INTRODUCTION AND BASIC

CONCEPTS
JULIO ESTEBAN COLMENARES MONTAÑEZ, PhD
TITULAR PROFESSOR

FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

BOGOTÁ D.C., FEBRUARY 2024
 CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. POROSITY
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
4. DARCY’S LAW
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
6. HIDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO FLOW
8. SATURATION
9. TUTORIAL
10. SUMMARY

2
1. INTRODUCTION

An accurate definition of the soil in Civil

Engineering might be the following:

“The soil can be considered as a discontinuous

and multiphase system. It is composed by
unconsolidated solid particles of mineral origin,
and also fluids filling the spaces between solid
particles” For further details click here

Engineering have a particular interest in the

physical interactions between those phases
(solid, liquid and gas) as they take part in the soil
behavior.

Image taken from here 3

1. INTRODUCTION

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

4
Recovered from: https://bit.ly/2Tw3g8D
Illustration of
typical flow regimes
in a multilayered
aquifer system

From Diersch, H.J.G. (2014)

5
Water and Aquifer
• Subsurface water: all water below the ground surface. It is contained in the void space of geologic formations of different types. The void space can
be fully or partially saturated by water. Subsurface water can be regarded as part of the hydrologic cycle.
• Groundwater denotes only this part of the subsurface water that occurs in geologic formations in which the void space is fully saturated.
Groundwater flows in aquifers and rocks.
• Surface water: All water collecting on the ground or in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands or oceans. Surface water is usually interrelated to subsurface
water where water can be exchanged via infiltration, drainage and seepage.
• Freshwater represents surface or subsurface water having only low concentrations of salts or other dissolved solids. Commonly, a groundwater
resource is related to freshwater which is available for drinking and other purposes. Freshwater specifically excludes saltwater.
• Saltwater is water which contains dissolved salts (mostly NaCl) of different concentrations larger than 0.5 ppm. It can be named brackish water having
a salinity in the range of 0.5–30 ppm, saline water with a salinity between 30 and 50 ppm and brine with a salinity of more than 50 ppm.
• Saltwater intrusion denotes the movement of saltwater into freshwater. It can also be caused by groundwater pumping above or nearby saltwater
zones.
• Aquifer: A geologic formation, or a group of formations, of water-bearing permeable rock or sediment layers from which water can be usefully
extracted.
• Aquitard is a geologic formation which is of a semipervious nature. It transmits water at a very low rate compared to an aquifer. An aquitard separates
an aquifer layer from an adjacent aquifer. An aquitard, if completely impermeable, is denoted as aquiclude or aquifuge.
• Aquifer system groups a certain number of aquifers separated by aquitards in a multilayered structure.
• Confined aquifer, also known as pressure aquifer, is: (a) bounded from above and below by impervious formations and an aquifer (b) in which the
water pressure reaches such values that the water level measured in a piezometer will rise above the base of the upper confining formation. A
confined aquifer is called a leaky confined aquifer if one or both confining formations are semipervious, through which leakage may take place.

6
Water and Aquifer
• Unconfined aquifer, also called a phreatic aquifer, is bounded from above by the water table or phreatic surface. Usually, a phreatic aquifer is directly recharged from the ground
surface above it, except where impervious layers (of limited areal extent) exist between the phreatic surface and the ground surface. Above the phreatic surface a capillary fringe
establishes. The base of an unconfined aquifer is considered impervious. An unconfined aquifer is called a leaky unconfined aquifer if the lower bounded formation is
semipervious.
• Perched groundwater, or perched aquifer, is a special case of a phreatic aquifer. It represents a limited areal extent of water, formed on an impervious, or semipervious, layer.
Perched water may exist only for a limited period of time.
• Saturated zone forms above impervious or semipervious formations. In this zone the entire void space is filled with water. The saturated zone can be bounded from above by a
water table, or phreatic surface.
• Unsaturated zone, or vadose zone, describes the zone between ground surface and the underlying phreatic surface, where only part of the void space is occupied by water, the
remainder being occupied by a gaseous phase, usually air.
• Infiltration is the unsaturated downward water flow from the ground surface, percolating through the unsaturated zone and reaching an underlying water table. It is usually
driven by natural replenishment from precipitation and snow melt. Its quantity in relation to the total precipitation is influenced, among others, by evaporation, surface runoff,
soil characteristics and transpiration through the vegetation. Infiltration can also include seepage from ponds, lakes, ditches, channels and other leakages.
• Groundwater recharge denotes that amount of infiltrating water which finally reaches the water table of an underlying aquifer. It determines the replenishment of aquifers and
represents an important parameter in the use and exploitation of groundwater resources.
• Groundwater divide is a surface in 3D or a curve in 2D that separates the flow domain into subdomains, on either side of which groundwater moves in opposite directions.
• Water table, or phreatic surface, is the boundary between the unsaturated and saturated zone. It represents the upper surface of the groundwater body. Phreatic surface is a
specific representation of a free surface.
• Fracture is part of the void space of a porous-medium domain that has a special spatial configuration: one of its dimensions – the aperture – is much smaller than the other two
spatial dimensions. Fractures provide pathways for fluid flow and transport through otherwise impermeable or semipervious formations and produce planes, surfaces or even
lined interconnections where fluid movement increases and focuses, such as in cracks of rocks, interstices, vugs or tectonic faults. Fractured porous rock defines a pervious rock
formation which is composed of an interconnected network of fractures. Thus, the total void space results from fractures and porous blocks of rock. The flow movement usually
dominates in the fracture network. If the surrounded rock contains no void space the term fractured rock is used.

7
1. INTRODUCTION
For a given soil, understanding how water
and air volume vary is very important.

Within the ground there exists a surface

joining all points where water pressure is
equal to the atmospheric pressure. This is
known as Water Table.

The water under this surface, if no flow is

occurring, responds to the hydrostatic
pressure law.

Therefore, we can distinguish between

saturated and unsaturated soil.

8
1. INTRODUCTION
Depending on the water table location and
air content of the soil, we can discretize the
ground in four zones:

I. Dry Soil: Most of the voids are filled with

air. The water is present as a
discontinuous phase. The water pressure
can be neglected.

II. Zone of dual phase: The air and the

water are continuous phases. Water
pressure is negative. Matric suction and
osmotic suction on soils.

9
1. INTRODUCTION
III. Capillary Zone: Water fills most pores
of the soil. The air, in this case, forms a
discontinuous phase. The water
pressure is negative, and it responds to
hydrostatic pressure law.

III. Saturated Zone: Located under the

water table. Although there may be a
small volume of air which can be
neglected.

In this zone took place the

development of the classical soil
mechanics.

10
 Volume Weight

1. INTRODUCTION
• The voids volume where the fluids are located, depends on:

I. The distribution of particle size of the soil (Fine or coarse SEPARANDO

Fraction) FASES
II. The ordering of the particles (Loose and Dense)

• The volume of water and air within the soil depends on:
Air
I. The environmental conditions of the zone where the soil
is located (Rainfall, underground flows, saline intrusion,
discharges of water, etc.). Water
II. The presence of vegetation and the human intervention
(Constructions which do not allow the infiltration of
water to the ground). Solids
11
 1. INTRODUCTION
Volumetric Relationships
Volume
I. Porosity n: Ratio between void volume
and total volume.
Air

II. Void Ratio e: Ratio between voids

volume and solid volume. Water

Solids
III. Degree of Saturation S: Ratio between
water volume and voids volume.
Phase Diagram
12
 1. INTRODUCTION
Gravimetric Relationships Weight

I. Water content on the soil: Ratio between

the water weight and the solids weight. Air

Water
II. Specific Gravity of solids GS: Ratio
between the weight of a solid volume and
the weight of a same volume of water at a
temperature of 4º C. Solids

Phase Diagram

13
1. INTRODUCTION
Relationships between weight and volume
I. Total Unit Weight: Ratio between the total
Volume Weight
weight of soil and the total volume.

Air
II. Dry Unit Weight: Ratio between the soil
weight and the total volume. Water

III. Submerged Unit Weight: Ratio between Solids

the submerged weight of soil and the total
volume.
Phase Diagram
14
1. INTRODUCTION
Volume Weight
Correlations
Air
I. Between porosity and the void ratio:

Water

II. Between the degree of saturation, the void

ratio and the water content: Solids

Phase Diagram
III. Correlations between unit weights:

15
1. INTRODUCTION
Volume Weight
Volumetric water content θ is defined as the
ratio of the volume of water, Vw, to the total
volume of the soil, V : Air
𝑉𝑤
𝜃=
𝑉
Water
The volumetric water content can also be
expressed in terms of porosity, degree of
saturation, and void ratio. This allows
volumetric water content to be written as Solids
𝑆𝑉𝑣 𝑆𝑒
𝜃= 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑛 𝜃=
𝑉 1+𝑒
Phase Diagram

16
EXERCISES
1. Site investigation was performed to study soil conditions at a construction site in a new
development area. A cylindrical soil sample (height = 100 mm, diameter = 50 mm) was collected at a
depth of 1.5 m below the ground. The following soil characteristics were obtained: soil density was
1.52 t m−3 , moisture content was 68.2% and density of solid particles was 2.53 g cm−3 . Determine:

a) Weight of solids (in N)

b) Volume of air (in m−3 )
c) Volumetric water content

17
EXERCISES
2. Soil excavated from a borrow pit is being used to construct an embankment. The soil sample from
the borrow pit has a specific gravity of 2.7 and unit weight of 17.8 kN m−3 . The weight of the sample
was 3.5 N. The sample was then placed in an oven for 24 h at 105°C and its weight reduced to a
constant value of 2.9 N.

The soil at the embankment is required to be compacted to a void ratio of 0.71. If the finished
volume of the embankment (Ve ) is 80,000 m3 , what would be the volume of the soil (Vb) excavated
at the borrow area?

18
1. INTRODUCTION
Characteristic values for some soils

Holtz, Kovacs & Sheahan (2010)

19
2. POROSITY

• The porosity of a rock or soil is a

measure of the storage capacity (pore
volume) that is capable of holding fluids.
• Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of
the void volume to the total volume
(bulk volume).
𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉𝑡
Microscopic cross section image of
Where n is porosity, 𝑉𝑣 is void volume and a porous medium
𝑉𝑡 is total volume.

20
2. POROSITY

As the sediments were deposited and the soils

were being formed during geological times,
some void spaces that developed became
isolated from the other void spaces by
excessive cementation.
Many of the void spaces are interconnected
while some of the pore spaces are completely
isolated. This leads to two distinct types of
porosity, namely:

• Absolute porosity
• Effective porosity
Example of effective and absolute porosity

21
2. POROSITY
• Absolute porosity
The absolute porosity (𝑛𝑎 ) is defined as the
ratio of the total pore space to that of the bulk
volume.
A soil may have a considerable absolute
porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid
for lack of pore interconnection.
The absolute porosity is generally expressed
mathematically by the following relationship:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑛𝑎 = Sand grains and pore spaces
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑛𝑎 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 22
2. POROSITY
• Effective porosity
From the standpoint of flow through a
porous medium only interconnected
pores are of interest, hence the concept
of effective porosity (𝑛𝑒 ) defined as the
percentage of interconnected pore
space with respect to the bulk volume.

𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑛𝑒 = Sand grains and pore spaces
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

23
2. POROSITY
• Primary and Secondary Porosity
The porosity of earth materials originates
during two phases:
1) during the deposition of sediments,
lithification or cooling of crystalline
rock; and
2) after deposition as the earth material is
exposed to other conditions such as
compaction, weathering, fracturing
and/or metamorphism. As a result,
earth materials can have porosities
dominated by primary conditions
during initial formations, secondary
events after formation, or both.

24
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE

In this section the basic concepts about one-dimensional flow are studied, the concepts
about infiltration force and hydraulic conductivity are defined and also the variation of
effective stresses due to flow is evaluated.

In the professional work, it is necessary to know the principles of flow in porous media, in
order to understand and to solve engineering problems related to:

I. Volume of infiltration (Leak in earth dams, diggings and tunnels)

II. Variation of fluid volume (Consolidation – reduction of water table level)

III. Stability of structures (Embankments - slopes)

25
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Molecule at the inter-phase air-

Molecula en la interfase
liquid
aire-agua

Molecule at the interior of

the liquid
Molécula en el interior
de un líquido

Surface Tension

26
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
SURFACE TENSION

If ϴ<90°
Liquid wets the Water: ϴ → 0°
solid
Mercury: ϴ → 140°

27
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE

2𝜋𝑟𝑇𝑠 cos 𝛼1 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ𝑐 𝜌𝑤 𝑔

Where:
𝑟 = radius of the capillary tube
𝑇𝑠 = surface tension of water
𝛼1 = contact angle
ℎ𝑐 = capillary height
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration

Then:

2𝑇𝑠
ℎ𝑐 =
𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑅𝑠

Where:
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟/ cos 𝛼1
𝑅𝑠 = radius of curvature of the meniscus 28
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE

The water pressure at point C can be calculated as:

𝑢𝑤 = −𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ𝑐
Where:
𝑢𝑤 = water pressure

At point C, the air pressure is atmospheric (𝑢𝑎 = 0),

then:
𝑢𝑎 − 𝑢𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ𝑐

According to the previous slide:

2𝑇𝑠 2𝑇𝑠 cos 𝛼1

𝑢𝑎 − 𝑢𝑤 = =
𝑅𝑠 𝑟

29
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE

• The capillary phenomenon is associated with the matric suction

component of total suction.
• The height of water rise in a capillary tube and the radius of curvature
of the air-water interface have direct implications to the water
content– matric suction relationship in soils (i.e., the soil-water
characteristic curve).
• The capillary rise is different for the wetting and drying processes in a
soil due to variations in capillary pore size.

30
3. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Inside the soil, there is hygroscopic water, capillary water and gravitational water.
The capillary water is due to the effect of a force that this denominated surface tension
(T). This is very important for the soil behavior.

Taken from
http://plantcellbiology.masters.grkraj.org/html/Plant_Cellular_Phys
iology2-Absorption_Of_Water.htm

31
 4. DARCY’S LAW
Between the particles which form the soil, due to its geometric features, there is an amount
of voids which are connected. They are named pores. Even in the soils of the fine fraction
and its laminar particles, pores are connected to form a ductwork where fluids can move.

Micrograph of a sample of
Sandstone in which the disposition
of rock’s pores is shown.

(Adapted from Lambe, 1979)

32
Taken from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Photo-of-clay-sample-by-scanning-electron-
microscope-Philips-XL30-ESEM_fig2_226765566
 4. DARCY’S LAW

Due to the complicated flow path across porous media, friction between fluids and rough
surface of particles corresponds to the main energy loss in the flow.

Basic theory about soil mechanics study that phenomenon (flow), with the following
assumptions:

I. The flow can be considered non-compressible.

II. The flow across soil is laminar

III. Darcy’s Law is valid for all kinds of soil

33
4. DARCY’S LAW
When considering a permanent and non-compressible flow, Bernoulli’s principle says that the total
energy per unit weight, in any point of the flow, is given by:

𝑢1 ∆ℎ
𝛾𝑤

𝑢2
𝛾𝑤
ℎ1
ℎ2

𝑍1 𝑍2

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚

34
4. DARCY’S LAW
Using the Bernoulli’s equation in the soil media, the speed load term can be neglected due
to the magnitude of the speeds which may occur in soils.

Using this equation in a soil element, the following expression is obtained:

𝒖𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒁𝟏 + + = 𝒁𝟐 + + + Δ𝒉 Δ𝒉 = (𝒁𝟏 −𝒁𝟐 ) +
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝒘

Δ𝒉 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐

Hydraulic Gradient “i” is defined as total energy loss per unit length:

Δ𝒉
𝒊=
𝒍

35
 4. DARCY’S LAW
Henry Darcy performed a study about water flow across a sand bed in 1850.

Varying the pressure and length of the sand bed, Darcy found that the flow which passes through
the soil is proportional to the hydraulic gradient applied. In mathematical terms:

Δ𝒉
𝑸=𝒌𝑨 = 𝒌𝑨𝒊
𝒍 II. Transition III. Turbalent

Hydraulic gradient, i
I. Laminar

Δ𝒉
𝒗=𝒌 = 𝒌𝒊
𝒍

The proportionality constant of Darcy’s Law is

known as:

Hydraulic Conductivity of the soil Velocity, v

36
 4. DARCY’S LAW
Discharge Speed is the speed of moving of a water drop from Position 1 to Position 2. (fig 1).

Infiltration Speed is the average flow speed through the soil. It means, the drop speed from
Position 3 to Position 4. (fig 1).

𝑄𝑖𝑛 A Infiltration speed takes into account

the effective area where the fluid
𝑣
moves. It means, relates flow speed
with material’s porosity.
𝑣𝑠
𝐿

Mineral

Mineral
ℎ3
L Using the continuity equation:

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑣 𝒗𝑨 = 𝒗𝒔 𝑨𝒗
ℎ4
𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑨𝑳 𝑽𝒕 𝒗𝑨 𝒗
= 𝒗𝒔 = =
(Adapted from Lambe, 1979)
𝑨𝒗 𝑳 𝑽𝒗 𝑨𝒗 𝒏
37
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
The following three heads must be considered in analysis of problems involving
flow of fluids in soils:

1. Pressure head, ℎ𝑝 = the pressure divided by the unit weight of fluid.

2. Elevation head, ℎ𝑒 = the distance from the datum.
3. Total head, ℎ = ℎ𝑝 + ℎ𝑒 = the sum of pressure head and elevation head.

When dealing with flow through pipes and open channels, we must also consider
velocity head. The velocity head in soils, however, is too small to be of any
consequence and thus it can be neglected.

38
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
𝑀𝑣 2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ≈ 0 (𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠)
2

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀𝐿𝑔 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = =L
𝑔 MLT −1
𝑃𝑀 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 𝑀
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = = −3
= 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
𝜌 𝑀𝐿

𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
39
 5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
(a) (b)
ℎ𝑝1

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
ℎ𝑝2

ℎ
ℎ
2 ℎ𝑒1
ℎ𝑒2

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0 2 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 0
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑

Elevation Pressure
Point Total Head
Head Head
1 ℎ𝑒1 ℎ𝑝1 ℎ = ℎ𝑒1 + ℎ𝑝1
2 ℎ𝑒2 ℎ𝑝2 ℎ = ℎ𝑒2 + ℎ𝑝2

Heads in static water: (a) In container. (b) In capillary tube. 40

5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
The previous slide illustrates two important principles:

1. Flow between any two points depends only on the difference in total head.

2. Any elevation can be selected for datum as a base of elevation heads. The
absolute magnitude of elevation head has little meaning; it is the difference
in elevation head that is of interest and the difference of elevation head
between any two points is the same regardless of where datum is taken.

41
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
EXERCISE OF DOWNWARD FLOW

3.6

3.0

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚)
2.4

1.8
𝑘 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 = 0.33
𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑

1.2

0.6

-0.6 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 0 1 2 3

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑚) 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 42

(𝑐𝑚/𝑠)
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
EXAMPLE OF UPWARD FLOW

4.2

3.6

3.0

𝑘 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2.4

1.8
𝑛 = 0.33
𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑

1.2

0.6

0
0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 0 1 2
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 43
(𝑐𝑚/𝑠)
5. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW
HOMEWORK

4.2

3.6

3.0

2.4

𝐴 = 0.37 𝑚2
Soil I

𝑛 = 1/2 1.8
𝑘 = 1 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

1.2
𝐴 = 0.186 𝑚2
Soil II

𝑛 = 1/3
𝑘 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 0.6

0
0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 0 1 2
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 44
(𝑐𝑚/𝑠)
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic Conductivity or permeability coefficient (k) describes the ease of a fluid to move in a porous media
and its units are

Hydraulic conductivity of the soil depends on the following factors

I. Fluid viscosity
II. Void ratio and its distribution in the soil mass
III. Rugosity of mineral particles
IV. Degree of saturation
V. Shape and size of the particles
VI. Soil structure

Is accepted to say that hydraulic conductivity has two components:

Kinematic Viscosity of fluid.
ρ𝑤 𝑔
𝐾= 𝑘𝑟
μ Absolute Permeability depends on pores structure
𝒌𝒓 and its geometric characteristics. .
45
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed as a function of
soil moisture conditions.

It is important to say that hydraulic conductivity

decreases quickly with a decrease in the degree of
saturation of the soil. The following are some reasons:

1. During drying, the liquid phase becomes

discontinuous.

2. There is a decrease in the effective area where flow

occurs.

Taken from: Analysis of underground water contamination by basic sanitation

systems
https://www.slideshare.net/CarlosMndez3/taller-2-proban 46
6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
CONSTANT HEAD TEST

Typical form of the test to measure the hydraulic

conductivity with constant head. Water is supplied
in a form such that H is always constant.

After a constant rate of flow is reached, water is

collected in a graduated cylinder during a
measured period of time.

47
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
VARIABLE HEAD TEST

Water from the burette flows through the soil

sample.
The initial difference of head (Ho) at the time
t=to=0 is registered and the flow through the soil
sample is allowed such that final difference of
head at the time t is H.
dH
In the Burette: Q = s
dt
 H
Through soil: Q =    − k
 L

It is known that the most soils IN SITU are

anisotropic, In that order, the horizontal hydraulic
conductivity and vertical hydraulic conductivity are
48
different.
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
PUMPING TEST

The test involves pumping water from a well at a

constant rate (under steady state) recording the
decrease in groundwater level.

Analysis of field test is related to the type of aquifer

(the permeable layer of soil)

1. Unconfined Aquifer
2. Confined Aquifer
1:46-2:14

49
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
PUMPING TEST

The process of exploitation of an aquifer or a unconfined

medium is a 3-dimentional flow problem, but for analysis
it is simplified in one direction.

For simplicity, assume that the flow is completely

horizontal and evenly distributed in the medium,
obviating the vertical component.

This condition is known as the supposition of Dupuit –

Forchheimer.

50
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
PUMPING TEST
For simplicity of the mathematical treatment,
it is possible to use cylindrical coordinates to
analyze the problem:

Assuming that the medium is homogeneous,

we can say that the abatement of the water
table is the same in all directions.

It means that the abatement of water table

depends only on the radius:

𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
=0 = 𝑔(ℎ)
𝜕Ө 𝜕𝑟

51
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
PUMPING TEST
From the above, is possible say that:
Δℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝑖 𝑟 =
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝜕𝑟

Using Darcy’s law:

𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
Q = 𝐾𝐴 Q = 𝐾(2π𝑟ℎ)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝑟2 ℎ2
Q 𝜕ℎ Q
= 𝐾(2πℎ) න 𝜕𝑟 = න 𝐾(2πℎ)𝜕ℎ
𝑟𝑤 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
𝑟1 𝑤 ℎ1

Q 𝑟2
ln =𝐾
(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 ) 𝑟1

52
 6. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
PUMPING TEST – CONFINED AQUIFER
The analysis of problem is done in the same
Pozos de way that the last problem, there are two
q observación
Pozo possible conditions of flow in a confined
aquifer
Superficie
Si h1>D
piezómetrica
Impermeable
In the case h1>D for any time t:

H
h2 𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
Q = 𝐾𝐴 Q = 𝐾(2π𝑟𝐷)
h1 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
D Flujo radial Acuífero

ro 𝑟2 ℎ2
Q 𝜕ℎ Q
= 𝐾(2π𝐷) න 𝜕𝑟 = න 𝐾(2π𝐷)𝜕ℎ
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟1 𝑟 ℎ1

Impermeable
r1
Q 𝑟2
r2 Ri 𝐾= ln
(2π𝐷)(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) 𝑟1
53
7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE FLOW
Method: Unit weight and peripheral forces of water Flow up
 ' =  w  z +  t  L −  w (h + z + L )
h
 ' =  t  L −  w (h + L )
L (Height (m))
z

 ' =  w  z +  t  L −  w (h + z + L )
 '= b  L − w h
 '=  b  L −  w i  L
54
7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO FLOW
COMPARISON BETWEEN FLOW CONDITIONS
Vertical effective stress σ'z ( kPa)

Depth (m)

Hidrostática F.Descendente F.Ascendente

55
 7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO FLOW
INFILTRATION FORCE
When water flows through soil, a friction force between soil particles and fluid particles
is produced. The magnitude of that force is related with fluid viscosity.

The infiltration force always acts in the flow direction and is equal to:

infiltration force ℎ𝐴𝛾𝑤

𝑗= = = 𝑖 ⋅ 𝛾𝑤
𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝐴

When the infiltration force is equal to the weight of the soil mass in flow up, the
condition of siphoning or boiling is presented. In that condition, the matrix of soil don’t
support load allowing the mineral particles to move in the flow direction.
56
 7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO FLOW UP
INFILTRATION FORCE
In order with the last description, the siphoning condition is presented when the
effective stress is equal to zero.

𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑏 𝐿 − 𝛾𝑤 (𝑖𝐿) 𝛾𝑏
𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝛾𝑤
0 = 𝛾𝑏 𝐿 − 𝛾𝑤 (𝑖𝐿)
𝛾𝑏 𝐺𝑠 − 1
𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝛾𝑤
𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
1+𝑒
It is necessary to assess this condition for projects involving flow of water in soils and to
verify that the gradient found is the greatest critical gradient of soil. A recommendation
for this is:
𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
𝐹𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥3−4
𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 57
 7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES DUE TO FLOW UP
INFILTRATION FORCE

𝐻 (0.6)
0.9 0.9
𝑍 (0.6)

0.6 0.6
𝑘𝑁
𝑚3
𝑘 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑡 = 20.9
𝑛 = 0.33
𝐿 (0.6)

0.3 0.3

∆ℎ𝑝𝑠
∆𝑢
0 0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 0 10 20

Head (m) Stress (𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )

Elevation (m) 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
∆𝜎𝑣 𝜎𝑣 𝑢 𝜎′𝑣
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2
0.9 0 0 0

0.3 × 𝛾𝑤 = 2.94

0.6 2.94 0.3 × 𝛾𝑤 = 2.94 0

0.6 × 𝛾𝑡
= 12.54
0 15.48 1.5 × 𝛾𝑤 = 14.72 0.76
58
59
60
7. SATURATION
• Degree of saturation Volume Weight

The percentage of the void space

Water
which contains water is expressed as
the degree of saturation, S (%):

𝑉𝑤 Solids
𝑆= × 100
𝑉𝑣
Phase Diagram of Saturated Soil

61
7. SATURATION
• Degree of saturation

The degree of saturation, S, can be used to subdivide soils into three

groups.

1. Dry soils (S = 0%): Dry soil consists of soil particles and air. No
water is present.

2. Saturated soils (S = 100%): All of the voids in the soil are filled
with water.

3. Unsaturated soils (0% < S < 100%): An unsaturated soil can be

further subdivided, depending upon whether the air phase is
continuous or occluded.
62
7. SATURATION

63
(Fredlund & Rahardjo, 1993)
7. SATURATION
• Soil is a particulate, discontinuous media, an
engineering material made by nature.

• Soil could either be saturated with water or have

other fluids in the voids (e.g., air)

• Classical soil mechanics was

established for saturated soils
(Terzaghi, 1925-1945).
64
7. SATURATION

• There are numerous

materials encountered in
engineering practice whose
behaviour is not consistent
with the principles and
concepts of classical,
saturated soil mechanics.

65
7. SATURATION
SATURATED SOIL
Soil Particles
(solid phase)

Water (fluid phase)

Air (fluid phase)

66
UNSATURATED SOIL
 67
(Fredlund & Rahardjo, 2012)
 7. SATURATION

An
idealized
condition

SATURATED AND
UNSATURATED SOILS

68
(Fredlund & Rahardjo, 2012)
Tutorial
Example 1:

A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was 6 N. The clay in its
container was placed in an oven for 24 hours at 1058C. The weight reduced to a constant value of 5 N. The
weight of the container is 1 N. If Gs 5 2.7, determine the (a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit
weight.

Solution:

Step 1: Write down what is given.

Weight of sample 1 container = 6 N

Weight of dry sample 1 container = 5 N

Step 2: Determine the weight of water and the weight of dry soil.

Weight of water: Ww = 6 - 5 = 1 N
Weight of dry soil: Ww = 5 - 1 = 4 N
69
Tutorial
Step 3: Determine the water content.

𝑊𝑤 1
𝑤= × 100 = × 100 = 25%
𝑊𝑠 4

Note: The denominator is the weight of solids, not the total weight.

Step 4: Determine the void ratio.

𝑤𝐺𝑠 0.2 × 2.7

𝑒= = = 0.675
𝑆 1

Step 5: Determine the bulk unit weight.

𝑊 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 1 + 𝑤
𝛾= = = 19.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝑉 1+𝑒

70
Tutorial
Example 2:

A sample of sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a constant-head
apparatus. The total head was kept constant at 30 cm and the amount of water collected in 5 seconds was
40 cm3. The test temperature was 208C. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity and the seepage velocity.

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the sample cross-sectional area, hydraulic gradient, and flow.
𝐷 = 5𝑐𝑚

𝜋 × 𝐷 2 𝜋 × 52
𝐴= = = 19.6 𝑐𝑚2
4 4
∆𝐻 = 30𝑐𝑚

∆𝐻 30
𝑖= = =2
𝐿 15
𝑄 = 40 𝑐𝑚3

𝑄 40
𝑞𝑧 = = = 8 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑡 5
71
Tutorial
Step 2: Calculate kz.

𝑞𝑧 8 𝑐𝑚
𝑘𝑧 = = = 0.2
𝐴𝑖 19.6 × 2 𝑠

Step 3: Calculate the seepage velocity.

𝑘𝑧 𝑖 0.2 × 2
𝑣𝑠 = = = 0.67 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 0.6

72
 SUMMARY
1. Depending on the water table location and air content of the soil, we can
discretize the ground in four zones: dry Soil, zone of dual phase, capillary
zone and saturated zone.
2. Flow through soil also can be considered as laminar flow due to its small
speed, in that order v=k*i in which is a expression of Darcy’s law.
3. Hydraulic conductivity or permeability coefficient k describes the ease of a
fluid to move in a porous media and is obtained in laboratory test. [L/T]
4. Hydraulic gradient “i” is the total energy loss “h” per unit length “l” l : i=Δh/l
5. Discharge speed “v” is the speed of moving of water.
6. Infiltration speed “vs” is the average speed of flow through soil and is
expressed as vs =v/n
73
 SUMMARY
7. There are three important heads in flow through porous media: Head of
position, head of pressure and the total head

74
 IMPORTANT REFERENCES
Craig, R.F. (1997) Soil Mechanics. Chapman & Hall.

Diersch, H.J.G. (2014) Finite Element Modeling of Flow, Mass and Heat Transport
in Porous and Fractured Media. Springer-Verlag.
Holtz, R.D. (1997) Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall.

Lambe, T. W. & Whitman, R. V. (1969). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons.

Mitchell, J. K., & Soga, K. (2005). Fundamentals of soil behavior (3rd ed). John Wiley &
Sons.

75