MODULE IV

SEMICONDUCTOR AND DEVICES

Depending upon the ability to conduct electricity, all materials are classified under 3 groups.
They are conductors, insulators and semiconductors. The distinction between them can be
made on the basis of their energy band details.
Conductors are those materials which conduct electricity. They are characterized by either
partially filled valence band or overlapping of the valence and conduction bands because of
which a large number of free electrons are available for conduction.

Insulators are materials which are poor conductors of electricity. For such materials the
energy band gap is very large because of which free electrons are absent at room temperature.
Semiconductors are a class of materials whose conductivity is in the range between that of
conductors and insulators. The resistivity of the semiconductors lie in the range 10-6 to 10+8
ohm m. Narrow band gap is the characteristic feature of semiconductors, because of which a
significant number of thermally excited electrons are available for conduction at room
temperature.

By adding very small amount of impurities, such as one part in a million to a pure
semiconductor in a controlled manner, a large increase in conductivity can be achieved. This
process is called ‘Doping’. The impurity added is called ‘Dopant’. Doped semiconductors
are called extrinsic semiconductors.
A pure semiconductor which is not doped is termed as intrinsic semiconductor. Thus an
intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor whose conductivity is due to only the
thermal excitation.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, they are
1. n - type semiconductor

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 2. p - type semiconductor
which are obtained from a pure semiconductor by proper choice of dopants.

Electrons and Hole charge carriers

In a silicon crystal, the four valence electrons of each silicon atom are shared by the four
surrounding silicon atoms. An electron which may break away from the bond leaves
deficiency of one electron in the bond. The vacancy created in the bond due to the departure
of an electron is called as ‘hole’. The vacancy may get filled by an electron from the
neighboring bond, but the hole then shifts towards the neighboring bond which in turn may
get filled by an electron from another bond to whose place the hole shifts, and so on..........
Thus in effect the hole also undergoes displacement inside a crystal. Since the hole is
associated with deficiency of one electron, it is equivalent for a positive charge of unit
magnitude. Hence in a semiconductor both the electron and the hole act as charge carriers.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, for every electron freed from the bond, there will be one hole
created in the crystal. It means that number of conduction electrons is equal to number of
holes at any given temperature. In an extrinsic semiconductor, whether the charge carriers
are electrons or holes is decided by the type of dopant added to the crystal. The charge
carriers only due to the thermal excitation and not due to doping are called minority
carriers. The other type charge carriers which are obtained due to both doping as well as due
to thermal excitation are called majority carriers.

Significance of Fermi Level

"Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron energy levels at
absolute zero temperature. Fermi level distinguishes the energy position of filled and unfilled
energy states.

As the temperature is increased, the electrons from the topmost band absorb energy and jump
to the conduction band and this process of excitation and de-excitation continues as long as
the thermal energy supply persists. The average energy value of all such energy levels
signifies the Fermi level EF. Thus Fermi level is also an indicator of the average energy of the
conduction electrons. Thus the probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and
conduction band is called Fermi level. As the temperature increases, the available thermal
energy kT increases, the electrons will be elevated to higher levels increasing EF, same as
when the temperature decreases EF reduces.

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Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor
At T = 0K, all the energy levels below Fermi level are completely filled and above are
completely empty. Thus, Fermi level EF at T = 0K, acts as a distinguishing energy position
between the filled and unfilled energy states.
The energy gap is the energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band and top
of the valence band, denoted as Eg. For a
semiconductor, the energy gap is much lesser than
that for insulators. At T = 0K, all the energy levels in
the valence band are completely filled and all the
energy levels in the conduction band are completely
empty. But at ordinary temperatures such as room
temperature, due to thermal excitation, some of the
electrons at the top of the valence band are able to
jump the energy gap and occupy some energy levels
at the bottom part of the conduction band. These electrons return soon to the energy levels
which they had left vacant in the valence band. The electrons in this set of energy levels
continue to undergo excitation and de-excitation and thus become conduction electrons.
Because of such a distribution, the average energy of the electrons taking part in the
conduction will be almost equal to (1/2) Eg. Thus the Fermi level lies in the mid-part of the
forbidden gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
As temperature increases, since the electrons can be elevated to higher energy levels that are
vacant, EF also increases. On the contrary, as temperature decreases, the excitation energy
reduces, EF also reduces and finally settles at the topmost energy level at T = 0K.

CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor

The number of electrons in the conduction band/unit volume of the material is called electron
concentration denoted as Ne.
EF − E g

Ne =
4 2
h 3
(me*kT )
3
2
e kT

*
Where me is the effective mass of electron, Eg is the energy gap, k is the Boltzmann

constant.
Similarly the number of holes in the valence band/unit volume of the material is called hole
concentration denoted as Nh.
56 Physics Department, SJEC
 ( )
− EF
4 2 3
Nh = 3
mh *kT 2
e kT
h
*
Where mh is the effective mass of hole,

In general, the number of charge carriers/unit volume of the material is called carrier
concentration.

Relation between Fermi Energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes/unit volume in the valence band is equal
to number of electrons/unit volume in the conduction band
Ne = Nh
EF − E g

(m ) ( )
3 3 − EF
= mh
* 2 kT * 2 kT
e e e
3
2 EF − E g
 mh *  2
or e kT
=  *


 me 
By taking natural logarithm on both sides
2 EF − E g 3  mh 
*
= ln  * 
kT 2  me 

3  m *  Eg
or EF = kT ln  h*  +
4  me  2
Under practical consideration, because of which first term in the RHS goes to zero
since ln 1= 0
Eg
EF =
2
Thus, the Fermi level lies in the mid-part of the forbidden gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.

Law of mass action for semiconductor

We have electron concentration and hole concentration equations,
EF − E g

Ne =
4 2
h 3
me *kT ( ) 3
2
e kT

( )
− EF
4 2 3
Nh = 3
mh *kT 2
e kT
h
Let us consider the product of and
− Eg

N e N h = 6 (kT ) (me mh ) 2 e
32 3 * * 3 kT
h

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The above equation shows that the product does not depend on Fermi energy, but
remains a constant at a given temperature.

The above equation is called law of mass action for semiconductors. The law says that for a
given semiconductor material either extrinsic or intrinsic, the product of the charge carrier
concentration remains a constant at any given temperarture, even if the doping is varied.
In case of intrinsic semiconductor

where, ni is the intrinsic charge carrier density.

Then

Expression for Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor

In the case of a semiconductor both the electrons and holes contribute to the electrical
conductivity. To start with let us consider a semiconductor whose conductivity is only due to
the electrons.
Consider a semiconductor of area of cross section A in which a current I is flowing. Let L be
the length of the semiconductor. The current flowing through the semiconductor is given by
q
I=
t
If Ne is the number of electrons per unit volume of the semiconductor and e is the magnitude
of electric charge on the electron,
N e eAL
I=
t
L
Since v = the velocity of electrons
t
I = NeeAv
I
The current density J=
A
I
Therefore J = − N e ev
A
We have, the drift velocity v = E , where is the mobility of electrons.
Therefore J = Neev = Nee
As per the Ohm’s law in general form, J=
Comparing the above two equations we can write =Nee
where, is the electrical conductivity due to the flow of electrons.
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In a semiconductor the conductivity is due to the flow of both electrons and holes.
Then +
If is the electrical conductivity in a semiconductor due to the flow of holes, Nh is the
number of holes per unit volume of the semiconductor, is the mobility of holes,
= Nh e
+ = Nee + Nhe = e (Ne + Nh )
In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons is always equal to the
number of holes. i.e., Ne = Nh = ni

Hall Effect:
When a material in which a current flow is there is subjected to a magnetic field acting at
right angles to the direction of current flow, an electric field is induced across the material in
a direction perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field, and the direction of the
current flow. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.
Hall effect finds important application in studying the electron properties of semiconductor,
such as determination of carrier concentration and carrier mobility. It is also used to
determine whether a semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
Theory:
Consider a rectangular slab of a semiconductor material in which a current I is flowing in the
positive X- direction. Let the semiconducting material be of n-type, which means that the
charge carriers are electrons. Let a magnetic field B be applied along the Z- direction. Under
the influence of the magnetic field, the electrons experience the Lorentz force FL given by
FL = - Bev --- (1)
Where e is the magnitude of charge on the electron and v is the drift velocity.

Applying the Flemings left hand rule, we see that the force is exerted on the electrons in the
negative Y- direction. The electrons are therefore deflected downwards. As a result, the
density of the electrons increases in the lower end of the material, due to which its bottom
edge becomes negatively charged. On the other hand the loss of electrons from the upper end
causes the top edge of the material to become positively charged. Hence a potential VH,
called the Hall voltage appears between the upper and lower surfaces of the semiconductor
material which establishes an electric field EH , called the Hall field across the conductor in
the negative Y-direction

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The field EH exerts an upward force FH
on the electrons given by,
FH = −eE H - - - (2)
Now as the deflection of electrons
continues in the downward direction due
to Lorentz force FL, it also contributes
to the growth of Hall field. As a result,
the force FH which acts on the electron
in the upward direction also increases.
These two opposing forces reach an equilibrium at which stage,
FL = E H

Bev = −eE H (From eqn. (1) and (2))

or E H = Bv - - - (3)
Let VH be the Hall voltage and ‘d’ is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the
slab, then
VH
EH =
d
Or VH = E H d
VH = Bvd - - - (4) (from eqn 3)
Let ‘w’ be the thickness of the material in the Z- direction. Therefore its area of cross section
normal to the direction of I is, A = wd
I I
Therefore, the current density J = = - -- (5)
A wd
But we know that, J = nev = v - - -(6)
Where ‘n’ is the charge carrier concentration and ρ = ne, is the charge density.
I
From eqns (5) and (6), we have , v =
wd
I
v= - - - (7)
wd
 I  BI
Substituting eqn (7) in (4), VH = B d =
 wd  w
BI
=
VH w

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Thus by measuring VH, I and w, and by knowing B, the charge density ‘ρ’ can be determined.
The polarity of the hall voltage developed at the top and bottom edges of the specimen can be
identified by using probes. For the set up as described for fig, if the top edge acquires positive
polarity for the Hall voltage, then the charge carriers must be electrons, which mean that the
semiconducting material is of n-type. On the same reasoning, for a material of p-type, the
polarity at the top edge will be negative.
Hall coefficient RH :
For a given semiconductor, the Hall field, EH depends upon the current density J and the
applied field B, therefore E H  JB
Or E H = RH JB where RH is called the Hall coefficient
EH
Now from the above equation, RH =
JB
VH wd 1 VH w BI w
Substituting for EH and J , RH = = =
d I B IB w IB
1
or RH =

Thus , the Hall coefficient can be evaluated , once ρ is known.

Expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient:

BI BI 1  BI 
From equation VH = = =   RH
   
Applications:
1. Determination of semiconductor type: Based on the HALL coefficient, type of
superconductors are determined. If hall coefficient is positive, then the semiconductor is p-
type and if negative, it is n-type semiconductor
2. Calculation of carrier concentration: By measuring the VH and RH the carrier concentration
of Electrons in n-type and hole concentration in p-type semiconductor is measured.
3. Determination of mobility of charge carriers: The mobility of charge carriers is can be
determined
4. Measurement of magnetic flux density: Hall voltage VH is directly proportional to the
magnetic flux density B for a given current I for a semiconducting sample and is used in
magnetic flux density meter.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1. PHOTO DIODE

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current in the reverse biased
condition. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
Principle. A reverse-biased P-N junction diode has a reverse saturation current which is
mainly due to the flow of the minority carriers. When light is incident on the depletion region
of the reverse biased p-n junction, the concentration of minority carriers (electrons in p type
and holes in n type) increases to a great extent. But the change in majority carriers is too low.
Consequently reverse current increases. The reverse current through the diode varies almost
linearly with the intensity of light.
Construction.

The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. In this design, the
formation of P-type material can be done from the diffusion of the P-type substrate which is
lightly doped forming a layer of P+ ions. On the substrate of N-type, the N-type epitaxial
layer can be grown which is heavily doped.

Photodiode Construction
The contacts are made up of metals to form two terminal cathode and anode. The front area
of the diode is divided into two types that are active surface and non-active surface. The non-
active surface is made up of SiO2 (Silicon di Oxide) and the active surface is coated
with anti-reflection material. The active surface is called so because the light rays are
incident on it.

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Working and Characteristics.

It works on the principle of photoelectric effect. When the photodiode is not exposed to light
or radiation or kept under dark condition and a sufficient reverse voltage is applied, then an
almost constant current, independent of magnitude of reverse bias, is obtained. This current
corresponds to the reverse saturation current due to thermally generated minority carriers.
This current is called dark current.

When the photodiode is exposed to light, the temperature of the junction will increase and
covalent bonds are ionized. This generates hole and electron pairs. The electrons and holes
will get separated from each other. The electrons, which are on the n side will get attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery and the holes, which are on the p side will get
attracted to the (-) terminal of the battery.

As a result of this, a high amount of reverse current gets generated through the junction.
When the light intensity increases, more carriers are generated and flow through the
photodiodes. Hence, a large current is produced. The light intensity is directly proportional to
the electric current.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

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The characteristics curve of the photodiode can be understood with the help of the below
diagram. The characteristics are shown in the negative region because the photodiode can be
operated in reverse biased mode only.

The advantages of photodiode include the following.

• Less resistance
• Quick and high operation speed
• Long life span.
• Fastest photodetector.
• Frequency response is good.
• Solid and low-weight.
• It is extremely responsive to the light.
• Dark current is less.
• Less noise.
The disadvantages of photodiode include the following.
• Temperature stability is poor.
• The active area is small.
• Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.
• It has less sensitivity.
Applications of Photodiodes
1. Light detector - used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors,
compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
2. In consumer devices as Electronic control circuits like clock radios, camera light
meters, and street lights,
3. Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like
instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography etc
4. Optical communication system
5. High speed counting and switching circuits

Power Responsivity
Definition: The responsivity of silicon photodiode is a measure of sensitivity to light. It is
defined as ratio of photocurrent (Ip) to incident light power P at given wavelength.
Responsivity,

In other words, it is measure of the effectiveness of conversion of light power into electric
current. It varies with the wavelength of incident light, applied reverse bias and temperature.
64 Physics Department, SJEC
2. PHOTO TRANSISTOR

Photo Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device which converts the incident light
into photocurrent. Light is incident on the base terminal and it is converted into current which
flows through emitter and collector. It is the combination of photo diode and transistor an
amplifier. The current produced by the photo diode is low, so it is sent through the transistor
and amplified. It is more sensitive than a photodiode.

Construction of Photo Transistor:

When compared to normal transistor, in photo transistor the base and collector area is large.
The base area is increased to increase the amount of current generated. Because more the
light falls more the current is generated. Earlier it was made up of single semiconductor
material like silicon or germanium. Recently photo transistors are made up of Gallium and
Arsenic to obtain higher efficiency. Finally photo transistor is placed inside a metallic case
and a lens is kept at the top of the case to absorb the incident radiation.
Working:
In a phototransistor the base current is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region. The collector-base pn junction is exposed to
incident light through a lens opening in the transistor package. When there is no incident
light, there is only a small thermally generated collector-to-emitter leakage current, ICEO; this
dark current is typically in the nA range.
When light strikes the collector-base pn junction, a base current is produced that is directly
proportional to the light intensity. This action produces a collector current that increases with
base current. With the base connection open circuit, the collector-base current must flow in
the base-emitter circuit, and hence the current flowing
A phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a lower level of
noise.

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Characteristics of Photo Transistor:
From the figure we can observe that the collector current increases with the intensity of the
incident light.

Advantages of phot-transistors:
• Efficiency is high
• Faster response
• Less noise interference
• Low cost
• Small in size
Disadvantages:
• Poor performance at high frequency
• Slower than photodiode
Applications:
• Used in Counting systems
• Used in Optical tape reader
• Used to detect Object
• Used in printers

3. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with
holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction
Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material
used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit coloured light at a particular spectral
wavelength when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a
transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
66 Physics Department, SJEC
Theory

When a junction diode is forward-biased, electrons from n–side and holes from p–side move
towards the depletion region and they recombine. During this process, energy is released
because electrons make transition from conduction band (higher energy level) to valence
band (lower energy level). If Eg is the semiconductor band gap, then the energy Eg= h𝝂=
hc/λ is emitted in the form of radiation. The corresponding emission wavelength is given by
λ= hc/Eg
Construction:

At first an N-type layer is grown on a substrate and then a P-type layer is deposited on it by
the process of diffusion. Metal contacts (Anode) are made at the outer edge of the P-layer so
that more of the upper surface is left free for light to escape. For making Cathode
connections, a metal film (preferably gold) is coated at the bottom of the substrate. This film
also reflects as much light as possible to the surface of the device.
Working:

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When a DC power supply is applied to an LED lamp in forward bias, the majority charge
carriers start drifting, i.e., electrons towards the positive terminal and holes towards the
negative terminal of the source. At the PN junction, the recombination of electrons and holes
takes place, due to the recombination of these charge carriers, the energy is released either in
the form of heat or light. The semiconductor materials such as gallium phosphide (GaP),
gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), gallium nitride (GaN), etc. emit light on the
recombination of electrons and holes at the PN junction. The electrons in these
semiconductor materials lose their energy by the emission of light photons

Advantages of LED Lamps

• The operating cost is very less.
• They are compact in size.
• LED lamps provide easy control of light.
• Remote switching and control can be implemented in the LED lamps.
• LED lamps have longer life, up to 100000 hours.
• LED lamps are energy efficient and low current consuming.
• These lamps are mechanically robust.
• LED lamps provide excellent color rendering.
• These lamps are environment friendly, as not having any toxic content.

Disadvantages of LED Lamps

• The initial cost of the LED lamps is very high.
• As LED lamps are semiconductor devices. Thus, they are temperature sensitive and
temperature dependent.
• LED lamps require DC supply, therefore, rectification unit is required in the lamp
circuit.
• The high intensity light produced by an LED lamp has impact on the insects.

Applications of LED Lamps

• For domestic and commercial lightings.
• Used as indicating lamps.
• Used as bi-color indicators.
• LED lamps are also used as fault indicators in control panels.
• In display boards.
• Used for decorative lighting.
68 Physics Department, SJEC
 • In mobile phone and wrist watches screens.
• Used as head lamps in automobiles.
• LED lamps are also used in various instruments in different industries.

4. FOUR PROBE METHOD TO MEASURE RESISTIVITY OF A MATERIAL

The Four-Probe Method is a commonly used technique for measuring the electrical resistivity
of materials. The method involves using four electrodes (probes) to apply a current through
the material and measure the voltage drop across it. The resistivity of the material is then
calculated from the measured current and voltage values.

The four-point probe set up consists of four equally spaced tungsten metal tips with finite
radius. The probes are collinear and are equally spaced. Each tip is supported by springs on
the end to minimize sample damage during probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-
mechanical stage which travels up and down during measurements. A high impedance
current source is used to supply current through the outer two probes, a voltmeter measures
the voltage across the inner two probes to determine the sample resistivity. The typical probe
spacing is approximately 2 mm. Voltmeter connected to inner probes typically have high
electrical impedance to prevent the current flow. These contact resistances are very sensitive
to pressure and to surface condition
If the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the distance

between the probes, the resistivity is computed to be

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.
I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.
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One of the main advantages of the Four-Probe Method is that it provides a direct
measurement of the resistivity of the material, which is independent of any contact resistance
between the electrodes and the material. This makes it a useful method for measuring the
resistivity of materials with non-uniform surface topologies or materials with low electrical
conductivity
Four-Probe Method is widely used in materials science, physics, and engineering, and is an
important tool for characterizing the electrical properties of materials

5. SOLAR CELL

A solar cell is basically a P-N junction diode which converts solar energy (light energy) into
electrical energy. In principle, a solar cell is nothing but a light emitting diode (LED)
operating in reverse. Common materials for solar cells include silicon, gallium Arsenide (Ga
As), indium Arsenide (In As) and cadmium Arsenide (Cd As).

Construction

A solar cell consists of P-N junction diode made of Si. The P-N diode is packed in a can with
glass window on top so that light may fall upon P and N type materials. The thickness of the
P-region is kept very small so that electrons generated in this region can diffuse to the
junction before recombination takes place. Thickness of N-region is also kept small to allow
holes generated near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they recombine. A heavy
doping of P and N regions is recommended to obtain a large photo voltage. A nickel plated
ring is provided around the P-layer which acts as the positive output terminal. A metal
contact at the bottom serves as the negative output terminal.

70 Physics Department, SJEC

Working:

When light radiation falls on a P-N junction diode, photons collide with valence electrons and
impart them sufficient energy enabling them to leave their parent atoms. Thus electron-hole
pairs are generated in both the P and N sides of the junction. These electrons and holes reach
the depletion region W by diffusion [Fig (a)] and are then separated by the strong barrier field
existing there. However, the minority carrier electrons in the P-side slide down the barrier
potential to reach the N-side and the holes in the N-side move to the P-side [Fig (b)]. Their
flow constitutes the minority current which is directly proportional to the illumination and
also depends on the surface area being exposed to light. The accumulation of electrons and
holes on the two sides of the junction [Fig (c)] gives rise to an open circuit voltage Voc which
is a function of illumination.

The advantages of using photovoltaic cells are

• Photovoltaic cells do not cause pollution while producing electricity.
• The operating cost of photovoltaic cells is low as source of energy is natural light.
• Photovoltaic cells have long lifespan. They are highly reliable.
• PV cells are the best renewable energy sources.
Some of the disadvantages are
• The operation of photovoltaic cells depends upon the light energy of the Sun, thus
their operation depends upon the weather.
• Storage of electricity produced by the photovoltaic cells is expensive and
complicated.
• They require more space for installation.
The applications of photovoltaic cells include
• Remote lighting systems
• Emergency power
• For Satellites power supplies
• In photometric measurements
• As portable power supplies such as solar car, etc.
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