His inventions
revolutionized different fields and his political participation was fundamental to the
formation of the United States as an independent nation.

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 Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827)

From his birth in Como, Italy, in 1745, Alexander Volta studied and worked hard to
contribute to the field of science. He contributed significantly to electrodynamics and
electronics, and his inventions and discoveries helped drive the development of
electrical power. In honor of his legacy, the electrical capacitance unit was named
Volt in his honor.
Volta also collaborated with other great scientists of his time, such as Luigi Galvani
and Alessandro Cruto. Together they explored the interactions between metals and
body fluids, leading to a better understanding of biological electricity.
His most notable work was the creation of the voltaic pile, a device that generated
electricity from a chemical reaction between two different metals. This allowed later
scientists and inventors to use electrical energy for numerous technological
applications
This invention also led to the development of electrolysis, which allowed for the
study of more complicated compounds such as acids. In addition to his work in
electrodynamics and electronics, Volta contributed significantly to other scientific
fields, such as astronomy, physics, and even meteorology.

 The voltaic pile

The voltaic pile was one of Alexander Volta's great inventions. It consisted of a
series of metallic and non-metallic discs separated by brine-impregnated paper. The
voltaic pile could produce a constant electric current, making it very useful for many
applications.

 Electrolytes
Volta experimented with a saline solution to see if it was possible to generate
electricity from these compounds. To do this, he used a setup that consisted of two
metal plates separated by a piece of cloth soaked in salt water. By connecting the
two plates by means of a conductor, Volta found that there was an electrical flow
between them. This experiment showed that electrolytes were capable of conducting
electricity and were therefore fundamental elements for the function of electrolytes.

 The galvanometer
The galvanometer is a device used to measure the intensity of electric current. This
is a very useful tool for scientists, as it allows the flow of electricity through a circuit
to be determined. Alexander Volta was the first to use this device, and his invention
had a great impact on the scientific world. The galvanometer consists of two main
parts: a coiled coil of wire and a permanent magnet.

 The Electrothermometer

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 An electrothermometer is a device that allows you to measure the
temperature of an object using the electrical resistance of the object. Volta
was the first to describe the working principle of this device and also built the
first electrothermometer. This device has since been used to measure the
temperature of very hot objects, such as furnaces and forges.

 Contact Electrification Laws

Volta came up with the famous laws of contact electrification, a theory he
developed to explain the sources of electric charges. Volta's theory of contact
electricity was subsequently shown to be incomplete and erroneous in several
respects.

Alessandro Volta's commitments to humanity were critical and occurred primarily in

the logical field, particularly in the investigation of power. To store power, and thus
to govern electric power, was the considerable work of the Italian, a useful and self-
taught man of science, and an intense Christian all his life.

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 Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 – 1850)

Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac was a French physicist and chemist born in December

1778. His main contribution to science was two laws on the behavior of gases. The
first, called Charles' Law, stated that a gas expands proportionally to its temperature
as long as the pressure is constant.
The second, called the Gay-Lussac Law, states that the pressure of a fixed volume
of gas is proportional to its temperature. The law was presented in 1805 to the
Academy of Sciences
Although it was his laws on gases that have caused Gay-Lussac to go down in
history, the scientist also carried out other important research. He was, for example,
the one who laid the foundations for carrying out volumetric analyses. It also brought
some significant improvements in the field of the chemical industry.
Gay-Lussac conducted experiments aboard a hot air balloon. In his two ascents he
exceeded 3800 meters of altitude, a circumstance that allowed him to confirm that
the chemical composition of the atmosphere and the magnetic field remain constant
if a certain height is exceeded.

Gay-Lussac continued to make new discoveries over the next few years. In 1815, for
example, he discovered prussic acid or hydrocyanic acid. In addition, the scientist
began to collaborate in various public bodies and industrial corporations, which
provided him with his largest source of income. Among his contributions were the
improvement in the composition of gunpowder, alloys to make cannons or
detonators.
Between 1819 and 1828, Gay-Lussac was constantly active. His work diversified,
ranging from the solubility of salts to the alcohol content. He also presented new
methods to improve the manufacturing processes of oxalic acid and sulphuric acid,
which are very important for industrial chemistry.

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 Simon Ohm (1789 – 1854)

Georg Simon Ohm was a physicist and mathematician of German origin who played
a very important role in the development of physics, specifically in the area that has
to do with electrodynamics. He is best known for Ohm's Law, which defines the
interaction between electrical energy, voltage, current, and resistance.
First published in 1827, Ohm's theories were ridiculed and dismissed by his
colleagues. However, these theories turned out to be true, and Ohm was honored
after his death by confirming the name "ohm" as the unit for defining resistance in
metal wires.

 Ohm's Law is expressed mathematically as I = V/R, where I is current, V is

voltage, and R is resistance. Current, measured in amperes, is the electrical
charge that flows across the surface of the conductive wire. Voltage,
measured in volts, is the force that pushes current through the wire.
Resistance, measured in ohms, regulates the amount of current that flows
through a point in the circuit.

The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. Mathematically, R = V/I.
Legally, an ohm is the value of the resistance through which a volt maintains an
ampere of current.
However, he also dabbled in acoustics. In 1843 he extended the principle of
physiological acoustics as a mathematical model for how people hear certain tones.
However, his hypothesis was not justified. After a dispute with physicist August
Seebeck, Ohm's proposition was completely discredited and abandoned.

 Ohm: Resistance Unit

The unit of resistance in the field of electricity is the ohm, symbolized by the Greek
letter omega (Ω). It is named after Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist who
discovered Ohm's law. This fundamental law in electronics states the relationship
between electric current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit.

An ohm of resistance is defined as the amount of resistance that allows the flow of a
current of one ampere with a voltage of one volt. Resistance arises due to
interactions between electrons and the atoms or molecules that make up the
material.

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Ohm's most important recognition came ten years after his muerte.se he conducted
a committee appointed by the British Scientific Association to define a standard unit
of measurement for resistance.

At that time the decision was made that the electric resistance unit would be named
Ohmad, but it was definitely decided that the unit would be named ohm simply, in
honor of the German scientist.

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 Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867)

Michael Faraday was a British-born physicist and chemist whose major contributions
are in the areas of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Among his contributions
to science, and therefore to humanity, we can highlight his work in electromagnetic
induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis
 Discovery of electromagnetic rotation
This is a glimpse of what would eventually develop in the electric motor, based on
Hans Christian Oersted's discovery that a wire carrying electric current has magnetic
properties.

 Gas Liquefaction & Refrigeration

Faraday provided strong evidence of Dalton's belief when he used high pressures to
produce the first liquid samples of chlorine and ammonia.
The significance of Faraday's discovery was that he had shown that mechanical
pumps could transform a gas at room temperature into a liquid. The liquid could then
evaporate, cooling its surroundings and the resulting gas could be picked up and
compressed by a pump into a liquid again, then the full cycle could be repeated. This
is the basis for the operation of modern refrigerators and freezers.

 Discovery of Benzene
Michael Faraday discovered benzene in the oily residue left behind by the
production of lighting gas in London.

 Discovery of electromagnetic induction

Faraday discovered that a variable magnetic field causes electricity to flow in an
electrical circuit.
Faraday had shown that motion could be converted into electricity – or in more
scientific language, kinetic energy could be converted into electrical energy.

 Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis

Faraday was one of the main protagonists in the founding of the new science of
electrochemistry, which studies events at the interfaces of electrodes with ionic
substances. Faraday's laws are vital to our understanding of batteries and electrode
reactions.

 Invention of the Faraday Cage

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Faraday found that when any electrical conductor is charged, all the extra charge is
on the outside of the conductor. This means that the extra charge doesn't show up
inside a metal room or cage.

The image at the top of this page shows a man in a Faraday suit, which has a metal
lining, which keeps him safe from electricity outside his suit.

 Discovery of the Faraday effect – a magneto-optical effect

This was another vital experiment in the history of science, the first to link
electromagnetism and light – a link finally fully described by James Clerk Maxwell's
equations, which established that light is an electromagnetic wave.
Faraday discovered that a magnetic field causes the plane of polarization of light to
rotate.

 Discovery of Diamagnetism as a Property of All Matter

Faraday discovered that all substances are diamagnetic – most are weakly, some
are strongly.
Diamagnetism opposes the direction of an applied magnetic field.
Diamagnetism in materials, induced by very strong modern magnets, can be used to
produce levitation. Even living things, such as frogs, are diamagnetic and can
levitate in a strong magnetic field.

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 Nikola Tesla (1856 – 1943)

Nikola Tesla was one of the great geniuses of the 20th century and, although his
figure has been somewhat mistreated by history, his legacy has allowed the current
scientific and technological development.
ikola Tesla was too far ahead for his time. This explains why many of his discoveries
and inventions were not valued until after his death, but that does not mean that
Tesla was not one of the great scientific minds of our time. For this reason, below we
present some of the most important contributions he made to science and society in
general.

Nikola Tesla was too far ahead of his time. This explains why many of his
discoveries and inventions were not valued until after his death, but that does not
mean that Tesla was not one of the great scientific minds of our time.

 AC motor
It is impossible to supply power to large cities using direct current, so it is currently
reserved for running the battery of electronic devices. Nikola Tesla developed and
worked on the principles of alternating current.

 The radio
The idea that radio was invented by Marconi is deeply ingrained in people. But the
truth is that the U.S. Supreme Court ended up giving Tesla the patent for the radio,
since Marconi had taken advantage not only of some of his inventions, but the idea
itself, since Tesla had already been able to send information at a distance long
before.

 Radiographs
Despite not discovering X-rays, Nikola Tesla was the first person to take an X-ray. In
addition, thanks to research in the field of electromagnetism, Tesla was able to warn
and inform of the dangers that the use of X-rays had on humans. They could not be
used lightly as they were harmful. Evidently, this has had huge implications in the
field of medicine

 Wireless power
Nikola Tesla achieved, thanks to the use of phosphor bulbs, the transmission of
electrical energy between two separate points in space (nearby) without the need for
a physical object to transmit the current.

 Tesla Coil

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 This electrical transformer, composed of several coupled circuits, was capable of
firing lightning, sending electric currents through the body, and creating electron
winds. The inventor used different variants of this coil as the basis for a multitude of
subsequent experiments.

 Neon lights
Tesla didn't invent fluorescent and neon lights, but he did make many contributions
to the advancement of both. He experimented with the passage of electric particles
through gases, developing four different types of lighting.

 Remote control
Even though he didn't believe in electromagnetic waves, Tesla designed a curious
application of them: the first radio remote control system. With him he drove a small
boat without wires at the Electrical Engineering Exhibition held in New York. This
surprised everyone present and it took several years for the idea of controlling
machines without wires to become popular.

Nikola Tesla filed around 300 patents and developed a few progressive ideas that,
although not considered very realistic at the time, are possible today.
His biggest dream was to electrify the world. More specifically, he dreamed of
wireless transmission of electricity over long distances. Although, long-distance
power transmission without wires is still out of reach, we can already see some
examples at close range.

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 Rudolf Hertz (1857 – 1894)

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894) was a German physicist born in Hamburg. A

skilled experimenter, he built a resonant circuit with a spark chamber with which he
discovered in 1885 the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell's equations,
also demonstrating the reflective properties of these waves and measuring their
length.

He was a pupil of Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz and who informed
him of a prize offered since 1879 by the Berlin Academy of Sciences to anyone who
found experimental confirmation of the relationship between electromagnetic actions
and the polarization of a dielectric; The aim was to prove the existence of
"electromagnetic waves", predicted by means of mathematical calculation as early
as 1870 by the English physicist James C. Maxwell.

Heinrich Hertz was Professor of Physics at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe

(Baden), where he carried out his most relevant research.

At the Technische Hochschule (now the Universität Karlsruhe) Hertz had the right
instruments and succeeded in demonstrating the propagation of electromagnetic
action in space.

To do this, he used only metal wires curved in the shape of a ring, between the ends
of which an interruption of only a fraction of a millimeter was left. When one of these
rings, properly oriented, was used as a receiver, it received a large number of
electromagnetic waves, whose magnetic field variations generated induced currents
of very high frequency in the ring, jumping small chips between the ends of the ring
itself.

Hertz reported the results in the paper Very Rapid Electrical Oscillations, published
in the Wiedemann Annalen. Continuing his experimental research over the next two
years, Hertz managed to measure the wavelength and speed of propagation of
electromagnetic waves, and found a value for their speed very close to that
predicted by Maxwell (i.e., the speed of light: 300,000 kilometers per second).

He showed that these waves are "transverse", like those of light, and he also
discovered that the phenomena of reflection, refraction and polarization also
occurred in electromagnetic waves. With all this, Maxwell's electromagnetic theory,
formulated sixteen years earlier, found experimental confirmation and it was possible
to establish the nature of the

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 Medicine, in Heidelberg. In addition to his contributions, he discovered the
photoelectric effect, the dielectric behavior of some materials under electromagnetic
induction, and the properties of standing waves in transmission lines. Hertz's
research were brought together in the Gesammelte Werke, the work consisting of
three volumes: Schriften vermischten Inhalt, Untersuchung der elektrischen Kraft,
and Die Principien der Mechanik. These contributions by Hertz showed the
principles of wireless telegraphy and determined the technological evolution in the
field of radiocommunications.

He held the chair of physics at the University of Bonn, and there he carried out
research on electric discharges in gases, discovered the permeability of matter for
electrons, bombarding them through a gold foil from a cathode ray generating tube.
Two of his major works, Investigations into the Propagation of Electric Force and
The Principles of Mechanics, were written at this time.

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 Marie Curie (1867 – 1934)
Marie Curie is one of the most outstanding scientists of all time, and her legacy in
physics and chemistry is indisputable. In addition to her work on radioactivity, Curie
also made important contributions to the atomic model. In her day, the study of
atoms was a developing field, and Curie contributed significantly to the
understanding of atomic structure.

Curie discovered two new chemical elements, polonium and radium, and showed
that radioactivity was not the product of a chemical reaction, but of the disintegration
of the atomic nucleus. With this, the existence of subatomic particles such as
protons and neutrons were evidenced.

In addition, Marie Curie was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize, in two different
disciplines: physics and chemistry. Her work and legacy have been recognized
worldwide, and she continues to be a source of inspiration for many women
interested in science.

In short, Marie Curie's legacy in the atomic model revolution is incalculable. Their
discoveries allowed for a greater understanding of the internal structure of the atom
and opened the door to new technologies.

Madame Curie also proposed a theory about the structure of the atom, which was
based on the idea that atoms were composed of electrically charged subatomic
particles. This theory laid the foundation for nuclear physics and nuclear medicine.

Madame Curie's genius lies in her dedication and scientific curiosity. Despite the
difficulties she faced as a woman in a male-dominated field, she never stopped
searching for answers to the deepest questions about the nature of matter.

 Radioactivity
Marie Curie was looking for a topic for her doctoral thesis and decided to choose
"uranium rays". His original theme was the ionization capacity of the rays ejected by
uranium salts.

Pierre and his brother, Jacques, had invented a modified electrometer long before
Marie's project, and she used it to perform the necessary experiments with uranium.
He realized that the lightning emitted by the salts made the nearby air a conductor of
electricity.

 Experimentation

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According to Marie Curie's hypothesis, radioactivity was not the consequence of an
interaction between molecules but emanated directly from the uranium atom. He
then went on to study other minerals that possessed radioactivity.

Curie had assumed that the amount of uranium must be related to radioactivity. That
is why in the other materials, which were much more radioactive than uranium, other
elements had to be present that also emitted radiation, but to a greater extent.
He found that in the face of radiation, malignant or diseased cells were the first to be
affected, while healthy cells resisted for the longest time

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 Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)
Albert Einstein was a German theoretical physicist of Jewish origin, and one of the
most important scientists of the twentieth century.7 He developed the theory of
relativity, which has been one of the most important foundations for the development
of modern physics. In 1921 he won the Nobel Prize in physics for having discovered
the law of the photoelectric effect
Einstein's contribution to science, and in particular to physics, made him one of the
most recognizable men of his time.
Einstein's most popular work was the equivalence between energy and mass:
E=mc2, one of the most recognized equations in the world. He arrived at this formula
in 1905, when he was living in Bern. Later, in 1917, Einstein investigated the
properties of light, which allowed him to find the basis of his law of the photoelectric
effect. He then applied his general theory to the model of the structure of the entire
Universe.

The equation of the equivalence between energy and mass (E = mc2) has also
transcended among the works of this scientist, whose contribution was global.

His contributions led to the creation of the modern cosmological model. Thanks to
them, we have theorized phenomena that have now been confirmed by science,
such as the expansion of the Universe, the existence of black holes or the curvature
of space in the presence of mass.

He published a large amount of material, including books and scientific articles. In

addition, he also created hundreds of texts on other topics, not directly related to his
work.

 The Photoelectric Effect

Einstein did a job in which he proposed a mathematical model that explained the
emission of electrons from some materials when light hits them. To make this claim,
he postulated the existence of "quanta" of light, which are now called photons.
In his article entitled "A Heuristic View on the Production and Transformation of
Light", he explained that quanta or particles of light energy generated a detachment
of electrons from the atoms of a material.

In addition, his theory showed that this detachment did not depend on the intensity
of light, but on the frequency of the incident light wave. He also showed that there
was a minimum material-dependent frequency below which detachment no longer
appeared.

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This work was the main reason why Einstein won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921,
in addition to his other contributions, which at the time were not as relevant as the
photoelectric effect.

 Theory of Special Relativity

Thanks to the experiment of Michelson and Morley, it was shown that light can
propagate in a vacuum. One of the consequences of this is that since it does not
depend on motion, the speed of light is constant for all observers.
Einstein formulated a theory with which he proposed that certain laws of classical
physics can vary according to the frame of reference. That is, for example, there is
no absolute concurrency relationship between events.
It also theoretically confirmed the results of Michelson and Morley's experiment. In
the same way, he introduced the idea of the deformation of time and space, which
until then had been held to be immutable.
It was criticized that Einstein did not cite other authors in his work, such as Poincaré
or Hendrik Lorentz. However, Einstein's approach to the problem differed from what
had been proposed previously.
In addition, the explanation that Einstein managed to reach was based on
fundamental principles of physical laws, which made it go beyond the description of
a fact.

 Equation of equivalence between mass and energy

Using consequences from the theory of special relativity, Einstein in 1905 related the
amount of mass of a body to an "energy at rest," which was not a mechanical energy
as traditionally employed.
The resulting equation, E = mc2, is one of the most recognized today and some
believe it may be the most famous in history. E represents the energy of a body,
while m denotes mass and c the speed of light.
This work showed that the amount of energy emitted by a radioactive material is
equal to the difference in masses between the original material, the emitted particles
and the resulting material, multiplied by the speed of light squared.
That was one of the bases for the development of nuclear energy, which began to be
exploited in the United States with the Manhattan Project, which began in 1942,
during World War II.
Einstein had signed a letter, along with Leó Szilárd, in which he warned the then
president of the country about the possibility that the Germans were developing
nuclear weapons.

 Theory of General Relativity

In 1915, Einstein unveiled his theory that there was independence from the frame of
reference. That is, it was general since it could be applied to static, uniformly
moving, or accelerated motion observers.

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 As a consequence of general relativity, time and space are intimately linked and
cannot be separated. Which gives rise to the concept of space-time, which consists
of three spatial dimensions: length, height, and width, along with time.
With the theory of general relativity he presented an alternative to Isaac Newton's
law of gravity. Because it showed that gravity was a consequence of the warping of
space-time due to the presence of mass.

 Universe in Motion
Thanks to this approach, it was predicted that the Universe was not static as was
thought until then, but that it must be dynamic, so it was in contraction or expansion.
At the time he presented the theory, there was no evidence of such a phenomenon.
By this movement it was assumed that the Universe had an initial state, that is, a
beginning. Einstein himself did not believe that the Universe was dynamic, yet Edwin
Hubble in 1929 published empirical evidence of this fact.
Modern calculations indicate that the age of the Universe is close to 14.5 billion
years.

 Gravitational waves
In 1916 Einstein predicted, based on his theory of general relativity, the existence of
gravitational waves. They are produced by the movement of large masses at high
speeds in space-time. These waves propagate in space-time and carry gravitational
energy.
The existence of gravitational waves was confirmed 100 years later, in 2016, by the
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), when it detected
gravitational waves coming from the merger of two black holes.

 Unified Field Theory

In his later years, Einstein devoted himself to researching what he called unified field
theory, which sought to relate electromagnetic fields to gravitational fields.
However, his efforts to clarify the idea of the unified camp were unsuccessful. So far,
research in this area continues, with string theory and M-theory.

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pág. 38
 Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962)

Niels Bohr was a Danish physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922 for
his research on the structure of atoms and their radiation levels. Raised and
educated in European lands, in the most prestigious English universities, Bohr was
also a renowned researcher and curious about philosophy.

 Model and structure of the atom

Niels Bohr's atomic model is considered one of his greatest contributions to the
world of physics and science in general. He was the first to exhibit the atom as a
positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Bohr managed to discover the inner workings of an atom: electrons are able to orbit
independently around the nucleus. The number of electrons present in the outer
orbit of the nucleus determines the properties of the physical element.
To obtain this atomic model, Bohr applied Max Planck's quantum theory to the
atomic model developed by Rutherford, resulting in the model that earned him the
Nobel Prize. Bohr presented atomic structure as a small solar system.

 Quantum concepts at the atomic level

What led Bohr's atomic model to be considered revolutionary was the method he
used to obtain it: the application of quantum physics theories and their interrelation
with atomic phenomena.
With these applications, Bohr was able to determine the motions of electrons around
the atomic nucleus, as well as changes in their properties.
In the same way, through these concepts, he was able to approach the notion of
how matter is capable of absorbing and emitting light from its most imperceptible
internal structures.

 Discovery of the Bohr-van Leeuwen theorem

The Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem is a theorem applied to the area of mechanics.
First worked on by Bohr in 1911 and later complemented by the Dutch physicist
Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen (1887-1974), the application of this theorem
managed to differentiate the scope of classical physics from quantum physics.
The theorem states that the magnetization resulting from the application of classical
mechanics and statistical mechanics will always be zero. Bohr and van Leeuwen
managed to glimpse certain concepts that could only be developed through quantum
physics.

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  Principle of complementarity
Within quantum mechanics, the principle of complementarity formulated by Bohr,
which represents both a theoretical and a resultant approach, holds that objects
subjected to quantum processes have complementary attributions that cannot be
observed or measured simultaneously.
This principle of complementarity stems from another postulate developed by Bohr:
the Copenhagen interpretation, which is fundamental to the investigation of quantum
mechanics.

 Copenhagen Interpretation
With the help of scientists Max Born and Werner Heisenberg, Niels Bohr developed
this interpretation of quantum mechanics, which made it possible to elucidate some
of the elements that make mechanical processes possible, as well as their
differences. Formulated in 1927, it is considered a traditional interpretation.
According to the Copenhagen interpretation, physical systems do not possess
properties defined before they are measured, and quantum mechanics is only able
to predict the probabilities by which measurements made will yield certain results.

 Structure of the periodic table

From his interpretation of the atomic model, Bohr was able to structure in more detail
the periodic table of elements existing at the time.
He was able to state that the chemical properties and binding capacity of an element
are closely related to its valence charge.
Bohr's work applied to the periodic table led to the development of a new field of
chemistry: quantum chemistry.
Similarly, the element known as Boron (Bohrium, Bh) is named in homage to Niels
Bohr.

 Nuclear reactions
Using a proposed model, Bohr was able to propose and establish the mechanisms
of nuclear reactions from a two-stage process.
By bombarding low-energy particles, a new, low-stability nucleus is formed that will
eventually emit gamma rays, while its integrity decays.

 Nuclear Fission Explained

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction process by which the atomic nucleus begins to
divide into smaller parts.
This process is capable of producing large amounts of protons and photons,
releasing energy at the same time and constantly.
Niels Bohr developed a model to explain the process of nuclear fission of some
elements. This model consisted of observing a drop of liquid that would represent

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 the structure of the nucleus.
In the same way that the integral structure of a droplet can be separated into two
similar parts, Bohr managed to show that the same can happen with an atomic
nucleus, being able to generate new processes of formation or deterioration at the
atomic level.

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 Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901 – 1976)
Werner Heisenberg was a German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers
of quantum mechanics. He also made significant contributions to the theories of
hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays,
and subatomic particles, and was instrumental in the planning of the first West
German nuclear reactor in Karlsruhe, along with a research reactor in Munich

 Matrix Mechanics
The first models of quantum mechanics were established by Albert Einstein, Niels
Bohr, and other important scientists. Later, a group of young physicists developed
theories contrary to the classical one, based on experiments and not on intuition,
using much more precise languages.
Heisenberg was the first to make one of the most complete mathematical
formulations of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg's idea was that by means of this
equation the intensities of photons in the various bands of the hydrogen spectrum
could be predicted.

This formulation is based on the fact that any system can be described and
measured with scientific observations and measurements accommodated to matrix
theory. In this sense, matrices are mathematical expressions to relate data from a
phenomenon.

 Uncertainty Principle
Quantum physics is often confusing, as the definite is replaced with probabilities. For
example, a particle can be in one place or another, or even in both at the same time;
Your location can only be calculated by means of probabilities.
This quantum confusion could be explained by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. In
1927, the German physicist explained his principle by measuring the position and
motion of a particle. For example, an object's momentum is its mass multiplied by its
velocity.

Given this fact, the uncertainty principle indicates that the position and motion of a
particle cannot be known with absolute certainty. Heisenberg claimed that there is a
limit to how well the position and momentum of the particle can be known, even
using his theory.

For Heisenberg, if you know the position very precisely, you can only have limited
information about its momentum.

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  Neutron-proton model
The proton-electron model presented certain problems. While it was accepted that
the atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, the nature of the neutron
was unclear.
After the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Ukrainian physicist Dmitri
Ivanenko proposed a model of protons and neutrons for the nucleus in 1932.

Heisenberg's papers address a detailed description of protons and neutrons within

the nucleus through quantum mechanics. He also assumed the presence of nuclear
electrons apart from neutrons and protons.
More specifically, he assumed that the neutron is a proton-electron compound, for
which there is no quantum mechanical explanation.
While the neutron-proton model solved many problems and solved certain
questions, it proved difficult to explain how electrons could emanate from the
nucleus.

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 Paul Dirac (1902-1984)

English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is known for a wide range of contributions to
quantum mechanics, particularly to formalize the mathematical concepts and
techniques needed to make principles internally consistent. Paul Dirac was awarded
the 1933 Nobel Prize in physics, along with Erwin Schrodinger, "for the discovery of
new productive forms of atomic theory."
Paul Dirac had a wide range of research interests and was incredibly productive in
his work.
He established the Dirac equation in 1928, which represented the relativistic
quantum mechanical equation for the electron. An artifact of this equation was that it
predicted a result describing another potential particle that appeared to be exactly
identical to an electron, but possessed a positive rather than negative electric
charge. From this result, Dirac predicted the existence of the positron, the first
antimatter particle, which was later discovered by Carl Anderson in 1932.

Dirac published his book Principles of Quantum Mechanics, which became one of
the most important textbooks on the subject of quantum mechanics for nearly a
century. In addition to covering the various approaches to quantum mechanics at the
time, including the work of Heisenberg and Schrodinger, Dirac also introduced the
bra-ket notation that became a standard in the field and the Dirac delta function,
which enabled a mathematical method for resolving the apparent discontinuities
introduced by quantum mechanics in a manageable way.

Dirac also considered the existence of magnetic monopoles, with intriguing

implications for quantum physics should they ever be observed to exist in nature. To
date, they haven't, but their work continues to inspire physicists to seek them out.

Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)

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 Robert Oppenheimer, of American origin, was a wonderful physicist and also in
charge of the scientific direction of the renowned Manhattan Project, Robert is also
known by the nickname "The Father of the Atomic Bomb".

Manhattan Project
The research project that was carried out during World War II, by the U.S. with the
support of Canada and the United Kingdom, was codenamed "The Manhattan
Project."
The purpose of this project was to develop the first atomic bomb. This scientific
research project was led by Robert Oppenheimer and was carried out at various
research institutes. One of the most important was the Manhattan Engineering
District, which is now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory.
During the realization of this project, the support of many brilliant scientific minds,
professionals in the area of science, chemistry, computer science, physics was
obtained

Trinity
One of the first successful atomic tests was one that took place in the Alamogordo
Desert in New Mexico on July 16, 1944, this first nuclear test was called "Trinity".
This contraption was a plutonium A-bomb that was the same type of bomb that was
dropped on Nagasaki a few days later.

Today, the site where the bomb fell in Nagasaki is patented by a chronic black silicon
monolith, which was the result of the joining of sand acting under a strong heat that
was caused by the explosion of the bomb
A few days later these bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, where
there were many Japanese deaths, and this also ended World War II.
Robert Oppenheimer after the end of the war and his bomb project, the scientist
stood out as a national spokesman for science and the motto of a type of
technocratic power. By that time, the area of nuclear physics became a great power,
as every government in the world realized the political and strategic power that was
linked to nuclear weapons and the disastrous consequences.

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 Stephen Hawking (1942- 2018)
Hawking dedicated his entire life to studying and trying to understand the Universe.
He focused his study on black holes, as they are one of the great enigmas of
science. They are the place where all physical laws seem to fail.
Stephen Hawking's main contributions to the study of black holes and other
phenomena in the Universe.

 The Nature of Black Holes

A hole is a region of space with such a high concentration of mass that it generates
incredibly large gravity. So big, that it's not just matter that can't escape its attraction.
Neither does the light.
Here's what was known about these objects before Stephen Hawking came along.
They were an absolute mystery, their nature was not understood, nor was it
understood how the physical laws (which in theory should govern the entire
Universe) could be integrated into them.

Stephen Hawking took the work of Albert Einstein as a basis and applied very
complex theories of quantum physics to explain its nature from the laws of physics.
His discoveries and contributions to the study of these objects that did not seem to
meet what we knew about physics helped to glimpse that from quantum physics,
they could be understood.

 Hawking's Radiation
Still from a quantum physics point of view, that is, focusing on the smallest particles
in nature (even more so than atoms), Stephen Hawking showed that, technically,
black holes "are not black at all".
Hawking discovered that black holes emit energy in the form of radiation. This
represented a turning point in physics, as it related gravity to thermodynamics, thus
coming closer to unifying all the laws of the Universe.

 The Theory of Everything

With the intention of understanding the origin of the Universe and the pillars on
which everything that happens in it is based, Stephen Hawking was looking to
propose a theory that encompassed all the laws of physics.

This major challenge involved relating fields of physics as different from each other
as mechanics, quantum physics, relativity, thermodynamics, electromagnetism and,
in short, all the forces observed in the cosmos.

Although he did not succeed because, perhaps, not even the most brilliant mind in
the world is capable of understanding something as great and immense as the most

pág. 46
primitive nature of the Universe, Stephen Hawking left the ground prepared for future
generations to continue in search of this goal.

 The Confirmation of the Big Bang

Stephen Hawking's research and studies on black holes also served to confirm that
the Universe must inevitably have a "beginning".
Claiming that black holes were, after all, a "Big Bang in reverse". Therefore, he could
apply the same mathematical formulas he had used to study these objects to
confirm the existence of a large explosion that caused the birth of the Universe.

To those who, once he had proved the existence of the Big Bang, were asked what
was there then before this phenomenon happened, Stephen Hawking replied: "This
is like asking what is further south than the South Pole."

 "A Brief History of Time"

In 1988, Stephen Hawking published his most famous work: "A Brief History of
Time". The book would go on to sell more than 10 million copies, a figure that
continues to rise today.
In it, Hawking explains different topics in astrophysics, from the nature of black holes
to the secrets of the theory of relativity, through the mechanics of light and theories
as complicated as strings, which is the one that aims to unify all the physical laws of
the Universe.

Seeing that even in the form of dissemination it was almost impossible to

understand, in 2005 he released "A Brief History of Time", in which he condensed
what he explained in the original and used a more understandable language.

 Quantum gravity
Perhaps one of the most complex investigations undertaken by Stephen Hawking,
the theory of quantum gravity aims, broadly speaking, to unify quantum physics with
gravity. That is, if Albert Einstein discovered that gravity is transmitted by waves,
Hawking wanted to go further and explain the nature of this phenomenon at an even
smaller level: the subatomic level.
This research was essential for astrophysics, as it not only came close to giving a
theory of "everything" linking quantum mechanics and gravity, but also allowed us to
better understand the origin of black holes and, therefore, of the Universe.

 The Uniqueness

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 Stephen Hawking devoted much of his life to what are known as "singularities." A
singularity is a specific point in space at which the curvature of space-time becomes
infinite.

It is difficult to comprehend, although it can be attempted by imagining an object of

such a large mass (so large that it is infinite) that, therefore, generates an infinite
gravity, totally deforming the fabric of space-time.

It is the phenomenon that occurs inside black holes. However, since we cannot
access the interior or see what is going on inside, singularities can only be explained
by theories and hypotheses.

 Protecting Chronology
Bad news for science fiction lovers. Hawking declared that there must be a law in
the Universe that prevents time travel. Although he never found such a law, he said
that the Universe must have some way to prevent a material object from moving
through the fourth dimension, that is, from moving in time.

 Quantum Gravity
Their studies are a first step towards a theory of quantum gravity. The mathematical
expressions used to explain gravity and quantum physics are not compatible with
each other. But Hawking defied all theoretical limits and laid the groundwork for the
unification of general relativity, the theory of gravitation and spacetime, and quantum
mechanics that is currently under development.

 Formation of the first galaxies

He proposed that the effects of quantum mechanics on the universe just after the
Big Bang produced the oscillations in gravity that allowed the formation of the first
stars and galaxies. Subsequently, with the observation of the microwave background
radiation coming from the Universe, the physicist's theory was tested.

 Hartle-Hawking Theory of the State

Together with mathematician Roger Penrose, Hawking concluded that black holes
were like the Big Band, but in an inverted state. He showed that they allowed the
entire history of the universe to be encapsulated in a single mathematical expression
known as the Hartle-Hawking state or Wave Function of the Universe.

 Protecting Chronology
Bad news for science fiction lovers. Hawking declared that there must be a law in
the Universe that prevents time travel. Although he never found such a law, he said

pág. 48
 that the Universe must have some way to prevent a material object from moving
through the fourth dimension, that is, from moving in time.

 Quantum Gravity
Their studies are a first step towards a theory of quantum gravity. The mathematical
expressions used to explain gravity and quantum physics are not compatible with
each other. But Hawking defied all theoretical limits and laid the groundwork for the
unification of general relativity, the theory of gravitation and spacetime, and quantum
mechanics that is currently under development.

 Formation of the first galaxies

He proposed that the effects of quantum mechanics on the universe just after the
Big Bang produced the oscillations in gravity that allowed the formation of the first
stars and galaxies. Subsequently, with the observation of the microwave background
radiation coming from the Universe, the physicist's theory was tested.

 Hartle-Hawking Theory of the State

Together with mathematician Roger Penrose, Hawking concluded that black holes
were like the Big Band, but in an inverted state. He showed that they allowed the
entire history of the universe to be encapsulated in a single mathematical expression
known as the Hartle-Hawking state or Wave Function of the Universe.

 Protecting Chronology
Stephen declared that there must be a law in the Universe that prevents the
movement of matter through the fourth dimension. Which means that for Hawking,
time travel is not possible.

pág. 49
 conclusion
In conclusion, physics is a very broad branch with many contributors to its
development, among them are great personalities of science and other areas of
study who not only contributed to this important subject but were pioneers for others,
without their knowledge and contribution to humanity we would not have the
advance that we have today
The human mind is great because it analyzes and reasons most of the things around
it as the great personalities seen before did, because in order to advance it is
necessary to innovate and create new things to facilitate human life as they did
The physicists, mathematicians and scientists who contributed to the development of
knowledge, were people who stood out for their skill and outstanding way of seeing
natural phenomena and giving solutions or theories for a better understanding in
their time that over time were made more relevant and important

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