LU2, LU5 AND LU8

MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS
Part 1: The General Measurement
Systems (LU5 and LU8).
Part 2: Static Characteristics of
Measurement Systems Elements (LU2
and LU5).
Part 3: The Accuracy of Measurement
Outlines
Systems in the Steady State (LU2 and
LU5).
Part 4: Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement Systems (LU2 and LU5).
 THE GENERAL
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
PART 1
 Purpose and
performance of
measurement systems.

Outline Structure of
measurement systems.

Block diagram symbols.

1.1 Purpose and performance of
measurement systems
◦ Defining a process as a system which generates information.
◦ Examples:
◦ Chemical reactor,
◦ A jet fighter,
◦ A gas platform,
◦ A submarine,
◦ A car,
◦ A human heart, and
◦ A weather system etc.
 Common information/measured variables
(which are commonly generated by
processes)
◦ Acceleration ◦ Torque
◦ Density ◦ Temperature
◦ Velocity ◦ Volume
◦ Viscosity ◦ Heat/Light flux
◦ Displacement ◦ Mass
◦ Composition ◦ Current
◦ Force–Weight ◦ Flow rate
◦ pH ◦ Voltage
◦ Pressure ◦ Level
◦ Humidity ◦ Power
Purpose of measurement system
◦ The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process,
as shown in Figure A.

◦ The observer as a person who needs this information from the process. This could
be the car driver, the plant operator or the nurse.

Figure A: Purpose of measurement system

Purpose of measurement system
◦ We can now refer to the information variable as a measured variable.

◦ The input to the measurement system is the true value of the variable; the system
output is the measured value of the variable.

◦ In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the true
value. The accuracy of the system can be defined as the closeness of the
measured value to the true value. A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical
ideal and the accuracy of a real system is quantified using measurement system
error E, where;

◦
Example 1
◦ If the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h
and the true value is 11.2 m3/h, then the error E = -0.2 m3/h.

◦ If the measured value of the rotational speed of an engine is 3140

rpm and the true value is 3133 rpm, then E = +7 rpm.

Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system

1.2 Structure of Measurement Systems

Figure B: General structure of measurement system

Sensing element

◦ Examples are:
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.

◦ If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in

contact with the process is termed the primary sensing element, the
others secondary sensing elements.
Signal conditioning element

◦ This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more
suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency
signal.
Examples are:
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage
change
• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency
voltage.
Signal processing element

◦ This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation.

◦ Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form for input to a
computer
• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital data.
Typical calculations are:
• Computation of total mass of product gas from flow rate and density data
• Integration of chromatograph peaks to give the composition of a gas stream
• Correction for sensing element non-linearity.
Data presentation element

◦ This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognised by
the observer.

◦ Examples are:
• Simple pointer–scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display
• Visual display unit (VDU).
1.3 Example of measurement system

Figure C: Example of measurement system

1.4 Block Diagram Symbols

Figure D: Block diagram symbols

Conclusion Part 1
❑ The purpose of a measurement system and explained
the importance of system error.
❑ A system consists of four types of element:
❑ sensing,
❑ signal conditioning,
❑ signal processing and
❑ data presentation elements.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
ELEMENTS
PART 2
 2.1 Systematic Characteristics
◦ This chapter is concerned with static or steady-state characteristics; these are
the relationships which may occur between the output O and input I of an
element when I is either at a constant value or changing slowly (Figure A1).

Figure A1: Meaning of element characteristics

2.1 Systematic Characteristics
• can be exactly quantified by mathematical or graphical means.

1. Range 9. Wear and ageing

2. Span 10.Error bands
3. Ideal straight line
4. Non-linearity
5. Sensitivity
6. Environmental effects
7. Hysteresis
8. Resolution
Range
◦ The input range of an element is specified by the minimum and
maximum values of I, i.e. IMIN to IMAX. The output range is specified by
the minimum and maximum
values of O, i.e. OMIN to OMAX.

◦ Thus, a pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa

and an output range of 4 to 20 mA; a thermocouple may have an
input range of 100 to 250 °C and an output range of 4 to 10 mV.
Span
◦ Span is the maximum variation in input or output, i.e. input span is
IMAX – IMIN, and output span is OMAX – OMIN.

◦ Thus in the above examples the pressure transducer has an input

span of 104 Pa and an output span of 16 mA; the thermocouple
has an input span of 150 °C and an output span of 6 mV.
 Ideal straight line
◦ An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of I and O lie on a straight line. The ideal
straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX) (Figure A2) and
therefore has the equation

Figure A2: Ideal straight-line equation

• The ideal straight line defines the ideal characteristics of an element. Non-ideal characteristics
can then be quantified in terms of deviations from the ideal straight line.
 Non-linearity
◦ If the straight-line relationship is not obeyed, the element is said to be non-linear.

◦ Non-linearity can be defined (Figure A3) in terms of a function N(I) which is the difference between
actual and ideal straight-line behaviour, i.e.

◦ or

◦ Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity ; expressed

as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span. Thus:
Figure A3: Thermocouple sensitivity
Sensitivity

◦ This is the change ∆O in output O for unit change ∆I in input I,

◦ i.e. it is the ratio ∆O/∆I. In the limit that ∆I tends to zero, the ratio ∆O/∆I tends
to the derivative dO/dI, which is the rate of change of O with respect to I.
For a linear element dO/dI is equal to the slope or gradient K of the straight
line; for the above pressure transducer the sensitivity is 1.6 × 10-3 mA/Pa.

◦ For a non-linear element dO/dI = K + dN/dI, i.e. sensitivity is the slope or

gradient of the output versus input characteristics O(I). Figure C shows the
e.m.f. versus temperature characteristics E(T ) for a Type T
thermocouple (eqn [2.7a] ).

◦ We see that the gradient and therefore the sensitivity vary with Figure A4: Thermocouple sensitivity
temperature: at 100 °C it is approximately 35 µV/°C and at 200 °C
approximately 42 µV/°C.
 Environmental Effects
◦ In general, the output O depends not only on the signal input I but on
environmental inputs such as ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure,
relative humidity, supply voltage, etc.

◦ There are two main types of environmental input.

◦ A modifying input IM causes the linear sensitivity of an element to change.

◦ An interfering input II causes the straight-line intercept or zero bias to change. a

is the zero bias at standard conditions when II = 0.
Hysteresis
◦ For a given value of I, the output O may be different depending on whether I
is increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis is the difference between these two
values of O (Figure A5), i.e.

Figure A5: Hysteresis

 Resolution
◦ Some elements are characterised by the output increasing in a series of discrete steps or jumps in
response to a continuous increase in input (Figure A6). Resolution is defined as the largest change in I
that can occur without any corresponding change in O

A6

Figure A6: Resolution and potentiometer example

Wear and Ageing
◦ These effects can cause the characteristics of an element, e.g. K and a, to change
slowly but systematically throughout its life. One example is the stiffness of a spring k(t)
decreasing slowly with time due to wear, i.e.
 Error Bands
◦ for any value of I, the output O will be within ±h of
the ideal straight-line value OIDEAL.
◦ Here an exactor systematic statement of
performance is replaced by a statistical statement
in terms of a probability density function p(O). Figure A7: Error bands and rectangular probability density function.

◦ In general a probability density function p(x) is

𝑥2
defined so that the integral ‫𝑥׬‬1 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥(equal to the
area under the curve in Figure A8 between x1 and
x2) is the probability 𝑃𝑥1,𝑥2 of x lying between x1 and
x2 (Section 6.2).
◦ In this case the probability density function is
rectangular (Figure A8), i.e

Figure A8: Probability density function

2.2 Generalised model of a system
element
◦ If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an
element but environmental and non-linear effects are,
then the steady-state output O of the element is in
general given by eqn [2.9], i.e.:

[2.9]
Figure A9: General Model of Element
2.3 Statistical characteristics
2.3.1 Statistical variations in the output of a single element with time – repeatability
◦ Suppose that the input I of a single element, e.g. a pressure transducer, is held
constant, say at 0.5 bar, for several days. If a large number of readings of the
output O are taken, then the expected value of 1.0 volt is not obtained on every
occasion; a range of values such as 0.99, 1.01, 1.00, 1.02, 0.98, etc., scattered
about the expected value, is obtained. This effect is termed a lack of
repeatability in the element.
◦ Repeatability is the ability of an element to give the same output for the same
input, when repeatedly applied to it. Lack of repeatability is due to random
effects in the element and its environment.
2.3.2 Statistical variations amongst a batch of similar elements
– tolerance

o Suppose that a user buys a batch of similar elements, e.g. a batch of

100 resistance temperature sensors, from a manufacturer. If he then
measures the resistance R0 of each sensor at 0 °C he finds that the
resistance values are not all equal to the manufacturer’s quoted
value of 100.0 Ω. A range of values such as 99.8, 100.1, 99.9, 100.0v
and 100.2 Ω, distributed statistically about the quoted value, is
obtained.

o This effect is due to small random variations in manufacture and is

often well represented by the normal probability density function
given earlier.
2.4 Identification of static characteristics – calibration

2.4.1 Standards
◦ The static characteristics of an element can be found experimentally by
measuring corresponding values of the input I, the output O and the
environmental inputs IM and II when I is either at a constant value or
changing slowly.
◦ This type of experiment is referred to as calibration, and the measurement
of the variables I, O, IM and II must be accurate if meaningful results are to
be obtained. The instruments and techniques used to quantify these
variables are referred to as standards.
◦ The accuracy of a measurement of a variable is the closeness of the
measurement to the true value of the variable. It is quantified in terms
of measurement error, i.e. the difference between the measured value
and the true value (Part 3).
◦ In the United Kingdom the manufacturer is supported by the National
Measurement System. Ultimate or primary measurement standards for
key physical variables such as time, length, mass, current and
temperature are maintained at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
◦ Primary measurement standards for other important industrial variables
such as the density and flow rate of gases and liquids are maintained
at the National Engineering Laboratory (NEL). In addition, there is a
network of laboratories and centres throughout the country which
maintain transfer or intermediate standards.
2.4.2 SI units
◦ The International System of Units (SI) comprises seven base units, which are listed and
defined in Table 2.3.
◦ The units of all physical quantities can be derived from these base units. Table 2.4 lists
common physical quantities and shows the derivation of their units from the base units.
In the United Kingdom the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) is responsible for the
Table 2.4 SI derived units (after National Physical Laboratory Units of Measurement poster, 1996[4])
2.4.3 Experimental measurements
and evaluation of results
◦ The calibration experiment is divided into three main
parts.
1. O versus I with IM = II = 0
2. O versus IM, II at constant I
3. Repeatability test
 Conclusion Part 2
❑ Systematic characteristics such as non-linearity and environmental
effects were first explained. This led to the generalised model of an
element.

❑ Statistical characteristics, i.e. repeatability and tolerance, were then

discussed. The last section explained how these characteristics can be
measured experimentally, i.e. calibration and the use and types of
standards.
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