Navigation

Navigation[1] is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring

and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to
another.[2] The field of navigation includes four general categories: land
navigation,[3] marine navigation, aeronautic navigation, and space
navigation.[1]

It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by
navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques
involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or
A navigation system on an oil tanker
patterns.

Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves
the determination of position and direction.[1] In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian
navigation.[1]

History
In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts, none of
which were used for long voyages across open ocean. Polynesian navigation is probably the earliest form of
open-ocean navigation; it was based on memory and observation recorded on scientific instruments like the
Marshall Islands Stick Charts of Ocean Swells. Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather,
the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another.
Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the mariner's astrolabe first occurred in the
Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although land astrolabes were invented in the Hellenistic period and
existed in classical antiquity and the Islamic Golden Age, the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of Spanish
astronomer Ramon Llull dating from 1295.[4] The perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to
Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in the Age of Discovery.[5][6] The earliest known
description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer Martín Cortés de
Albacar's Arte de Navegar (The Art of Navigation) published in 1551,[7] based on the principle of the
archipendulum used in constructing the Egyptian pyramids.

Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the compass started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th
century. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the
sponsorship of Prince Henry. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route. In 1492 the
Spanish monarchs funded Christopher Columbus's expedition to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the
Atlantic, which resulted in the Discovery of the Americas. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by
Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with Asia. Soon, the
Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later.

The first circumnavigation of the earth was completed in 1522 with the Magellan-Elcano expedition, a
Spanish voyage of discovery led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Spanish
navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano after the former's death in the Philippines in 1521. The fleet of seven ships
sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Southern Spain in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and after several
stopovers rounded the southern tip of South America. Some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet
continued across the Pacific making a number of discoveries including Guam and the Philippines. By then,
only two galleons were left from the original seven. The Victoria led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean
and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The
Trinidad sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a maritime path back to the Americas, but was
unsuccessful. The eastward route across the Pacific, also known as the tornaviaje (return trip) was only
discovered forty years later, when Spanish cosmographer Andrés de Urdaneta sailed from the Philippines,
north to parallel 39°, and hit the eastward Kuroshio Current which took its galleon across the Pacific. He
arrived in Acapulco on October 8, 1565.

Etymology
The term stems from the 1530s, from Latin navigationem (nom. navigatio), from navigatus, pp. of navigare
"to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from navis "ship" and the root of agere "to drive".[8]

Basic concepts

Latitude
Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator.[9] Latitude is
usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South
poles.[9] The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S.[9] Mariners
calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the pole star (Polaris) with a sextant and using
sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees
above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so.

Longitude
Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian
or Greenwich meridian.[9] Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the
Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York
City has a longitude of 74° west. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude
can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a sextant to take a lunar
distance (also called the lunar observation, or "lunar" for short) that, with a nautical almanac, can be used to
calculate the time at zero longitude (see Greenwich Mean Time).[10] Reliable marine chronometers were
unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century.[11][12][13] For about a
hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850,[14] mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of
lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with a chronometer could
check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time.[11][15]

Loxodrome
In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e.
a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the
same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or magnetic north.

Methods of navigation
Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting
information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on finding intersecting lines of position or
LOP.[16]

A line of position can refer to two different things, either a line on a chart or a line between the observer and
an object in real life.[17] A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object.[17] If the navigator measures the
direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be somewhere on
that bearing line on the chart.[17]
In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects.[16] On the chart, a distance
produces a circle or arc of position.[16] Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines
of position.

If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position.[16] A fix is the
intersection of two or more LOPs.[16]

If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the dead reckoning position to establish
an estimated position.[18]

Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources:

celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but generally represented as a line),
terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each
other,[19]
compass bearing to a charted object,
radar range to a charted object,
on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line.
There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from
observer to lighthouse.

Methods of navigation have changed through history.[20] Each new method has enhanced the mariner's
ability to complete his voyage.[20] One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best
method to use.[20] Some types of navigation are depicted in the table.
 Illustration Description Application
Traditional navigation methods include:
In marine navigation, dead reckoning or DR, in which one advances Used at all times.
a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position
is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and
speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for
leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated
position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate
EP.[20]

In marine navigation, pilotage involves navigating in When within sight of

restricted/coastal waters with frequent determination of position land.
relative to geographic and hydrographic features.[20]

Land navigation is the discipline of following a route through terrain Used at all times.
on foot or by vehicle, using maps with reference to terrain, a
compass, and other basic navigational tools and/or using landmarks
and signs. Wayfinding is the more basic form.
Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to Used primarily as a
lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs. backup to satellite and
It is primarily used at sea but can also be used on land. other electronic
systems in the open
ocean.[20]

Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means, including:
Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either Availability has
radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as declined due to the
Decca, Omega and LORAN-C. development of
accurate GNSS.

Radar navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or Primarily when within
bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is radar range of land.
separate from radar's use as a collision avoidance system.[20]

Satellite navigation uses a Global Navigation Satellite System Used in all situations.
(GNSS) to determine position.[20]

The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods.[20]

Mental navigation checks

By mental navigation checks, a pilot or a navigator estimates tracks, distances, and altitudes which will then
help the pilot avoid gross navigation errors.[21]

Piloting
Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating an aircraft by visual reference to landmarks,[22] or a water
vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals.[23] More so
than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important.[23] Procedures
vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels.[23] As pilotage takes place
in shallow waters, it typically involves following courses to ensure
sufficient under keel clearance, ensuring a sufficient depth of water below
the hull as well as a consideration for squat.[24] It may also involve
navigating a ship within a river, canal or channel in close proximity to
land.[24]

A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people.[23]

A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro
repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while the
Manual navigation through Dutch
civilian navigator on a merchant ship or leisure craft must often take and
airspace
plot their position themselves, typically with the aid of electronic position
fixing.[23] While the military navigator will have a bearing book and
someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they
are taken and not record them at all.[23] If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS, it is reasonable for the
navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is
proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally.[23] If a pilot is
aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon,
further easing the workload.[23] But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the
manual and time-tested procedures.[23]

Celestial navigation
Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the
positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and navigational stars. Such
systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar
navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating Earth a celestial
object is above and measuring its height above the observer's
horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that
subpoint. A nautical almanac and a marine chronometer are used to
compute the subpoint on Earth a celestial body is over, and a sextant
is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That
height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to A celestial fix will be at the intersection of
create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots a number of two or more circles.
stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position.
Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The Moon and Sun may also
be used. The Sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local
noon) to determine a position.[25]

Marine chronometer
In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if
possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the
equator is a position error of .25 of a nautical mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation.

The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for
celestial observations.[25] A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a
variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to
compensate for temperature variations.[25]

A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the
instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals.[25] The difference between GMT and
chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings.[25] Spring-
driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day.[25]
Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because
of their greater accuracy.[25] They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals.[25] This
eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections.[25] Should the second hand be in error by a
readable amount, it can be reset electrically.[25]

The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator.[25] The quartz crystal is temperature
compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope.[25] A calibrated adjustment capability is
provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal.[25]

The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of one year on a single set of batteries.[25]
Observations may be timed and ship's clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time
and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times.[25] In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the
nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate.[25]

A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations.[25] In this case, the
watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain
GMT of the sight.[25]

All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal.[25] Times and
frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as Radio Navigational Aids.[25]

The marine sextant

The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure
the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body
and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used
to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary
assemblies. The frame is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at
the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc",
at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is
attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an
endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc".
The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low
power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is
fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is
moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc
indicates the measured angle ("altitude").
The marine sextant is used to measure the
The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the elevation of celestial bodies above the
horizon.
front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the
other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index
mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the
telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is
just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass.

Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index
correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the
sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through
cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation.[26]

Inertial navigation
Inertial navigation system (INS) is a dead reckoning type of navigation system that computes its position
based on motion sensors. Before actually navigating, the initial latitude and longitude and the INS's physical
orientation relative to the Earth (e.g., north and level) are established. After alignment, an INS receives
impulses from motion detectors that measure (a) the acceleration along three axes (accelerometers), and (b)
rate of rotation about three orthogonal axes (gyroscopes). These enable an INS to continually and accurately
calculate its current latitude and longitude (and often velocity).

Advantages over other navigation systems are that, once aligned, an INS does not require outside
information. An INS is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its
disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions and motion
sensors, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial
position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix'
from some other type of navigation system.

The first inertial system is considered to be the V-2 guidance system deployed by the Germans in 1942.
However, inertial sensors are traced to the early 19th century.[27] The advantages INSs led their use in
aircraft, missiles, surface ships and submarines. For example, the U.S. Navy developed the Ships Inertial
Navigation System (SINS) during the Polaris missile program to ensure a reliable and accurate navigation
system to initial its missile guidance systems. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until satellite
navigation systems (GPS) became available. INSs are still in common use on submarines (since GPS
reception or other fix sources are not possible while submerged) and long-range missiles.

Space navigation
Not to be confused with satellite navigation, which depends upon satellites to function, space navigation
refers to the navigation of spacecraft themselves. This has historically been achieved (during the Apollo
program) via a navigational computer, an Inertial navigation system, and via celestial inputs entered by
astronauts which were recorded by sextant and telescope. Space rated navigational computers, like those
found on Apollo and later missions, are designed to be hardened against possible data corruption from
radiation.

Another possibility that has been explored for deep space navigation is Pulsar navigation, which compares the
X-ray bursts from a collection of known pulsars in order to determine the position of a spacecraft. This
method has been tested by multiple space agencies, such as NASA and ESA.[28][29]

Electronic navigation

Radio navigation
A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction
to a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances
"over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system
for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land.

RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the

direction in which the signal from a known station comes through
most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and
1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II
aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas
most US aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped
fairing.
In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of radio beacons, the radio version of a
lighthouse. The signal is typically a simple AM broadcast of a morse code series of letters, which the RDF can
tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio
stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities.

Decca, OMEGA, and LORAN-C are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a hyperbolic low
frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that was first deployed during World War
II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case
with Loran C, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war
users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The
system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms.

The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by the
United States in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for
military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic
coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four-mile (6 km) accuracy when
fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to
Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines.Omega (http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/omega.html) Due
to the success of the Global Positioning System the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where
the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997, and
all stations ceased operation.

LORAN is a terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters that use the time interval
between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The
current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low frequency portion of the
EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz. Many nations are users of the system, including the United States, Japan,
and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called
CHAYKA. LORAN use is in steep decline, with GPS being the primary replacement. However, there are
attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can
penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals.

Radar navigation
Radar is an effective aid to navigation because it provides ranges and
bearings to objects within range of the radar scanner.[30] When a vessel
(ship or boat) is within radar range of land or fixed objects (such as
special radar aids to navigation and navigation marks) the navigator can
take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to
establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart.[31] A fix
consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix.[32] Types of
radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object,"[33] "two or more
bearings,"[33] "tangent bearings,"[33] and "two or more ranges."[33] Radar Radar ranges and bearings can be
can also be used with ECDIS as a means of position fixing with the radar used to determine a position.
image or distance/bearing overlaid onto an Electronic nautical chart.[30]

Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar Observer's
Handbook.[34] This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but
offset to the left or right by some distance.[34] This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given
distance away from hazards.[34] The line on the radar screen is set to a specific distance and angle, then the
ship's position relative to the parallel line is observed. This can provide an immediate reference to the
navigator as to whether the ship is on or off its intended course for navigation.[35]
Other techniques that are less used in general navigation have been developed for special situations. One,
known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and
moving it to the chart to fix a position.[36] Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous
Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship
stays on its planned course.[37] During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by
checking that the pip lies on the drawn line.[37]

Satellite navigation
Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide
positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location
(longitude, latitude, and altitude) within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by
radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise
time as a reference for scientific experiments.

As of October 2011, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian
GLONASS are fully globally operational GNSSs. The European Union's Galileo positioning system is a next
generation GNSS in the final deployment phase, and became operational in 2016. China has indicated it may
expand its regional Beidou navigation system into a global system.

More than two dozen GPS satellites are in medium Earth orbit, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to
determine the receiver's location, speed and direction.

Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to
navigation around the world, and an important tool for map-making and land surveying. GPS also provides a
precise time reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and
synchronization of telecommunications networks.

Developed by the United States Department of Defense, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation
Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The satellite constellation is managed by the
United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750
million per year,[38] including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this
fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good.

Modern smartphones act as personal GPS navigators for civilians who own them. Overuse of these devices,
whether in the vehicle or on foot, can lead to a relative inability to learn about navigated environments,
resulting in sub-optimal navigation abilities when and if these devices become unavailable.[39][40][41]
Typically a compass is also provided to determine direction when not moving.

Acoustic navigation
Navigation processes

Ships and similar vessels

One day's work in navigation

The day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will
vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but the traditional method takes a form
resembling:[42]

1. Maintain a continuous dead reckoning plot.

2. Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).
 3. Morning Sun observation. Can be taken on or near prime vertical for longitude, or at any time for a line of
position.
4. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.
5. Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-
meridian sights.
6. Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the Sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with
Venus line for noon fix.
7. Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift.
8. At least one afternoon Sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight.
9. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the Sun.
10. Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe six stars).
Navigation on ships is usually always conducted on the bridge. It may also take place in adjacent space, where
chart tables and publications are available.

Passage planning
Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete
description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes
leaving the dock and harbor area, the en route portion of a voyage,
approaching the destination, and mooring. According to international
law, a vessel's captain is legally responsible for passage planning,[43]
however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's
navigator.[44]
Poor passage planning and
Studies show that human error is a factor in 80 percent of navigational deviation from the plan can lead to
accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access groundings, ship damage and cargo
to information that could have prevented the accident.[44] The practice of loss.
voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on nautical charts to a
process of risk management.[44]

Passage planning consists of four stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring,[44] which are
specified in International Maritime Organization Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage
Planning,[45] and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example,
Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), and a number of professional books or publications. There
are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel.

The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as
ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. This will involve considering the type of
navigation required e.g. Ice navigation, the region the ship will be passing through and the hydrographic
information on the route. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the
finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the
weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage of passage planning consists of
monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen
circumstances.

Integrated bridge systems

Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning.[20] Integrated systems
take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control
signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course.[20] The navigator becomes a system manager,
choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.[20]

Land navigation
Navigation for cars and other land-based travel typically uses maps,
landmarks, and in recent times computer navigation ("satnav", short for
satellite navigation), as well as any means available on water.

Computerized navigation commonly relies on GPS for current location

information, a navigational map database of roads and navigable routes,
and uses algorithms related to the shortest path problem to identify
optimal routes.
Integrated Bridge System,
Pedestrian navigation is involved in orienteering, land navigation integrated on an Offshore Service
Ship
(military), and wayfinding.

Underwater navigation
Standards, training and organisations
Professional standards for navigation depend on the type of navigation and vary by country. For marine
navigation, Merchant Navy deck officers are trained and internationally certified according to the STCW
Convention.[46] Leisure and amateur mariners may undertake lessons in navigation at local/regional training
schools. Naval officers receive navigation training as part of their naval training.

In land navigation, courses and training is often provided to young persons as part of general or extra-
curricular education. Land navigation is also an essential part of army training. Additionally, organisations
such as the Scouts and DoE programme teach navigation to their students. Orienteering organisations are a
type of sports that require navigational skills using a map and compass to navigate from point to point in
diverse and usually unfamiliar terrain whilst moving at speed.[47]

In aviation, pilots undertake air navigation training as part of learning to fly.

Professional organisations also assist to encourage improvements in navigation or bring together navigators
in learned environments. The Royal Institute of Navigation (RIN) is a learned society with charitable status,
aimed at furthering the development of navigation on land and sea, in the air and in space. It was founded in
1947 as a forum for mariners, pilots, engineers and academics to compare their experiences and exchange
information.[48] In the US, the Institute of Navigation (ION) is a non-profit professional organisation
advancing the art and science of positioning, navigation and timing.[49]

Publications
Numerous nautical publications are available on navigation, which are
published by professional sources all over the world. In the UK, the
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, the Witherby Publishing Group
and the Nautical Institute provide numerous navigational publications,
including the comprehensive Admiralty Manual of Navigation.[50][51]

In the US, Bowditch's American Practical Navigator is a free available

encyclopedia of navigation issued by the US Government.[52]

Navigation in spatial cognition

Navigation is an essential everyday activity that involves a series of An illustration showing a compass
abilities that help humans and animals to locate, track, and follow paths used for navigation from Bowditch's
in order to arrive at different destinations.[53][54] Navigation, in spatial American Practical Navigator
cognition, allows for acquiring information about the environment by
using the body and landmarks of the environment as frames of references to create mental representations of
our environment, also known as a cognitive map. Humans navigate by transitioning between different spaces
and coordinating both egocentric and allocentric frames of reference.

Navigation can be distinguished into two sptial components: locomotion and wayfinding.[55] Locomotion is
the process of movement from one place to another, both in humans and in animals. Locomotion helps you
understand an environment by moving through a space in order to create a mental representation of it.[56]
Wayfinding is defined as an active process of following or deciding upon a path between one place to another
through mental representations.[57] It involves processes such as representation, planning and decision which
help to avoid obstacles, to stay on course or to regulate pace when approaching particular objects.[55][58]

Navigation and wayfinding can be approached in the environmental space. According to Dan Montello’s
space classification, there are four levels of space with the third being the environmental space. The
environmental space represents a very large space, like a city, and can only be fully explored through
movement since all objects and space are not directly visible.[59] Also Barbara Tversky systematized the
space, but this time taking into consideration the three dimensions that correspond to the axes of the human
body and its extensions: above/below, front/back and left/right. Tversky ultimately proposed a fourfold
classification of navigable space: space of the body, space around the body, space of navigation and space of
graphics.[60]

Wayfinding
There are two types of wayfinding in navigation: aided and unaided.[59] Aided wayfinding requires a person
to use various types of media, such as maps, GPS, directional signage, etc., in their navigation process which
generally involves low spatial reasoning and is less cognitively demanding. Unaided wayfinding involves no
such devices for the person who is navigating.[59] Unaided wayfinding can be subdivided into a taxonomy of
tasks depending on whether it is undirected or directed, which basically makes the distinction of whether
there is a precise destination or not: undirected wayfinding means that a person is simply exploring an
environment for pleasure without any set destination.[61]

Directed wayfinding, instead, can be further subdivided into search vs. target approximation.[61] Search
means that a person does not know where the destination is located and must find it either in an unfamiliar
environment, which is labeled as an uninformed search, or in a familiar environment, labeled as an informed
search. In target approximation, on the other hand, the location of the destination is known to the navigator
but a further distinction is made based on whether the navigator knows how to arrive or not to the
destination. Path following means that the environment, the path, and the destination are all known which
means that the navigator simply follows the path they already know and arrive at the destination without
much thought. For example, when you are in your city and walking on the same path as you normally take
from your house to your job or university.[61] However, path finding means that the navigator knows where
the destination is but does not know the route they have to take to arrive at the destination: you know where a
specific store is but you do not know how to arrive there or what path to take. If the navigator does not know
the environment, it is called path search which means that only the destination is known while neither the
path nor the environment is: you are in a new city and need to arrive at the train station but do not know how
to get there.[61] Path planning, on the other hand, means that the navigator knows both where the destination
is and is familiar with the environment so they only need to plan the route or path that they should take to
arrive at their target. For example, if you are in your city and need to get to a specific store that you know the
destination of but do not know the specific path you need to take to get there.[61]

See also
Robot navigation
Geography portal
TVMDC
Collision avoidance in transportation
 Spatial cognition#Navigation
Notes
1. Rell Pros-Wellenhof, Bernhard (2007). Navigation: Principles of Positioning and Guidances. Springer.
pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-3-211-00828-7.
2. Bowditch, 2003:799.
3. The Handbook Of The SAS And Elite Forces. How The Professionals Fight And Win. Edited by Jon E.
Lewis. p.363-Tactics And Techniques, Personal Skills And Techniques. Robinson Publishing Ltd 1997.
ISBN 1-85487-675-9
4. The Ty Pros Companion to Ships and the Sea, Peter Kemp ed., 1976 ISBN 0-586-08308-1
5. Comandante Estácio dos Reis (2002). Astrolábios Náuticos. INAPA. ISBN 978-972-797-037-7.
6. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121122134304/http://www.ancruzeiros.pt/anci-astrolabio.
html). Archived from the original (http://www.ancruzeiros.pt/anci-astrolabio.html) on 2012-11-22. Retrieved
2013-04-02.
7. Swanick, Lois Ann. An Analysis Of Navigational Instruments In The Age Of Exploration: 15th Century To
Mid-17th century, MA Thesis, Texas A&M University, December 2005
8. "Etymonline - Online Etymology Dictionary" (https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=navigation&ref=searc
hbar_searchhint). www.etymonline.com.
9. Bowditch, 2003:4.
10. Norie, J.W. (1828). New and Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation (https://web.archive.org/web/2007
0927203111/http://www.mysticseaport.org/library/initiative/ImPage.cfm?PageNum=3&BibId=13617&Chapt
erId=30). London. p. 222. Archived from the original (http://www.mysticseaport.org/library/initiative/ImPag
e.cfm?PageNum=3&BibId=13617&ChapterId=30) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
11. Norie, J.W. (1828). New and Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation (https://web.archive.org/web/2007
0927202912/http://www.mysticseaport.org/library/initiative/ImPage.cfm?PageNum=2&BibId=13617&Chap
terId=30). London. p. 221. Archived from the original (http://www.mysticseaport.org/library/initiative/ImPag
e.cfm?PageNum=2&BibId=13617&ChapterId=30) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
12. Taylor, Janet (1851). An Epitome of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (https://archive.org/details/anepito
menaviga00taylgoog) (Ninth ed.). Taylor. p. 295f. Retrieved 2007-08-02. "Nautical Almanac 1849-1851."
13. Britten, Frederick James (1894). Former Clock & Watchmakers and Their Work (https://archive.org/detail
s/formerclockwatc00britgoog). New York: Spon & Chamberlain. p. 230 (https://archive.org/details/formercl
ockwatc00britgoog/page/n242). Retrieved 2007-08-08. "Chronometers were not regularly supplied to the
Royal Navy until about 1825"
14. Lecky, Squire, Wrinkles in Practical Navigation
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s?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA365). Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat:
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PAAAAYAAJ) (Digital ed.). Harper & brothers. p. 373. ISBN 9780608404066. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
"...what I have stated, will serve to show the absolute necessity of having firstrate chronometers, or the
lunar observations carefully attended to; and never omitted to be taken when practicable."
16. Maloney, 2003:615.
17. Maloney, 2003:614
18. Maloney, 2003:618.
19. Maloney, 2003:622.
20. Bowditch, 2002:1.
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Anwar, Nadeem (2015). Navigation Advanced for Mates and Masters (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Witherby
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Department of the Air Force (March 2001). Air Navigation (https://web.archive.org/web/20070325022639/
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manpilotings00elbe_1) (64th ed.). New York: Hearst Communications Inc. ISBN 978-1-58816-089-8.
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External links
Lectures in Navigation (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27642) by Ernest Gallaudet Draper
How to navigate with less than a compass or GPS (https://archive.today/20121208170816/http://alsworld.
topcities.com/bwgg/index.html) (archived 8 December 2012)

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