Unit

2 Matter,
Chemical Reactions,
and Solutions
59
 Chapter 6
MATTER, PROPERTIES,

AND PHASES
MATTER and ATOMS matter
anything that
MATTER describes everything that we has mass and
can see, touch, smell, or feel. In other takes up space
words, mat ter is anything that has mass atom
and takes up space (including air and the smallest
unit of matter
almost everything else).

The smallest unit of matter is called

The word atom is
an ATOM. If you chop a piece of derived from a Greek
metal into a bajillion pieces, the word that means
“cannot be divided.”
smallest bit you are left with that
still has the properties of the metal
is called an atom.
( And the Greeks
didn't even have a
particle accelerator!)

60
 Remember that a model is a
ATOMIC MODELS way to represent something
th at we can’t easily see.
Atoms are made of smaller particles:

PROTONS (positively charged particles)

NEUTRONS (electrically neutral particles,
which means they have no charge)

ELECTRONS (negatively charged particles with almost no mass)

nucleus
the center of an
atom, formed by
protons and neutrons
Protons and neutrons stick
together to form the center The MODERN ATOMIC MODEL
of an atom, called the shows an ELECTRON CLOUD rather
than individual electrons like
NUCLEUS, which has a net
the model above. It demonstrates
positive charge. Electrons where you’re most likely to find
orbit, or circle around, the an orbiting electron. Denser
areas of the cloud mean a higher
nucleus, but too quickly to
probability of electrons.
pinpoint their exact locations.
61
Brief History of the Atomic Models
JOHN DALTON was the first scientist to propose that elements
are composed of indestructible atoms. He thought that there
were particles so small that we could not see them. He called
these particles atoms, and his theory on matter was known as
the ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER.

SIR JOSEPH JOHN (J. J.) THOMSON discovered

the presence of negatively charged particles
(electrons) in atoms and pictured them
embedded with positively charged particles,
kind of like raisins in oatmeal-raisin cookies. HELLO MY NAME
IS:
HELLO MY
NAM E IS:

ERN EST J. J.

ERNEST RUTHERFORD worked out that each atom had a small

and heavy positively charged center, which he called a nucleus.
He figured out that electrons were orbiting the nucleus in
mostly empty space. He called the positive particles in the
nucleus protons. Rutherford’s student SIR JAMES CHADWICK
proposed the existence of uncharged particles in the nucleus,
which he called neutrons.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES and CHANGES
The way something looks, feels, smells, and tastes are all
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. It's easy to classify matter by these
characteristics. Some common physical properties used to
differentiate matter are:
62
 COLOR SIZE DENSITY

MALLEABILITY (how easily something

can be flattened, shaped, or pressed)

MAGNETISM (whether or not something is magnetic)

BOILING POINT and MELTING POINT

(the temperature at which something boils or melts)

SOLUBILITY (how easily something dissolves

in another substance)

A PHYSICAL CHANGE is any change to the physical

properties of matter such as its size, shape, or state (solid,
liquid, or gas/vapor). The final product of any physical change
is still composed of the same matter. For example, you can
revert ice, snow, or vapor back to water by either heating or
cooling it. Ice, vapor, and water are all the same matter-just
in different states.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES describe the ability of something

to undergo different chemical changes.
Some examples of chemical properties:

FLAMMABILITY (how easily

something lights on fire)

REACTIVITY (how reactive something

is to oxygen, water, light, etc.)
63
When any of these chemical properties changes, the matter
has gone through a CHEMICAL CHANGE. Rust on an
iron gate or a log burning and
chemical change
producing ashes are both examples when matter changes into new
of chemical changes. Some signs of substances with new properties
chemical change may include:

CHANGE IN COLOR-This is like when you leave a sliced

apple out and it turns brown.

CHANGE IN ENERGY-The chemicals react, releasing

energy in the form of bright lights and heat.
Think of fireworks.
CHANGE IN ODOR
Think of food g oin g rotten.

FORMATION OF A GAS OR SOLID: When you add two

substances together, such as vinegar and baking soda, you
frequently see bubbles. Bubbles, or gas formation, are a sign
that the ingredients have undergone a chemical change.

Chemical changes are often much harder to reverse than physical

ones-just imagine trying to turn ashes back into a log of wood.

SYNTHETIC MATERIALS are materials that don’t occur in

nature, but are instead made from natural resources that undergo
a chemical change. For example, polyester is a synthetic fiber made
from air, water, coal, and petroleum. Acid and alcohol are used to
create a chemical reaction, which results in polyester fibers.

64
Conservation of Mass conservation
While things may change of mass
The amount of mass at
appearance or composition during
the start of a reaction will
physical and chemical changes, equal the amount of mass
one thing remains consistent: after the reaction.
the amount of mat ter present.
This concept is called the CONSERVATION OF MASS. So
mass doesn’t just disappear-it still exists, but it may be in a
different form, like in the surrounding gases. The atoms have
just rearranged to form different substances.

The reactant is equal in

reactant mass to the product.
substance that is changed in a
physical or chemical reaction
product REACTANT PRODUCT
the resulting substance of a
physical or chemical reaction
MASS

STATES of MATTER
Matter is usually found in three STATES (or PHASES): solid,
liquid, and vapor (or gas). The arrangement and behavior
of particles is what determines the state of matter. The
attraction between particles keeps particles close together,
and the energy of their movement allows particles to
overcome these attractive forces.

65
A SOLID, like ice, wood, or metal, is
matter that has a defined shape and
volume. The particles in matter are
packed closely together, and they don’t move around freely,
which is why a solid has a defined shape and volume. Still,
particles in a solid vibrate back and forth, but not enough to
overcome the attractive force between particles.

LIQUIDS are free-flowing and assume the shape

of the container that holds them. Liquids, however,
do have a fixed volume. Particles in liquid move
around fast enough to overcome attractive forces. While the
liquid particles do move freely, they still stick together. The
speed at which a liquid flows depends on its VISCOSITY.
Viscosity is the resistance to flow.

VAPORS (or GASES) don’t have fixed

volume or shape. The shape and volume of
a gas depends on its container, and unlike
liquids, it will fill any container you place it
in. The molecules in gases spread really far
apart and move at high speeds. Gas molecules
move so quickly that they are able to overcome
at tractive forces between particles, which allows
the molecules to separate on their own. If you spilled the
gas from a balloon into the air, it would disperse evenly
into the air.
66
state featurES MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES

SOLID Fixed shape and volume Vibrate, but have fixed positions
Shape can change, volume is Free-moving—
LIQUID
fixed. Can flow. no fixed positions.
GAS Shape and volume not fixed and Particles move quickly and
depends on container. Can flow. are far apart.

PHASE CHANGES
A state is not permanent. Changes in pressure and temperature
alter mat ter- these are described as PHASE CHANGES.

MELTING is when matter changes from solid

to liquid. The melting point is the temperature
at which a solid melts. Heat causes solids to
melt by increasing the movement of particles.
As the particles gain more and more energy
from the heat, they move more and more
until they are no longer fixed in place.

vapor
Above 100°C, water is a vapor. 100
˚
Between 0°C and 100°C, water is a liquid. liquid
Below 0°C, water is a solid. 0
˚ ice

FREEZING is when matter changes from liquid to solid. As

liquids cool down, the particles move less and less. At some point,
the motion of particles can’t overcome the attractive forces
between particles, and the liquid turns to solid. The temperature
at which a liquid freezes is called the FREEZING POINT.

67
VAPORIZATION is when liquid turns to vapor. When sweat
disappears and dries up, it has vaporized or evaporated.
Evaporation happens slowly and only at the surface (individual
molecules get bumped out into the air). When water boils, it has
reached the temperature at which water turns from liquid to
vapor. Heat causes liquid particles to move around quickly. When
the particles are moving around fast enough to overcome all
attractive forces between particles, the liquid turns to vapor.

CONDENSATION is when vapor turns to liquid. When you

get a really cold drink, the air around the glass condenses and
forms little water droplets on the surface of the glass. When
water vapor in the air cools down and loses energy, the particles
start to slow down. When the particles slow down enough, the
attractive forces between particles cause the molecules in the
vapor to stick together, forming a liquid.

Sometimes, under extreme conditions, solids can change directly

to vapors, which is called SUBLIMATION. Dry ice, for example,
sublimates when the CO2 ice turns directly into CO2 vapor.
Vapors sometimes change directly into solids, which is called
DEPOSITION, like when frost appears on grass overnight.

VAPOR
n co
a tio nd
en
l im n va p
tio s at
s u b ep o s i o ri
zat
io n
d io n
melting
freezing
SOLID LIQUID
68
w CheckYour Knowledge
1. What is the positively charged particle in an atom?

2. Describe Thomson’s model of an atom.

3. I
 f you turn eggs, flour, and milk into pancakes, what sort of
change have the ingredients undergone? If you make a smoothie
out of a banana, strawberries, and yogurt, what sort of change
have the ingredients undergone?

4. If you burn a piece of paper, is there more or less mass

than you started with?

5. Name some things that are not matter.

6. In terms of particles and volume, what is the difference

between a liquid and a vapor?

7. What happens at the vaporization point (boiling point) of a

substance?

8. Compare the molecular movements in a solid, vapor, and liquid.

 hat is viscosity? Which has a higher viscosity: peanut butter

9. W
or ketchup?

10. D
 efine vaporization and condensation. Give an example of each.

answers 69
 Check Your ANSWERS
1. A
 proton
2. T homson thought that electrons and protons were embedded
together, sort of like raisins in oatmeal-raisin cookies.
3. T
 he ingredients in pancakes undergo a chemical change-the
ingredients have transformed into something else with new
chemical properties. For the smoothie, the ingredients have
undergone a physical change (the ingredients are the same, they
are just cut up into small pieces and blended together).
4. T
 he same. Mass is conserved.
5. T
 houghts, light, a vacuum
6. W
 hile both can flow freely, the particles in a liquid stick together
and don’t completely separate. So the volume of a liquid is fixed
while the volume of a vapor is not fixed.
7. A
 t the boiling point, a substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
8. M
 olecules vibrate in a solid, but have fixed positions. Molecules in
a liquid flow freely, but they don’t completely separate because
they don't have enough energy to completely overcome the
attractive forces between molecules. Molecules in a gas move
freely and so quickly they can overcome all attractive forces
between molecules.
9. V
 iscosity is the resistance to flow. Peanut butter resists flow more.
10. V
 aporization is when liquid turns to vapor, like when sweat dries
up. Condensation is the opposite--when vapor turns to liquid, like
when water droplets form on the surface of a glass holding a
cold drink.

#5 has more than one correct answer.

70
 Chapter 7
PERIODIC TABLE,
ATOMIC STRUCTURE,
AND COMPOUNDS
The PERIODIC TABLE element
one type of atom
Different atoms have different numbers of
protons and electrons-accounting
periodic table
for all the differences in the physical a table of all of the elements
properties of matter. Different types
of atoms are called ELEMENTS, and there are around 118
known elements. Each element is made of unique atoms.

All of these elements are presented in chemical

symbol
a chart called the PERIODIC TABLE, one or two letters that
which lists and organizes every element represent an element
in boxes. Each element is assigned a
CHEMICAL  SYMBOL, which is one or two letters. The
first letter is uppercase while the second letter (if there
is a second letter) is lowercase. For example, oxygen is
represented as O, while zinc is represented as Zn.
71
 1 ← period →
1
1 H
Hydrogen
1.0078 2
3 4
2 Li Be 3 Atomic Number
Lithium
6.941
Ber y llium
9.0122 Li
Lithium
Chemical Symbol

11 12 6.941 Element Name

3 Na M g
Sodium Ma g nesium
Average Atomic Mass

22.990 24.305 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
4 K
Potassium
Ca Sc
Calcium Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr Mn Fe
Chromium Man g anese Iron
Co
Cobalt
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
5 Rb Sr
Rubidium Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Zirconium Niobium Moly bdenum Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.95 98.9062 101.07 102.91

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77
6 Cs Ba
Caesium Barium
Hf
Hafnium
Ta W Re
Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
132.91 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109

7 Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Rf Db S g Bh Hs Mt
Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborg ium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
( 223 ) ( 226 ) ( 267 ) ( 268 ) ( 269 ) ( 264 ) ( 269 ) ( 278 )

57 58 59 60 61 62
← group →

La Ce
Lanthanum Cerium
Pr Nd Pm Sm
Praseody mium Neody mium Promethium Samarium
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 ( 145 ) 150.36

89 90 91 92 93 94
Ac Th
Actinium Thorium
Pa
Protactinium
U
Uranium
Np Pu
Neptunium Plutonium
( 226 ) 232.04 231.04 238.03 ( 237 ) ( 244 )

72
 → ALKALI METALS → HALOGENS 18
→ ALKALINE EARTH METALS → NOBLE GASES 2
→ LANTHANIDES
→ ACTINIDES
→ NEW AN D PEN DING DISCOVERIES
He
Helium
→ TRANSITION METALS 13 14 15 16 17 4.0026
→ UNKNOWN PROPERTIES 5 6 7 8 9 10
→ POST-TRANSITION METALS
→ METALLOIDS
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrog en
O
Ox yg en
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
→ OTHER NONMETALS 10.806 12.009 14.006 15.999 18.998 20.180

13 14 15 16 17 18
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phos phorus
S
Sulfur
Cl Ar
Chlorine Arg on
10 11 12 26.982 28.084 30.974 32.059 35.446 39.948

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As
Nickel Co pp er Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Kr ypton
58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.63 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.798

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Pd A g Cd In
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium
Sn Sb
Tin Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29

78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Pt Au Hg
Platinum Gold Mercur y
Tl
Thallium
Pb Bi
Lead Bismuth
Po At Rn
Polonium Astatine Radon
195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 ( 209 ) ( 210 ) ( 222 )

110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Ds Rg Cn Nh
Darmstadtium Roentg enium Co p ernicium Nihonium
Fl Mc Lv
Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium
Tn Og
Tennessine Oganesson
( 281 ) ( 281 ) ( 285 ) ( 286 ) ( 289 ) ( 289 ) ( 293 ) ( 294 ) ( 294 )

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Euro p ium Gadolinium Terbium Dys p rosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium
Lu
Lutetium
151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97

95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Am Cm Bk
Americium Curium Berkelium
Cf
Californium
Es
Einsteinium
Fm Md No Lr
Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
( 243 ) ( 247 ) ( 247 ) ( 251 ) ( 252 ) ( 257 ) ( 258 ) ( 259 ) ( 262 )

73
 3 Atomic Number
Each square has
information about the
Li
Lithium
Chemical Symbol
6.941 Element Name
element. The top number is
Average Atomic Mass
its ATOMIC  NUMBER,
also the number of electrons
and the bot tom one is
its ATOMIC  MASS.
atomic number
the number of protons an atom contains.
The periodic table is Elements are differentiated by their
organized by row and atomic numbers because each element
has a different number of protons.
column. Each horizontal
row is called a PERIOD,
while each vertical column is atomic mass
called a GROUP or FAMILY. the average mass of a
typical atom of that element
The elements are arranged in
order of their atomic numbers-
so as you go across, each element period
a row of elements across
has one more electron and has one the periodic table
more proton. Hydrogen has 1,
helium has 2, and so on.
group or family
Elements in the same group a column of elements in the
(column) share similar periodic table. Groups of
chemical and physical elements have similar physical
and chemical properties.
properties.

To remember that a period is across while a group is down, think:

A period comes at the end of a sentence, and a sentence goes ACROSS a page.

74
Atomic Structure Dmitri Ivanovich
and Energy Levels Mendeleev,
a Russian scientist,
The nucleus of the atom invented the
contains the positively periodic table
charged protons, in 1869.

neutral neutrons, and a

negatively charged electron cloud, which contains electrons
and surrounds the nucleus. Electrons orbit the nucleus at really
high speeds. Because electrons are constantly moving, it’s
hard to say exactly where an electron is at any moment in
time, but scientists can predict the probability of finding an
electron in certain zones. Most of these zones are shaped like
rings around the nucleus, because electrons orbit the nucleus.

Each of these rings is called an ENERGY LEVEL. The lowest

energy levels are the rings closest to the nucleus, and the
higher energy levels are farther from the nucleus. Since
electrons are attracted to the nucleus (remember that
+ and - forces attract), the electrons closest to the nucleus
are hardest to remove. The energy level
closest to the nucleus can hold up to
2 electrons. Every energy level
beyond that can hold up to 8
electrons. For example, the first level
of an oxygen atom has 2 electrons,
and the second has 6 electrons.
oxygen = 8 electrons
75
Isotopes
While atoms of the same element have the isotopes
atoms of the same
same number of protons, the number of element that have a
neutrons can vary. More neutrons mean different number of
the atom is heavier! Atoms of the same neutrons

element that have a different number of

neutrons are called ISOTOPES. The atomic mass is actually
the average weight of the isotopes of a single element.

Neutral Elements and Ions

The number of protons in a NEUTRAL ELEMENT is equal to the
number of electrons--the positives balance out the negatives
to make the element neutral.

All atoms at first have a neutral charge. Therefore, if

you know the atomic number of an element, you know the
element’s number of protons as well as the electrons. You
can also figure out how many neutrons are in the atom by
subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass:

3 Atomic number: number of protons.

Li
Lithium
Also, number of electrons.

6.941 Average Atomic Mass

6.941 ≅ 7 (Round atomic mass to nearest whole #.)

7-3=4 (Subtract atomic number from atomic mass.)

Lithium has 4 neutrons.

76
atomic mass - atomic number = number of neutrons

If we round the average mass to 7, we know there must be a

7 neutrons and protons combined. Because we know
total of
from reading the atomic number that there are 3 protons, we
know there must be 4 neutrons.

From all this information, we

can draw a model of the atom: Neutron
(n o)
Proton
( p+)
• 3 PROTONS
Lithium • 3 ELECTRONS
• 4 NEUTRONS
Electron
Nucleus (e-)

If an atom has a charge, it’s called an ION, and it has

either more or fewer electrons than protons. If an atom is
negatively charged, it has more electrons (fewer protons). If
it is positively charged, it has more protons (fewer electrons).

I LOST AN
ELECTRON! ARE YOU
SURE?

I’M
POSITIVE!

77
MOLECULES and COMPOUNDS
When two or more atoms combine, they form MOLECULES.

Molecules frequently combine with other molecules

to form MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS.

The simplest molecular compound has two atoms

and is called a DIATOMIC MOLECULE.

The prefix DI means “two.”

Nitrogen and oxygen are frequently found as

diatomic molecules-N 2 and O2 .

We can use simple models like these to represent the

atomic composition of different molecules, or we can
get fancy with computer-generated 3-D models.

O O O O

O + O = O2

n n N N

N + N = N2
78
 Compounds have different properties from those
the individual elements have on their own-water
wouldn’t seem anything like water if it were a
bunch of separate hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

WHY ATOMS FORM

COMPOUNDS
Atoms always want to be in a stable state. Many atoms find
stability by combining with other atoms. That means giving
away, taking, or even sharing electrons with other atoms.

Electrons move in all directions, but they are limited

to different ELECTRON SHELLS around the nucleus. When
electrons from different atoms pair up, they form a
CHEMICAL BOND. This chemical bond is the force that holds
atoms together. Only electrons in the outer rings-VALENCE
SHELLS-form bonds.
The VALENCE ELECTRONS Each shell ( n) is numbered.
are the first to interact and
decide how an atom will react n2
in a chemical reaction. n1

Oxygen = 8 electrons

6 valence electrons
79
How to Write a Chemical Formula
Every compound contains a specific ratio of elements. A
CHEMICAL FORMULA is sort of like the compound’s recipe-it
describes the ingredients and their quantities. In a chemical
formula, each element is writ ten using its chemical symbol,
which is a one- or two-letter symbol, with a subscript beneath
the symbol defining the number of atoms.

 ugar contains 12 carbon, 22 hydrogen,

EXAMPLE: S
and 11 oxygen atoms. So the chemical
formula is C 12H 22O 11 .

80
w CheckYour Knowledge
1. H
 ow many known elements are there?

2. E lements are differentiated by their _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

because each element has a different number of protons.

3. W
 hat is the name of a column of elements in the periodic
table? What do these elements have in common?

4. W
 hat do two or more atoms combine to form?

5. W
 hat is the atomic mass of an atom?

6. I
 f the atomic number of an element is 6 and the atomic mass
is 15, how many neutrons are present?

7. W
 hat is an isotope?

8. W
 hat is a chemical bond?

9. Why do atoms bond?

answers 81
1. 1 18
2. A
 tomic numbers
3. A
 group is a column of elements in the periodic table.
Groups of elements have similar physical and chemical
properties.
4. A
 molecular compound
5. T
 he atomic mass is the average mass of a typical atom of
that element. It’s also the combined number of protons and
neutrons.
 ine neutrons are present ( 15 - 6 = 9).
6. N
7. A
 toms of the same element that have a different number of
neutrons are isotopes.
8. A
 chemical bond is when atoms share electrons.
9. A
 toms make chemical bonds so that their electrons can pair up
and become more stable.

82
 Chapter 8
SOLUTIONS
AND
FLUIDS
SUBSTANCES, MIXTURES,
and SOLUTIONS
A SUBSTANCE is something that can’t be broken down
into simpler parts and physical changes won’t alter its
composition. A substance is made of a single compound.
For example, water (H 2O) is a substance. No matter what
physical processes you put water through (like freezing or
boiling), water will remain H 2O.

83
A MIXTURE, on the other hand,
A SALAD IS ALSO
is made of different substances AN EXAMPLE OF
A MIXTURE.
mixed together that aren’t
chemically bonded. Salad dressing
is a mixture of different things,
like oil, herbs, and lemon juice.

There are two kinds of mixtures:

1. H
 ETEROGENEOUS  MIXTURE: a mixture where
the substances aren’t evenly mixed. A salad is an
example of a heterogeneous mixture; every bite of
a salad is different no mat ter how many times you
mix the salad.

HETERO is Greek for “ different,” so the mixture

has different parts; it’s not all the same.

2. H
 OMOGENOUS  MIXTURE: a mixture where
the molecules of each substance are equally mixed,
and you can’t see the different parts of the
mixture. Sugar that is dissolved in water creates a
homogenous mixture--you can’t see the sugar and
the water, just a liquid that contains molecules of both.

HOMO is Greek for “same,” so the

mixture is the same throu g hout.
84
Sometimes homogenous mixtures
are called SOLUTIONS. A solution
solution is made of a SOLUTE a homogenous
mixture
and a SOLVENT. A solute is the
substance that gets dissolved, and
the solvent is the substance that
dissolves the solute. For example,
some sports drinks are a solution solute
the substance that
that is made of water (the solvent) is dissolved into the
and powdered sports drink mix other substance
(the solute).

SOLUTE
solvent
the substance into
which the solute
dissolves

SOLV ENT

85
SOLUBILITY
SOLUBILITY is the ability of a substance to dissolve in
another substance. Lots of things affect solubility:

Temperature
is one factor:
Usually solid solutes are
more soluble in water at
higher temperatures, which GASES CAN
BE DISSOLVED
is why it is easier to IN LIQUID,
TOO!
dissolve sugar in
hot water.
Gas  solutes,
like carbonation,
are the opposite of solid
solutes. Gases are more soluble
in liquids at colder temperatures.
Carbonated beverages remain
fizzy longer when they are cold
because gas is more soluble
in cold liquids.

PRESSURE
and the
CONCENTRATION
of other solvents in a
solution also affect
solubility.

86
CONCENTRATION
The CONCENTRATION of a solution is the amount of solute
contained in a solution. A CONCENTRATED SOLUTION has a lot
of solute, while a DILUTED SOLUTION has very little solute.
For a lemon sports drink solution, a concentrated solution
would be really sour and sweet, and a diluted solution would
taste watery.

The side of a juice box will usually tell you the concentration
of fruit juice. If the concentration of fruit in a fruit punch is
7 percent, that means 7 percent of the drink is made of juice,
and the rest is stuff like water and sugar.

PRESSURE
A FLUID is anything that can flow, like liquids and vapors.
A fluid, like all other forms of matter, exerts PRESSURE,
or pushes, on its surroundings. For example, air that fills a
balloon exerts pressure on the sides of the balloon to keep it
inflated. Meanwhile, pressure from the atmosphere pushes
on the outside of the balloon. As long as the pressure from
the inside is greater, the balloon stays inflated. Pressure is
proportional to both the force of the push and the area on
which it pushes. More force means more pressure, and more
area means less pressure:

pressure = __
force
area
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The units most commonly used for pressure are a
PASCAL (Pa), or an ATMOSPHERE (atm). One atmosphere
is the pressure the atmosphere exerts on Earth at sea level.
As you go higher up, there are fewer
air molecules above you-so there’s LITTLE WEIGHT
ABOVE YOU
less pressure. The change in
LOTS OF WEIGHT
pressure between low and high ABOVE YOU
altitudes is what causes your
ears to pop when you go
over a high mountain pass
in a car. It’s also why water boils at a lower temperature in
the mountains: There’s less pressure holding the molecules, so
they can escape more easily.

The amount of pressure exerted on an object depends on the

amount of water or air molecules above it. Think of a huge
pile of books. The books deeper in the pile have more books on
top of them, so they feel more pressure. If you go deep
underwater, you feel much more pressure than you do
at the surface of the water for the same reason.

88
w
1. D
 efine “substance.”

2. A
 bowl of beef-barley soup is a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
mixture.

3. If the force exerted remains the same, pressure

increases as area _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

4. T he deeper you go in the ocean, the ______ the pressure

gets.

5. What is the concentration of a solution?

6. What word describes anything that can flow, including water,

air, and oil?

answers 89
 Check Your ANSWERS
1. A
 substance is something that can’t be broken down
into simpler parts, and physical changes won’t alter its
composition.

2. H
 eterogeneous

3. D
 ecreases

4. H
 igher

5. C oncentration is the amount of solute contained in a solution.

6. F luid

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