Equation (10–18) is known as Ackermann’s formula for the determination of the state

feedback gain matrix K.

Regulator Systems and Control Systems. Systems that include controllers can
be divided into two categories: regulator systems (where the reference input is constant,
including zero) and control systems (where the reference input is time varying). In what
follows we shall consider regulator systems. Control systems will be treated in Section
10–7.

Choosing the Locations of Desired Closed-Loop Poles. The first step in the
pole-placement design approach is to choose the locations of the desired closed-loop
poles. The most frequently used approach is to choose such poles based on experience
in the root-locus design, placing a dominant pair of closed-loop poles and choosing other
poles so that they are far to the left of the dominant closed-loop poles.
Note that if we place the dominant closed-loop poles far from the jv axis, so that the
system response becomes very fast, the signals in the system become very large, with
the result that the system may become nonlinear. This should be avoided.
Another approach is based on the quadratic optimal control approach.This approach
will determine the desired closed-loop poles such that it balances between the acceptable
response and the amount of control energy required. (See Section 10–8.) Note that
requiring a high-speed response implies requiring large amounts of control energy.Also,
in general, increasing the speed of response requires a larger, heavier actuator, which will
cost more.

EXAMPLE 10–1 Consider the regulator system shown in Figure 10–2. The plant is given by
#
x = Ax + Bu
where
0 1 0 0
A = C 0 0 1S , B = C0S
-1 -5 -6 1
The system uses the state feedback control u=–Kx. Let us choose the desired closed-loop poles
at
s = -2 + j4, s = -2 - j4, s = -10
(We make such a choice because we know from experience that such a set of closed-loop poles
will result in a reasonable or acceptable transient response.) Determine the state feedback gain
matrix K.

u x
B + 兰
+

Figure 10–2 –K
Regulator system.

732 Chapter 10 / Control Systems Design in State Space

 First, we need to check the controllability matrix of the system. Since the controllability matrix
M is given by
0 0 1
M = C B 哸 AB 哸 A2 B D = C 0 1 -6 S
1 -6 31
we find that |M|=–1, and therefore, rank M=3. Thus, the system is completely state control-
lable and arbitrary pole placement is possible.
Next, we shall solve this problem. We shall demonstrate each of the three methods presented
in this chapter.
Method 1: The first method is to use Equation (10–13).The characteristic equation for the system is
s -1 0
∑s I - A∑ = 3 0 s -1 3
1 5 s + 6
= s3 + 6s2 + 5s + 1
= s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3 = 0
Hence,
a1 = 6, a2 = 5, a3 = 1
The desired characteristic equation is
(s + 2 - j4)(s + 2 + j4)(s + 10) = s3 + 14s2 + 60s + 200
= s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3 = 0
Hence,
a1 = 14, a2 = 60, a3 = 200
Referring to Equation (10–13), we have
K = Ca3 - a3 哸 a2 - a2 哸 a1 - a1 D T -1
where T=I for this problem because the given state equation is in the controllable canonical form.
Then we have
K = [200 - 1 哸 60 - 5 哸 14 - 6]
= [199 55 8]
Method 2: By defining the desired state feedback gain matrix K as

K = Ck1 k2 k3 D

and equating ∑s I - A + BK∑ with the desired characteristic equation, we obtain

s 0 0 0 1 0 0
∑s I - A + BK∑ = 3 C 0 s 0S - C 0 0 1 S + C 0 S Ck1 k2 k3 D 3
0 0 s -1 -5 -6 1
s -1 0
= 3 0 s -1 3
1 + k1 5 + k2 s + 6 + k3
= s3 + A6 + k3 Bs2 + A5 + k2 Bs + 1 + k1
= s3 + 14s2 + 60s + 200

Section 10–2 / Pole Placement 733

 Thus,
6 + k3 = 14, 5 + k2 = 60, 1 + k1 = 200
from which we obtain
k1 = 199, k2 = 55, k3 = 8
or

K = [199 55 8]
Method 3: The third method is to use Ackermann’s formula. Referring to Equation (10–18), we
have
1]CB 哸 AB 哸 A2 BD f(A)
-1
K = [0 0
Since
f(A) = A3 + 14 A2 + 60 A + 200 I
0 1 0 3 0 1 0 2
= C 0 0 1 S + 14 C 0 0 1S
-1 -5 -6 -1 -5 -6
0 1 0 1 0 0
+ 60 C 0 0 1 S + 200 C 0 1 0S
-1 -5 -6 0 0 1
199 55 8
= C -8 159 7S
-7 -43 117
and
0 0 1
CB 哸 AB 哸 A BD = C 0
2
1 -6 S
1 -6 31
we obtain

0 0 1 -1 199 55 8
K = [0 0 1] C 0 1 -6 S C -8 159 7S
1 -6 31 -7 -43 117
5 6 1 199 55 8
= [0 0 1] C 6 1 0 S C -8 159 7S
1 0 0 -7 -43 117
= [199 55 8]

As a matter of course, the feedback gain matrix K obtained by the three methods are the same.
With this state feedback, the closed-loop poles are placed at s=–2 ; j4 and s=–10, as desired.
It is noted that if the order n of the system were 4 or higher, methods 1 and 3 are recom-
mended, since all matrix computations can be carried out by a computer. If method 2 is used,
hand computations become necessary because a computer may not handle the characteristic
equation with unknown parameters k1 , k2 , p , kn .

734 Chapter 10 / Control Systems Design in State Space