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Networking Fundamentals

Outcome
COMPUTER NETWORKS • Understand what is Computer Network
AND COMMUNICATION • Identify end devices and intermediary devices
• Understand the basic characteristics of computer network
(CSC421) • Understand data communication
• Understand the difference between serial and parallel
communication.
• Understand the importance of protocols in computer network
• Know the elements of protocol

Prepared by Dr. Moses T.

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Definition An example of Computer Network

Computer network is a set of nodes connected by communication
links for the purpose of sharing resources.
It is two or more computer that are connected with one another for
the purpose of sharing resources (communicating data) electronically.

A node can be any device capable of sending/receiving data

generated by other devices in the network
Example of these devices:- computer, server, printer, security
camera, switches, bridges, routers etc.

Communication link is a communication channel that connects

two or more communicating devices. It can be wired line or
wireless link.
The link carries the information or resource to be shared.
Example:- Wired medium – cable, wireless medium –
microwaves, infrared, etc
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End devices and Intermediary devices Activity time

Identify end devices and intermediary devices in the diagram
End devices either the source or destination devices below.
responsible for data transmission in a network. All computers
connected to a network that participate directly in network
communication are classified as hosts. These devices form the
interface between users and the underlying communication
network.

Intermediary devices interconnect end devices. These devices

provide connectivity and work behind the scenes to ensure that
data flows across the network. Intermediary devices connect
the individual hosts to the network and can connect multiple
individual networks to form an internetwork.

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Basic characteristics of computer network

QoS is ability to:
There are four qualities every computer network should posses 1. Set priorities
• Fault tolerance 2. Manage data traffic to reduce data loss, delay etc
• Scalability
• Quality of Service Example is setting priority between e-mail data and VoIP. Delay
• Security is not a problem in e-mail communication.

Fault tolerance is ability to: Security is ability to

1. Continue to work despite failure a. Prevent
2. Ensure no loss of service
- unauthorized access
Scalability is ability to: - misuse
1. Grow based on the users’ needs - forgery
2. Have good performance after growth b. Provide
Example is the internet, which gives room for more users without - confidentiality
performance bottleneck
- integrity

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Data Communication
Data communications are exchange of data between two nodes via
some form of link (transmission medium).
Since communication involves exchange of data between two nodes,
there will be the need for data flow.

Data Flow:- There are three forms of data flow

- Simplex:- Communication is always unidirectional. One device can
transmit and the other device will receive.
Example:- keyboard
- Half duplex:- Communication is in both directions, but not at the
same time.
Example:- Walkie – talkie
- Full duplex or Duplex:- Communication is in both directions,
simultaneously. Devices can send and receive at the same time.
Example:- Telephone line

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Communication Technologies Parallel communication allows various data bits to be transmitted

simultaneously using multiple communication links between
Communication technology refers to devices that are used to
sender and receiver.
process and communicate information.
Communication can be serial or parallel

In serial communication, data bits are transmitted serially over a

common communication link one after the other. Comparison
Basis for comparison Serial Parallel communication
Basically, it does not allow simultaneous transmission of data communication
because only a single channel is utilized. This allows for Data transmission speed Slow Comparatively fast
sequential transfer rather than simultaneous transfer of data. Number of communication links Single Multiple
Number of transmitted bit/clock cycle Only one bit n number of links will carry n bits
Cost Low High
System upgrade Easy Quite difficult
Crosstalk Not present Present
Suitable for Long distance Short distance
High frequency operation More efficient Less efficient
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Network Protocols Protocols – Human communication

• An identified sender and receiver
Protocols are set of rules that govern communication. • Common language and grammar
All communication schemes will have the following things in • Speed and timing of delivery
common:
• Confirmation or acknowledgement required
- Source or sender
- Destination or receiver
Protocols – Network communication
- Channel or media
• Message encoding
• Message formatting and encapsulation
Protocol determines
• Message timing
- What is communicated
• Message size
- How it is communicated
• Message delivery options
- When it is communicated
These five are referred to as ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL

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Elements of a Protocol Message Formatting and Encapsulation

Both sender and receiver agree on certain format for
transmission – message formatting
Message Encoding
Message is then encapsulated to identify the sender and the
Encoder is necessary to translate the message into digital
receiver rightly. In this case, sender/receiver information are
signal for transmission using a transmission medium. For
added to the original message so that, it gets to the right
wireless network, the encoder translates the message (data)
destination.
into some form of wave.

Message Size
Just as humans break long messages into smaller parts or
sentences, long messages too must be broken into smaller
pieces to travel across a network.
If the capacity of a link is small and data to be transmitted is big
(big data), the system breaks the data into smaller units called
packets that the transmission can handle.
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Message Timing Message delivery options

This deals with (i) flow control (ii) response timeout Three delivery options:
There must be a flow control between a sender and a receiver • Unicast – sender sends message to only one receiver in the
because systems are most times not of the same configuration. network.
Without a flow control, a high speed system will keep sending
data with no response from a low speed system. • Multicast – sender sends message to set of receivers (but not
all receivers) in the network.
Computer network also ensures message delivery
acknowledgement from a receiver of a message. Protocols • Broadcast – sender sends message to all receivers in the
should help determine response timeout in order to resend a network.
message or to understand that a node is dead and can no
longer receive messages.

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Illustration of the elements of a protocol Classification of Computer Networks

Outcome
- Understand LAN, MAN and WAN
- Know various devices involved in LAN, MAN and WAN
- Know the new trends in Computer Networks
- Understand other types of network

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Classification Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):- is a computer network that

interconnects users with computer resources in a geographical
Computer networks are broadly classified into:
region of the size of a metropolitan area (city).
1. LAN
2. MAN
MAN devices includes Switches/Hub, Routers/Bridges
3. WAN

Local Area Network (LAN):- Is a computer network that

interconnects computers within a limited area such as a
residence or office building.

LAN devices include

For Wired LAN (Example: Ethernet – Hub, Switch)
For Wireless LAN (Example: Wi-Fi)

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Other types of network

Wide Area Network (WAN):- is a telecommunication network
that extends over a large geographical area for the purpose of - Personal Area Network (PAN):- smallest type of network. It is made
computer networking. up of a wireless modem, a computer or two, phones etc and
revolves around one person in one building.
WAN devices – end devices and intermediary devices.
- Campus Area Network (CAN):- A form of LAN spread across several
buildings that are fairly close to each other. Seen typically in
universities.

Nigeria Ghana - Storage-Area Network (SAN):- a dedicated high-speed network that

connects shared pool of storage devices to several servers. These
types of networks do not rely on LAN or WAN, instead they move
storage resources away from the network and place them into their
own high-performance networks. E.g. Cloud computing

- System-Area Network (also known as SAN):- a relatively LAN that is

designed to provide high-speed connection in server-to-server
application (cluster environments), storage area networks and
processor-to-processor applications.
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Other types of network… New trend in computer network

- Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN):- an alternative

- Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
to traditional switch-based Ethernet LAN.
- Online Collaboration
- Cloud Computing
- Enterprise Private Network (EPN):- types of networks built
and owned by businesses that want to securely connect its - Fog/Edge Computing
various locations to share computer resources.

- Virtual Private Network (VPN):- Let its users send and receive
data as if their devices were connected to a private network.

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Reasons for Network Network Topology

• Streamline communication.
• Cost-effective resource sharing. Outcome:
• Improving storage efficiency and volume. - Understand various network topologies
• Cut costs on software.
- Understand advantages and disadvantages of each topology
• Cut costs on hardware.
- Determine the number of links (cables) and ports required for
• Optimize convenience and flexibility.
a given topology.
• Allows File sharing.
• sharing of peripherals and internet access.
• Allowing information sharing.
• Supports distributed processing.
• User communication.
• Overcoming geographic separation

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Topology Various network topologies

Network Topology is the arrangement of nodes in a computer Bus Topology
network. - All data transmitted between nodes in the network are
transmitted over a common transmission medium and is able
It can be built as a Physical topology or Logical topology. to be received by all nodes in the network simultaneously.
- A signal containing the address of the intended receiving
Physical topology has to do with placement of various nodes in machine travels from a source machine in both directions to
the network. all machines connected to the bus until if finds the intended
recipient.
Logical topology deals with the data flow in the network.

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Ring topology
Advantages of Bus topology
Is a bus topology in a closed loop. A form of peer—to-peer LAN
- Only one wire. So, it is less expensive topology.
- Suited for temporary network - Two connections: one to each of its nearest neigbours.
- Node failure does not affect others. - Unidirectional
- Sending and receiving data takes place with the help of a
Disadvantages of Bus topology TOKEN
- Not fault tolerant network
- Limited cable length – message must pass through a common
and single cable to other nodes
- No security

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Advantages of Ring topology Star topology

- Performance better than bus topology • Every node is connected to a central node called a hub or
- All nodes with equal access switch.
• Centralized management
Disadvantages of ring topology • All traffic must pass through the hub or switch.
- Unidirectional, single point of failure will affect the whole
network
- Can cause bottleneck due to weak links
- In load – in performance
- No security

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Advantages of star topology Extended star topology

- Easy to design and implement
- Centralized administration
- Scalable

Disadvantages
- Single point of failure affect the whole network
- Bottleneck due to overloaded switch/hub
- Increased cost due to switch/hub

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Mesh topology
Advantages of Mesh topology
• Each node is directly connected to every other nodes in the
- Fault tolerant
network.
- Reliable
• Fault tolerant and reliable.

Disadvantages
- Issues with broadcasting messages
- Expensive and impractical for large networks

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What name can we give to this topology? Question

Identify the given topology and determine how many cables and
ports are required to have such network?

No. of No. of No. of ports connecting Total No. of ports in the network
nodes (N) cables (CN) each device (NOP) (TNOP) = N x NOP
2 2 2 4
3 3 2 6
4 4 2 8
N N 2 2xN

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Question
- Traffic problem can be minimized using what topology?
Basics of IP addressing
- How many ports and cable links are needed for the star
topology below? Outcome:
- Understand the basics of IP addressing
- Know how to see the IP address in real device
- Identify valid and invalid IP addresses

- Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology

- How many cables are needed?
- How many ports are needed for each device?
- How many ports are there in the entire network?

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IP Address
IP stands for Internet Protocol
There are two variations of IP address – IPV4 and IPV6

IPV4 address
- Every node in the computer network is identified with the help Nigeria
of IP address. Ghana
- They are logical address – can change based on the location
of the network device.
- Can be assigned manually or dynamically
- Represented in decimal and it has 4 octets (x.x.x.x)
- Ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (32bits)

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Basics of MAC addressing

How to view IP address in real device
- Start your command prompt
Outcome:
- Type ipconfig
- Understand the basics of MAC addressing
- Understand the difference between IP address and MAC
Activity time address
Identify valid and invalid IP addresses in the following set: - See the MAC address in real devices
a. 24.25.26.8
b. 10.3.156.256
c. 0.0.0.0
d. 255.255.255.255
e. 100.2.6.345.456
f. 16.2e.45.67

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MAC address
MAC stands for Media Access Control IP addresses are router friendly
address while MAC addresses
- Every node in LAN is identified with the help of MAC address are switch friendly address.
- Physical address or hardware address
- Unique
- Cannot be changed
- Assigned by the manufacturer
- Represented in hexadecimal (e.g. 70-20-84-00-ed-fc - 48bits)
- Separator are hyphen(-), period(.) or colon(:)

By way of illustration
- IP address = location of a person
- MAC address = name of the person

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Basics of Port addressing

IPV4 address MAC address
Needed for communication Needed for communication Outcome:
32bits 48bits - Understand the basics of Port addressing (port number)
Represented in decimal Represented in hexadecimal - Know three key points to ponder
- See port number in real devices
Router needs IP address to forward Switch needs MAC address to
data forward data
Example: 10.12.23.45 Example: 34-20-84-00-ED-FV

How to see MAC address in real devices

- Start your command prompt
- Type ipconfig/all

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Port addressing or Port number Port address…

Analogy: Suppose someone residing in Lafia intend to send a Port address or port number is the logical address of each
package to someone in Abuja. He/she first sends the package to application or process that uses a network or the internet to
Abuja, then the courier service man will locate the house of the communicate. It uniquely identifies a network-based application
person to receive the package. If there are many people in the on a computer.
house, the courier service will need to locate the right person. • In a node, many processes will be running
• Data which are sent/received must reach the right process
Reaching Abuja = reading our network (IP address) • Every process in a node is uniquely identified using port
Reaching apartment = reaching the host (MAC address) number
Reaching the right person = reaching the right process (port • Port = communication endpoint
address) • It can be fixed port number or dynamic port number
• OS assigns dynamic port numbers and its in the range (0-
65535)

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How to check port number in your device

- Click the start menu in your computer
- Type resmon

Three important key points

Before sending data, any node must:
• Attach source IP address and destination IP address
• Attach source MAC address and destination MAC address
• Attach source port number and destination port number

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Switching Technique Circuit switching

• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a
Definition:- Network switching is the process of channeling data dedicated path between sender and receiver.
received from any number of input ports to another designated port that
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is
will transmit the data to its desired destination.
established then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the
- Switching in computer network helps in deciding the best route for connection is terminated.
data transmission, if there are multiple paths in a larger network.
• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
- One – to – one connection telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication
Switching techniques: takes place.
- Circuit Switching • In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send
- Message Switching the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then
- Packet Switching the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
* Datagram approach availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
* Virtual circuit approach
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

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• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

used for voice transmission. • In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication
channel is dedicated.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching • It has fixed bandwidth.
technology.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases: • Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs
in the speed of data transmission.
• Circuit establishment
• It takes a long time to establish a connection during which no
• Data transfer data can be transmitted.
• Circuit Disconnect • It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a
dedicated path is required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established
and no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is
wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other
data can be transferred even if the channel is free.

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Message switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate
nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available
in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it
to the next node. This type of network is known as store and
forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

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Advantages Of Message Switching Packet switching

• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices • The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
that improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth. sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is individually.
temporarily stored in the nodes. • The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
• Message priority can be used to manage the network. are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can • Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size. address, destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
Disadvantages Of Message Switching possible.
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient • All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
storage to enable them to store the messages until the • If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
message is forwarded. resend the message.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding • If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
facility provided by the message switching technique. acknowledgment message will be sent.

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Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
- The internet is a packet switched network.
- Each packet will have source and destination IP address with • Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the
sequence number packets.
- Sequence numbers will help the receiver to: • Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless
• Reorder the packets switching.
• Detect missing packets and
• Send acknowledgement
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Virtual Circuit Switching

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver. The above diagram has a sender and a receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a
connection. connection between the sender and receiver.
When a route is established, data will be transferred.
After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by
the receiver that the message has been received.
If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is
sent for the termination.

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Advantages Of Packet Switching:

Differences between datagram and virtual approach • Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not
require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
forward the packets. decision.
communication.
Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
packets travel in different directions. is busy, and it does not allow other any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
packets to pass through. the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex
It is more flexible as all the packets It is not very flexible.
are treated as an independent entity. and requires high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission
of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors
are nor recovered.
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Layering in Computer Networks Layering

Outcome: Layering means decomposing the problem into more

- Understand laying in computer network manageable components (layers).
- Understand the benefits of layering
Advantages
- Understand OSI reference model and TCP/IP model
- It provides more modular design
- Easy to troubleshoot

Protocols in each layer governs the activities of the data

communication.

We have two layered architectures – OSI model and TCP/IP

model

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Layered Architectures Layers in the OSI reference model

The OSI Model

- OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
- It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable
- Developed by the International Standards for Organizations (ISO)
- The OSI model is not a protocol
- It is only a guideline and hence it is referred to as OSI reference
model

Purpose of OSI Model

• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.

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Application Layer Session Layer

• It enables the user to access the network resources. • It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
• It provides the following services: communicating devices.
• It provides the following services:
– File Transfer and Access Management
– Dialog control
– Mail Services
– Synchronization
– Directory Services
Transport Layer
Presentation Layer
• It is responsible for process to process delivery of the entire
message.
• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems. • It provides the following services:
– Port addressing
• It provides the following services:
– Segmentation and reassembly
– Translation
– Connection control – connection /connectionless oriented
– Encryption
– End – to – end flow control
– Compression – Error control
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Network Layer Physical Layer

• It is responsible for delivery of data from the original source to the • It is responsible for transmitting bits over a medium. It also provides
destination network electrical and mechanical specifications.
• It provides the following services: • It provides the following services:
– Logical addressing – IP addressing – Physical characteristics of the media – wired or wireless
– Routing – Representation of bits (types of encoding to use)
– Data rate
Data Link Layer – Synchronization of bits
• It is responsible for moving data (frames) from one node to another – Line configuration (point-to-point or point-to-multi point)
node. – Physical topology (star, ring, mesh, ring)
• It provides the following services:
– Framing – Transmission mode (simplex, half duplex or duplex)
– Physical addressing – MAC addressing
– Flow control
– Error control
– Access control

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Working of the OSI reference model Working of the OSI reference model…

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The TCP/IP Model

- TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol
- The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match
those in the OSI model
- TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
models, each of which provides a specific functionality.

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OSI Reference model Vs TCP/IP model The TCP/IP model

• Application layer – represents data to the user, plus encoding

and dialog control
• Transport layer – supports communication between diverse
devices across diverse networks (process-to-process
communication)
• Internet layer – determines the best path through the network
• Network access – controls the hardware devices and media
that make up the network

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The TCP/IP protocol suite Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite:

data, segment, packet, frame and bits.
Application layer – Data
Transport Layer – Segment
Network Layer – Packet
Data Line Layer – Frame
Physical Layer - Bits

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Basic Networking Commands

• IPCONFIG

Note the IP address and the default gateway. The default

gateway address is the first router the network. Normally,
information hits the first router before traveling through the
intermediary devices to the destination device.

This is usually the Layer 3 of the protocol layer. Layer 3 is the

Network layer. It uses the IP address.

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Basic Networking Commands…

• NSLOOKUP
From previous lectures, we agreed that for communication to take
• IPCONFIG/ALL place between two devices, we need IP address, MAC address and the
port number. But users do not communicate using these addresses,
they communicate using web addresses (interfacing with the
application layer of the network protocol)
The Domain Name Server helps to resolve these web addresses into
the corresponding IP address.

To lookup the IP address of any web address you are working with,
type ‘nslookup’ in your command prompt.
This command gives information about the layer 2 (data link
layer) of the network protocol.

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• PING • TRACERT
We can check whether our computer is communicating with the This command shows intermediary devices through which your
web address by typing the command ‘ping’ followed by the IP
address or web address of the web application in the command data moves until it gets to the destination server.
prompt.

Your system automatically sends four packets to the

corresponding application server. Four replies are obtained
immediately from the server. Once the four packets are
successful (with no loss), then you conclude that your computer
can reach the server.
We can use the command: ping www.google.com also.
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Basics of Cisco Packet Tracer Activity

CPT is an innovative and powerful networking simulation tool - We will connect two computers using CPT and then configure
used for practice, discovery and troubleshooting. It helps to their IP addresses
understand networks practically.
- We will then check the commands below in the command
prompt of the CPT
How to download CPT
- Ipconfig
- Open google.com
- Ipconfig /all
- Type www.netacad.com
- Scroll down to “Packet Tracer” option - Ping
- Follow instructions/steps and download

Benefits from www.netacad.com

You can learn on your own using this platform.

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Basics of Cisco Packet Tracer (Hub) Basics of Cisco Packet Tracer (Switches)
- Hub also known as network hub
- Hub works at the physical layer of the OSI model • A switch is a networking hardware that connects devices on a
- Used to set up LAN computer network to establish a local area network.
- Has multiple ports • Unlike hub, switch has memory
- Hub works in layer 1 of the OSI model
• Stores MAC Address Table
One basic limitation of a hub is that, when a packet arrives at one port, • A switch is a Layer 2 device for setting up LAN
it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see
all the packets.

Activity time: Working principle of switch using CPT

Create a LAN to show the working principle of a Hub in CPT
Question:- What is the basic difference between a hub and a
Question: What are the pros and cons of a Hub switch in terms of data communication?

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Basics of Cisco Packet Tracer (Router) Switch versus Router

Switch Router
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets A network switch is a computer networking device A router is a networking device that connects a local
between computer networks. that is used to connect many devices together on a network to other local networks
computer network
- A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two
Operate at Data link Layer (Layer 2 device) Operate at network Layer (Layer 3 device)
LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network.
- It is a layer 3 (network layer) device Has memory and stores MAC address table Has memory and stores routing table

- Stores routing table Decisions are taken based on MAC address Decisions are taken based on IP address

- Router is an inevitable device in the internet Half/full duplex Full duplex

LAN LAN, MAN, and WAN

Working principle of a router using CPT

What are the differences between a switch and a router?

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Basics of Cisco Packet Tracer (Repeater) Physical Layer and Media

Fundamental principles of Physical Layer
• The data signals generally become too weak or corrupted if they - One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move
tend to travel a long distance. data in the form of electromagnetic signals across a
• Repeater regenerates the signal over the same network transmission medium.
• It operates at the physical layer - The data usable to a person or an application are not in a
• They do not amplify the signal form that can be transmitted over a network. For example,
• It is a 2 port device image must first be changed to a form that transmission
media can accept.
- Data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals before
Working principle of a Repeater using CPT
transmission can occur.

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Recapture…

Physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits over a medium.

It also provides electrical and mechanical specifications.
• It provides the following services:
– Physical characteristics of the media – wired or wireless
– Representation of bits (types of encoding to use)
– Data rate
– Synchronization of bits
– Line configuration (point-to-point or point-to-multi point)
– Physical topology (star, ring, mesh, ring)
– Transmission mode (simplex, half duplex or duplex)

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Signal Media Physical Components Signal

Copper Cable UTP/STP Electromagnetic Signal
• It is a function that represents the variation of a physical
(Wired) Coaxial
quantity with respect to time. Connectors
• We have analog signal and digital signal. NICs
Ports/Interfaces
Analog Signal Fiber Optic Cable Single-mode Fiber Light signals
- It is the signal that can take any value in the defined range. (Wired) Multimode Fiber A light pulse equals 1
Connectors and No light pulse is 0
- All real-life signals are analog in nature.
NICs and Interfaces
Lasers and LEDs
Digital Signal Wireless Media Access Points Radio waves
- It is the signal that can take on finite values at any given time. NICs
- In case of digital signals, we discretize both time and Radio
magnitude. Antennae

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Line Configuration Point – to – point connection

• Line configuration refers to the way two or more • A point – to – point connection provides a dedicated link
communication devices are connected to a communication between two devices.
link. • The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
• The communication link can be wired or wireless between those two devices.
• For communication to happen, two nodes must be connected
to the same link at the same time.
• There are two possible line configurations
– Point – to – point
– Multipoint

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Multipoint connection Data Link Layer

• It is responsible for moving data (frames) from one node to another
• It is called multidrop configuration or broadcast connection. node.
• In this connection, two or more devices share a single link. • It provides the following services:
– Framing
• Since more than two devices share the link, the capacity of
the channel is shared. – Physical addressing – MAC addressing
– Flow control
• It can be spatial or temporal.
– Error control
– Access control

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LLC Sub-layer
Sub-layers of the Data link layer
• Handles communication between upper and lower layers
Data link layer has two sub-layers • Takes the network protocol data and adds control information
- Logical Link Control (LLC) or Data Link Control (DLC) Sub- to help deliver the packet to the destination (flow control)
layer
- MAC Sub-layer
MAC Sub-layer

• Constitutes the lowest sublayer at the datalink layer

• Implemented by hardware, typically in the computer NIC
• Two primary responsibilities:
– Data encapsulation
– Media access control

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Data encapsulation
Network Security & Management
• Frame assembly before transmission and frame disassembly
upon reception of a frame. • We live in information age where we keep data about every
• MAC layer adds a header and trailer to the network layer PDU aspects of our lives.
• This information need to be secured from attacks
MAC sub-layer provides three primary functions: • To secure any information, it need to be:
- Framing – Hidden from unauthorized access (confidentiality)
- Physical addressing or MAC addressing – Protected from unauthorized change (integrity)
- Error control – Available to authorized entity when needed (availability)

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Security Goals Security Attacks

• Confidentiality
– Guard against any malicious actions that endanger the • The three goals of security can be threatened by security
confidentiality of an information. attacks.
– Ability to conceal an information during transmission • Taxonomy of attacks with relation to security goals are:
• Integrity – Threat to Confidentiality
– Ability of a network to allow changes only by authorized • Snooping:- Interception of data by an unauthorized
entities and through authorized mechanism entity for personal gains.
– Ability for a network to remain stable (not to create • Traffic Analysis:- An attacker monitoring online traffic so
unwanted changes) after interruption such as power surge. as to collect for example, pairs of requests and
responses to help him/her guess the nature of a
• Availability
transaction.
– Ability of a network to make information available to
authorized entities when needed

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– Threat to Integrity – Threat to Availability

• Modification:- Where an attacker intercepts and • Denial of Service (DoS):- When an attacker slow down
modifies information for personal gains. or totally interrupt the service of a system . Can also
• Masquerading/Spoofing:- When an attacker occur when an attacker intercepts request from the
impersonates an authorized entity (e.g. bank card or clients, causing the clients to send requests many times
PIN) and overload the network
• Replaying:- When an attacker obtains a copy of a
message sent by a user and later tries to replay it. For
example, an authorized entity request a bank for
payment to someone but the person intercepts the
message and sends it again to receive another
payment.
• Repudiation:- A situation where a sender/receiver
denies receiving a message in an attempt to defraud

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Services and Techniques to prevent

attacks
• Cryptography:- Secret writing. It’s the science and art of
transforming messages to make them secured and immune to
attack. Involves concealing the contents of a message by
enciphering.
– Symmetric-key cipher
– Asymmetric-key cipher

• Stenography:- Covered writing. Involves concealing a

message by covering it with something.
– Text stenography
– Image stenography
– Video stenography
– Audio stenography
– Network stenography

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