IoT Sensing and Actuation

Module 2

Part A: IoT Sensing

1.1 Differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators

Parameters Transducers Sensors Actuators

Definition Converts energy Converts various forms Converts electrical signals into
from one form to of energy into electrical various forms of energy,
another. signals typically mechanical
Domain Can be used to It is an input transducer It is an output transducer.
represent a sensor as
well as an actuator.
Function Can work as a sensor Used for quantifying Used for converting signals
or an actuator but environmental stimuli into proportional mechanical.
not simultaneously into
signals.
Examples Any sensor or Humidity sensors, Motors (convert electrical
actuator Temperature energy to rotary motion),
sensors, Anemometers Pumps (which convert rotary
motion pressure or a fluid
velocity).

1.2 Sensors
Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes in their
environment into typically electrical signals.
For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or atmospheric
pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer

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Figure 5.1 shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a temperature sensor keeps on
checking an environment for changes. In the event of a fire, the temperature of the
environment goes up. The temperature sensor notices this change in the temperature of the
room and promptly communicates this information to a remote monitor via the processor.

1.2 Classification of sensor

The various sensors can be classified based on: 1) power requirements, 2) sensor output, and
3) property to be measured.

a. Power Requirements:

Some sensors need to be provided with separate power sources for them to function, whereas
some sensors do not require any power sources. Depending on the requirements of power,
sensors can be of two types.
(i) Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to provide it with
power.
For example, a photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.

(ii) Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them up.
For example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by applying voltage difference across
it or passing a current through it.

b. Output:

The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components such as analog to digital
converters (ADC) to be integrated with an IoT node or system.

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Analog: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is proportional to the
quantity being measured and is continuous in time and amplitude. Physical quantities such as
temperature, speed, pressure
For example, a thermometer used for measuring the temperature of a liquid

(ii) Digital: These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital representation (time, or
amplitude, or both) of a quantity being measured, in the form of output signals or voltages.
Typically, binary output signals in the form of a logic 1 or a logic 0 for ON or OFF.

c. Measured Property:

Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial variations such as ambient
temperature, atmospheric pressure. Whereas some properties to be measured show high
spatial as well as temporal variations such as sound, image, and others.
Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types.
(i) Scalar: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the quantity
being measured.
Examples pressure, temperature, strain, and others.

(ii) Vector: Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction and/or
orientation of the property they are measuring. Physical quantities such as velocity and
images that require additional information besides

1.3 Sensor Characteristics Constrained-random stimulus

The following three fundamental properties of sensor

 Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor can detect
is referred to as the resolution of a sensor.
For example, a temperature sensor A can detect up to 0:5_ C changes in temperature;
whereas another sensor B can detect up to 0:25_ C changes in temperature. Therefore, the
resolution of sensor B is higher than the resolution of sensor A.
 Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure the
environment of a system as close to its true measure as possible

For example, a weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say
that this sensor is 99:98% accurate, with an error rate of _0:02%.

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 Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor.

For example, consider if the same weight sensor described earlier reports measurements of
98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon three repeat measurements for a mass of actual
weight of 100 kg

NOTE: The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the precision. A sensor’s
accuracy does not depend upon its resolution

1.4 Sensorial Deviations

the various sensorial deviations that are considered as errors in sensors.

Sensitivity error: sensor’s output signal going beyond its designed maximum and minimum
capacity for measurement

Offset error or bias:sensor differs from the actual value to be measured by a constant
For example, while measuring an actual temperature of 0_ C, a temperature sensor outputs
1:1_ C every time. In this case, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias of 1:1_ C

Drift: Most sensors have linear behavior. If the output signal of a sensor changes slowly and
independently of the measured property

Hysteresis error:a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s previous
input values.

Quantization error:the difference between the actual analog signal and its closest digital
approximation during the sampling stage of the analog to digital conversion

Aliasing errors:Aliasing leads to different signals of varying frequencies to be represented as

a single signal in case the sampling frequency is not correctly chosen, resulting in the input
signal becoming a multiple of the sampling rate.

1.6 Sensing Types

Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories based on the nature
of the environment

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1) scalar sensing, 2) multimedia sensing, 3) hybrid sensing, and 4) virtual Sensing

1) scalar sensing

Scalar sensing can be quantified by measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured
values with respect to time.
Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light,
humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values as they normally do not have a
directional or spatial property assigned with them. A simple scalar temperature sensing of a
fire detection event is shown in Figure 5.4(a).

2) Multimedia sensing

The sensing of features that have a spatial variance property associated with the property of
temporal variance.

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Multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a quantifiable property
concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal).
Quantities such as images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy,
and momentum have both directions as well as a magnitude.
A simple camera-based multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown in
Figure 5.4(b).

3) Hybrid sensing

The act of using scalar as well as multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to as hybrid
sensing.
Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as scalar properties of an
environment at the same time
For example, in an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil conditions at
regular intervals of time to determine plant health. Also additional inclusion of a camera
sensor with the plant may be able to determine the actual condition of a plant by additionally
determining the color of leaves.
Figure 5.4(c) shows an example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor
are collectively used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

4) Virtual Sensing

Figure 5.4(d) shows an example of virtual sensing. Two temperature sensors S1 and S3
monitor three nearby events E1, E2, and E3 (fires). The event E2 does not have a dedicated

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sensor for monitoring it; however, through the superposition of readings from sensors S1 and
S3, the presence of fire in E2 is inferred.

1.7 Sensing Considerations

i. Sensing Range

The sensing range of a sensor may also be used to signify the upper and lower bounds of a
sensor’s measurement range.
For example, a proximity sensor has a typical sensing range of a couple of meters. In
contrast, a camera as a sensing range varying between tens of meters to hundreds of meters.
As the complexity of the sensor and its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.

ii. Accuracy and Precision: The accuracy and precision of measurements provided
by a sensor are critical in deciding the operations of specific functional processes.

For example, a standard temperature sensor can be easily integrated in day-to-day

applications, but it low-temperature sensing range, as well as relatively low accuracy and
precision. Industrial sensors have very high accuracy and precision score, even under harsh
operating conditions.

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Energy: If the sensor or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it requires replenishment
of its energy sources quite frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its cost goes
up; whereas its deployment feasibility goes down.

Device Size: Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which are so small that
they do not hinder any of the regular activities that were possible before the sensor node
deployment was carried out.
Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused by it, higher is the cost and
energy requirements, and lesser is its demand for the bulk of the IoT applications.

Part B: IoT Actuation

1.8 Actuators
An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect the
movement or control the said mechanism or the system.

Figure 5.5 shows the outline of a simple actuation system. A remote user sends commands to
a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled robotic arm to perform the
commanded tasks accordingly.
The processor is primarily responsible for converting the human commands into sequential
machine-language command sequences, which enables the robot to move. The robotic arm
finally moves the designated boxes, which was its assigned task.

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1.9 Actuator Types

Actuators can be divided into seven classes:

1) Hydraulic,
2) Pneumatic,
3) Electrical,
4) Thermal/Magnetic,
5) Mechanical,
6) Soft,
7) Shape memory polymers.

Hydraulic actuators
A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of fluids.
These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through the use of hydraulic
power derived from fluids in cylinders or fluid motors.
The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to linear, rotary, or
oscillatory motion.

Pneumatic actuators

A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of gases.

These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and convert it into either
linear or rotary motion.
Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of actuator which convert small pressure
changes applied by drives to generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a
moving vehicle. Pneumatic actuators are responsible for converting pressure into force.

Electric actuators

Electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by generating mechanical torque. This
generated torque is translated into the motion of a motor’s shaft or for switching.

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For example, actuating equipments such as solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes
in response to electrical signals. This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest,
cleanest and speedy actuator.

Thermal or magnetic actuators

Thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators.These actuators have
a very high power density and are typically compact, lightweight, and economical.
Example of thermal actuators is shape memory materials (SMMs) such as shape memory
alloys (SMAs). These actuators do not require electricity for actuation.

Mechanical actuators
In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear motion to
execute some movement.
The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other devices are necessary for these actuators to
operate. These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electrical actuators.
The best example of a mechanical actuator is Hydroelectric Generator, Hydroelectric
generator and Push button switch.

Soft actuators
Soft actuators consist of elastomeric polymers that are used as embedded fixtures in flexible
materials such as cloth, paper and fiber.
The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into tangible macroscopic
deformations is the primary working principle of this class of actuators.
These actuators are designed to handle fragile objects such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or
performing precise operations like manipulating the internal organs during robot-assisted
surgeries

Shape memory polymers

Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond to some
external stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape once the
affecting stimulus is removed.

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Features such as high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low density, and biodegradability
characterize these materials.

1.10 Actuator Characteristics

The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and continuity of
operations, as well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators themselves. A set of four
characteristics can define all actuators:
Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope.
For example, the use of heavier actuators is generally preferred for industrial applications and
applications requiring no mobility of the IoT deployment.
In contrast, lightweight actuators typically find common usage in portable systems in
vehicles, drones, and home IoT applications

Power Rating: The power rating defines the minimum and maximum operating power an
actuator can safely withstand without damage to itself. Generally, it is indicated as the power-
to-weight ratio for actuators.
For example, smaller servo motors used in hobby projects typically have a maximum rating
of 5 VDC, 500 mA, which is suitable for an operations-driven battery-based power source.
Exceeding this limit might be detrimental to the performance of the actuator and may cause
burnout of the motor. In contrast to this, servo motors in larger applications have a rating of
460 VAC, 2:5 A, which requires standalone power supply systems for operations.

Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio.
This indicates the sensitivity of the actuator. Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower
will be its torque to weight ratio for a given power.

Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its
stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiffness can be
directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that material
For example, hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant, whereas
pneumatic systems are considered as compliant.

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