CHAPTER 2

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

On the basis of chemical properties, all the compounds can be classified into three groups:
a) Acids
b) Bases
c) Salts

INDICATORS: An indicator is a dye that changes color when it is put into an acid or base. It
indicates whether the testing solution is acid or base. The common indicators are Litmus, Methyl
orange and Phenolphthalein.

Natural Indicators:
1. Litmus: Litmus is a natural indicator whose neutral color is purple. Litmus is extracted
from a type of a plant called lichen. It is made into blue litmus and red litmus. An acid
turns blue litmus to red while a base turns red litmus to blue.
2. Turmeric: Turmeric contains yellow dye. It turns red in basic solution.
3. Red Cabbage: The red cabbage extract is a natural indicator whose neutral color is red. It
remains red in acidic solution but turns green when added in basic solutions.

Synthetic Indicators:
1. Methyl Orange: The neutral color of methyl orange is orange. It gives red color in acidic
solutions while it gives yellow color in basic solution.
2. Phenolphthalein: The neutral color of phenolphthalein is colorless. It remains colorless
in acidic solution while it turns pink in basic solutions.

Olfactory Indicators: Those substance whose smell changes in acidic or basic solution are called
olfactory indicators.
1. Onion: Onion has characteristic smell. When basic solution is treated with onions, then
the onion smell cannot be detected. An acidic solution does not destroy the smell of
onions.
2. Vanilla: Vanilla has a characteristic pleasant smell. If basic solution is added to vanilla
extract, then the characteristic smell of vanilla is vanished. An acidic solution does not
destroy the smell of vanilla.

ACIDS

The acids present in the plant material and animals are called Organic Acids. Some of the
organic acids are: Acetic Acid (found in vinegar), Citric Acids (found in lemons and oranges),
Lactic Acid (found in sour milk), Tartaric Acid (found in tamarind and unripe grapes), oxalic
acid (found in tomatoes) and formic acid (present in ant sting and nettle leaf sting). It is not
harmful to eat or drink substances containing naturally occurring acids in them.

The acids prepared from the minerals of the earth are called Mineral Acids. The most common
mineral acids are: Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid. These acids are very
dangerous and can burn hands.
CONCENTRATED AND DILUTE ACIDS:
A concentrated Acid is one which contains possible amount of water in it. A dilute acid is one
which contains much more water in it.
The dilution of a concentrated acid should always be done by adding concentrated acid to water
gradually with stirring. This is because:
 When a concentrated acid is added to water for preparing a dilute acid, then the heat is
evolved gradually and easily absorbed by the large amount of water.
 If water is added to concentrated acid to dilute it, then a large amount of heat is evolved
at once. This heat changes some of the water to steam explosively which can splash the
acid on our face or clothes and cause acid burns.

STRONG ACIDS AND WEAK ACIDS:

STRONG ACIDS: An acid which is completely ionized in water and thus produces a large
amount of hydrogen ion is called as strong acids. Strong acids react very rapidly with other
substances like metal, metal carbonates etc. Strong acids have high electrical conductivity
because of high concentration of hydrogen ion in their solution. Thus, all the strong acids are
good electrolytes. Example: Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), Nitric Acid (HNO3).

WEAK ACIDS: An acid which is partially ionized in water and thus produces a small amount
of hydrogen ion is called weak acid. Weak acids react quite slowly with other substances like
metal, metal carbonates etc. Due to small amount of hydrogen ion present in their solution, weak
acids have low electrical conductivity. Thus, they are weak electrolytes. Example: all organic
Acids, Carbonic Acid (H2CO3), Sulphurous Acid (H2SO3).

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS: The important properties of acids are given below:

1. Acids have a sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus to red.
3. Acid solution conducts electricity. (They are electrolytes).
4. Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.

For Example: Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metal, then zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas is
formed.
Note: Curd and other sour food stuff such as vinegar, lemon juice etc should not be kept in
metal vessels because sour food stuffs contain acids which can react with metal of the vessel
to form poisonous metal compounds. These poisonous compounds can cause damage to
health.

5. Acids react with metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates to form salt, carbon dioxide
and water.

Example:
(i) When dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium carbonates, then sodium
chloride, carbon dioxide and water are formed.

The carbon dioxide gas is formed in the form of brisk effervescence.

(ii) When dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonates, then
sodium chloride, carbon dioxide and water are formed.

The carbon dioxide gas reacts with lime water (calcium hydroxide) as follows:
(a) When carbon dioxide gas is passed through lime water, the lime water turns milky
due to formation of white precipitate of calcium carbonate.

(b) If excess of carbon dioxide gas is passed through lime water, then the white
precipitate formed first dissolves due to formation of soluble salt calcium hydrogen
carbonate and solution becomes clear again.
 Note:
1. Baking soda can be used as a remedy for acidity. Baking Soda is sodium hydrogen
carbonate which reacts with excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach and neutralizes
it.
2. Limestone, Marble and chalk are different form of the same chemical compound
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
3. Carbon dioxide gas does not support combustion. So, carbon dioxide gas can
extinguish a burning substance.

6. Acids react with bases to form salt and water.

Acid and base neutralizes each other’s effect. So, the reaction between acid and base to
form salt and water is called neutralization reaction.
Example: When hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, then a
neutralization reaction takes place to form sodium chloride and water.

7. Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.

Example: Copper (II) oxide is a metal oxide. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with copper
(II) oxide to form copper (II) chloride and water.

The reaction between acids and metal oxides to form salt and water is similar to the
neutralization reaction between an acid and base to form salt and water. Thus it shows the
basic nature of metal oxide.
Note: The metal hydroxides are also basic in nature. The acids also react with metal
hydroxides to form salt and water. The antacid called ‘Milk of Magnesia’ which is used
to remove indigestion is Magnesium Hydroxide. Magnesium Hydroxide is basic in
nature.

8. Acids have corrosive nature. The mineral acids cause severe burns on the skin and attack
and eat up material like cloth, wood, metal structure so they are said to be corrosive.
Strong bases are also very corrosive and can destroy our skin.
NOTE: An Acid is a substance which dissociates (ionizes) on dissolving in water to
produce hydrogen ions (H+ ion).
Example: An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid ionizes to form hydrogen ions along
with chloride ion.

In the presence of hydrogen ions in hydrochloric acid solution which makes it behave as
an acid. Hydrogen ion do not exist as H+ ion in solution, they attach themselves to the
polar molecule of water to form hydronium ion (H 3O+ ion).

A common thing in all the acids is that they produce hydrogen ion when dissolved in
water. Thus acidic behavior of an acid solution is due to the presence of hydrogen ion in
it.
The aqueous solution of glucose and alcohol do not show acidic character because their
hydrogen does not separate out as hydrogen ion.

Because of presence of ions in acidic solution, they can conduct electricity. That’s why
they are used as electrolytes.
Distilled Water does not conduct electricity because it does not contain any ionic
compound dissolved in it whereas rain water conducts electricity. Rain water while
falling through the atmosphere, dissolves the carbon dioxide from air and forms carbonic
acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid provides hydrogen and carbonate ion to rain water. Due to
these ions, rain water conducts electricity.

Uses of Mineral Acids in Industry:

BASES:
Bases are those substances which have bitter taste. A base can neutralize an acid. All the metal
oxide and metal hydroxide are bases. A base can neutralize the acid. All the metal oxides and
hydroxides are bases. Example: Na2O (Sodium Oxide), NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide), CaO
(Calcium Oxide), Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide) etc. All Metal Carbonates and metal
bicarbonates are also considered as bases because they also neutralize the acids. Example:
Na2CO3 (Sodium Carbonate), NaHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate).

Note:
1. Most of the bases do not dissolve in water but some bases dissolve in water. A base
which is soluble in water is called alkali. Example: Ammonium Hydroxide, Sodium
Hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide, Calcium Hydroxide, Magnesium Hydroxide.
2. A base is a substance which dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH -) in
solutions.

STRONG BASES AND WEAK BASES:

STRONG BASE: A base which completely ionizes in water and thus produces large amount of
hydroxide ions is called strong bases. NaOH and KOH are strong bases.

WEAK BASE: A base which is partially ionized in water and produces small amount of
hydroxide ions is called weak base. Example: Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, Mg(OH)2.

Properties of Bases:
1. Bases have bitter taste.
2. Bases feel soapy to touch.
3. Bases turn red litmus to blue.
4. Bases conduct electricity in solution.
5. Bases react with some metal to form hydrogen gas:
Example: When sodium hydroxide solution is heated with zinc, then sodium zincate and
hydrogen gas are formed.

A salt formed by the reaction of base and metal, the metal part is present as a part of the
negative ion. Example: In Sodium zincate salt (Na2ZnO2) formed in above example, the
zinc metal is present as a part of negative ion (ZnO 22-).
Note: All the metals do not react with bases to form salts and hydrogen gas.

6. Bases react with acids to form salt and water.

Example: When sodium hydroxide reacts with sulphuric acid, then sodium chloride and
water is formed.
 When acid and base combine then the neutralization reaction occurs due to combination
of hydrogen ion present in acid and hydroxide ion present in base to form water.

7. Bases react with non metal oxides to form salt and water.

Example: Calcium Hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to produce calcium carbonate
and water.

This reaction indicates that non metal oxides are acidic in nature.

USES OF BASES:

STRENGTH OF ACID AND BASE SOLUTION: pH SCALE

Water is slightly ionized into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-). In pure water, the
concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal. Due to this, pure water is neither
acidic nor basic, it is neutral.
 i. When acid is added to water, it produces hydrogen ions. Due to this, the concentration of
hydrogen ion increases in water. Thus solution of acid will have more hydrogen ion
concentration than the hydroxide ion and it will be acidic in nature.
Note: Even the acidic solution contains the hydroxide ions which come from the
ionization of water.

ii. Bases produce hydroxide ions in water. So, when a base is added to water, then the
concentration of hydroxide ions in it increases. The basic solution has excess of
hydroxide ions.
Note: Even the basic solution contains the hydrogen ions which come from the
ionization of water.

In 1909, Sorenson devised a scale on which the strength of acid solutions as well as basic
solutions could be represented by making use of the hydrogen ion concentrations in them. The
pH of a solution is inversely proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ion in it. The
strength of an acid or base is measured on a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 is called pH
scale. pH is a pure number, it has no units.
1. Neutral substance has a pH of exactly 7. The pH of pure water is 7. In neutral substance
the concentration of hydrogen ions are equal to the concentration of hydroxide ions.
2. Acids have the pH less than 7. More acidic the solution is, the lower will be its pH. The
solutions having a pH in 0 to 3 are considered to be strong acids. The solutions having a
pH in between 3 to 7 are considered to be weak acids.
3. Bases have a pH of more than 7. The more basic a solution is, the higher will be its pH.
The solutions having a pH in between 7 to 10 are considered to be weak basic. The
solutions having a pH values in 10 to 14 are considered to be strong basic.

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR:
Universal indicator is a mixture of many different indicators which gives different colors at
different pH values of the entire pH scale. The common indicators cannot tell the relative
strength of acids and bases.

IMPORTANCE OF pH IN EVERYDAY LIFE:

1. pH in our Digestive System: The dilute hydrochloric acid helps in digesting the food.
The excess acid in the stomach causes indigestion which produces pain and irritation.
Antacids are mild bases which reacts with excess acid in the stomach and neutralizes it.
This gives relief from pain and irritation. The common antacids are Magnesium
Hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia) and Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (Baking Soda).

2. pH changes as the cause of Tooth Decay: The bacteria present in our mouth break
down the sugar to form acids. This acid lowers the pH in our mouth. Tooth decay start in
mouth when pH of acid form in mouth falls below 5.5. The acid formed attacks the
enamel of our teeth and corrode it. The tooth decay can be prevented by cleaning the
mouth thoroughly after eating the food.
 3. Plants and Animals are sensitive to pH changes: Plants grow best when the pH of the
soil is close to 7. If the soil is too acidic or basic, the plants cannot grow properly. If the
soil is too acidic, then it is treated with materials like quicklime or slaked lime or chalk.
All the materials are bases and hence react with excess acid present in soil and reduce its
acidity. If the soil is too basic, its alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying organic
matter which contains acidic materials.
Body works well within a narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. If this pH range gets
disturbed then many ailments can occur. The aquatic animals can survive in lake or river
within narrow range of pH values. When the pH of rain water is about 5.6, it is called
acid rain. Too much acid can lower the pH of lake water which makes the survival of
aquatic animals difficult.

4. Self Defense by Animals and Plants through Chemical Warfare: Many animals and
plants protect themselves from their enemies by injecting painful and irritating acids and
bases into their skin.
Example:
 When a honeybee stings a person, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin which
causes immense pain and irritation. Rubbing a mild base like baking soda on sting
area gives relief. Baking soda neutralizes the effect of acidic liquid injected by
bee sting.
 A wasp stings, it injects alkaline liquid into the skin. Rubbing a mild acid like
vinegar on stung area neutralizes the alkaline liquid injected by wasp sting.
 An ant sting injects methanoic acid into the skin of a person causing burning pain.
Being acidic, an ant sting can be neutralized by rubbing mild base like baking
soda.
 The nettle leaves have stinging hair. When a person touch the leaves of nettle
plant accidently, the stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid into the
skin causing burning pain. The nettle sting can be neutralized by rubbing mild
base like baking soda on the skin.

SALTS: A salt is a compound formed an acid by the replacement of the hydrogen in the acid by
a metal. Salts are formed when acids reacts with bases. Salts are ionic compounds. Like acid and
base solutions, solution of salt in water conducts electricity.
Note:
 The salts of Hydrochloric acid are called Chlorides.
 The salts of Sulphuric acid are called Sulphates.
 The salts of Nitric acid are called Nitrates.
 The salts of Carbonic acid are called Carbonates.
 The salts of Acetic acid are called Acetates.

pH of Salt Solution: The aqueous solutions of many salts are neutral but some salts are acidic or
basic solution when dissolved in water.
1. The salts of strong acids and strong bases give neutral solutions. Example: Sodium
chloride salt is formed from a strong acid hydrochloric acid and strong base sodium
hydroxide, therefore sodium chloride solution is neutral.
 2. The salts of strong acids and weak bases give acidic solution. Example: Ammonium
chloride salt (NH4Cl) is formed by strong acid hydrochloric acid and weal base
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), therefore ammonium chloride salt solution is acidic in
nature.
3. The salt of strong base and weak acid give basic solutions. Example: Sodium carbonate is
a salt of weak acid carbonic acid (H2CO3) and strong base Sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
therefore the solution of sodium carbonate is basic in nature.

SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl): The common salt is a white powder used in preparing food.
The chemical name of common salt is Sodium Chloride. It is neutral in nature. Sodium Chloride
is prepared in lab by the combination of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.

The sodium chloride solution formed is evaporated to obtain solid sodium chloride.

Industrial Preparation of Salt: Common Salt occurs naturally in sea water and rack salt.
 Common Salt from Sea Water: Common salt is obtained from sea water by the process
of evaporation. Sea water is trapped in large and shallow pools and allowed to stand
there. After the evaporation of water, common salt is left behind.
 Common salt from Underground Deposits: The large crystals of common salt found in
underground deposits are called rock salt. Rock salt is brown in color due to impurities in
it. Rock salt is mined from underground deposits just like coal.

Uses of Sodium Chloride:

CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT:

1. SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH): Commonly known as Caustic soda. Chemical
formula: NaOH
Production: Sodium Hydroxide is produced by the electrolysis of a concentrated
aqueous solution of sodium chloride (also called as brine). When electricity is passed
through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) it decomposes to form sodium
hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen.

During the electrolysis, chlorine gas is produce at anode and hydrogen gas is produced at
cathode. Sodium Hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
The process of electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is called chlor alkali process.

Uses of NaOH:

Uses of Chlorine:
 Uses of Hydrogen:

WASHING SODA: Washing soda is sodium carbonate containing 10 molecules of water of

crystallization. The formula of washing soda is Na2CO3.10H2O. Sodium carbonate which does
not contain any water of crystallization is called anhydrous sodium carbonate Na2CO3 (also
called as Soda Ash).
Production: A washing soda is produced from sodium chloride in following three steps:
a) A cold and concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) is reacted with ammonia and
carbon dioxide to obtain sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Sodium Hydrogen carbonate formed is not soluble in water, so it precipitates out as solid.

b) Sodium Hydrogen carbonate is separated by filtration, dried and heated. On heating, it

decomposes to form anhydrous sodium carbonate.

c) The anhydrous sodium carbonate is dissolved in water and recrystallised to get washing
soda crystals containing 10 molecules of water of crystallization.

Properties of Washing Soda:

 Washing soda is transparent crystalline solid.
 Washing soda is few carbonates which are soluble in water.
 The solution of washing soda in water is alkaline which turns red litmus to blue.
 Detergent Properties: Washing soda attacks on dirt and grease to form water soluble
products which are then washed away on rinsing with water.
Uses of Washing Soda:

BAKING SODA:
The chemical name of baking soda is Sodium Hydrogen carbonate. The formula of baking soda
is NaHCO3. It is also called as sodium Bicarbonate.

Production: It is produced when a cold and concentrated solution of sodium chloride (called
brine) reacts with ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Properties:
1. It consists of white crystals that are sparingly soluble in water.
2. It is a mild non corrosive base.
3. Action of heat: When it is heated, then it decomposes to give sodium carbonate with
evolution of carbon dioxide gas.

Uses of Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate:

1. It is used as a antacid in medicine to remove acidity in stomach. It neutralizes the excess
acid present in the stomach and relieves indigestion.
2. It is used in making baking powder. Baking Powder is a mixture of Baking Soda and
mild edible acid. When baking powder mixes with water, then sodium hydrogen
carbonate reacts with acid to evolve carbon dioxide gas.
 The carbon dioxide gas produced gets trapped in the wet dough and bubbles out slowly
making the cake rise and became soft and spongy.
If only sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in making cake, then sodium carbonate
formed from it by action of heat will give bitter taste to cake. As long as baking powder
is dry, the sodium hydrogen carbonate and acid present in baking powder do not react
with each other. They react only in presence of water.

3. Baking soda is used in fire extinguishers. Soda acid type of fire extinguishers contains a
solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate and sulphuric acid in separate container inside
them. When the knob of the fire extinguisher is pressed, then sulphuric acid reacts with
sodium hydrogen carbonate solution to produce carbon dioxide gas. The pressure of
carbon dioxide gas forces a steam of liquid to fall on burning substance. The carbon
dioxide gas forms a blanket around the burning substance and cuts off the supply of air of
burning substance. Since the supply of air is cut off, the process of burning stops and fire
gets extinguished.

BLEACHING POWDER:
Bleaching powder is calcium oxychloride. The chemical formula of bleaching powder is
CaOCl2. It is also called as chloride of lime.

Production: Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over dry slaked lime.

Properties:
1. Bleaching powder is a white powder which gives strong smell of chlorine.
2. Bleaching powder is soluble in cold water.
3. Bleaching powder reacts with dilute acid to produce chlorine.

The chlorine produced in above reaction acts as a bleaching agent. Thus real bleaching
agent in bleaching powder is chlorine. The bleaching action of chlorine is due to its
oxidizing property. Actually bleaching powder is an arrangement for storing chlorine
because chlorine gas is difficult to store.
Uses of Bleaching Powder:

PLASTER OF PARIS:
𝟏
Plaster of Paris is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. The formula of P.O.P is CaSO4. H2O.
𝟐

Preparation: Plaster of Paris is prepared from Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). When gypsum is heated
to a temperature of 100oC in a kiln, it loses three fourths of its water and forms P.O.P.

The temperature during the heating of gypsum should not be allowed to go above 100 oC. This is
because if gypsum is heated above 100oC, then all of its water of crystallization is eliminated and
anhydrous calcium sulphate called dead burnt plaster is formed.

Properties:
1. P.O.P is a white powder.
2. Plaster of Paris has a very remarkable property of setting into hard mass on wetting with
water. The setting of P.O.P is due to its hydration to form crystals of gypsum which is
hard solid mass. That’s why it is stored in a moisture proof container.

Uses of P.O.P:
WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION:
The water molecules which form part of structure of a crystal are called water of crystallization.
The salts which contain water of crystallization are called hydrated salts.
Example:
1. Copper sulphate crystal contains 5 molecules of water of crystallization (CuSO 4.5H2O).
2. Iron sulphate crystal contains 7 molecules of water of crystallization (FeSO 4.7H2O).

Note: Water of crystallization is a part of crystal structure of a salts, it does not wet the salt. The
water of crystallization gives the crystals of salts their shape and sometimes imparts color.
Example:
1. CuSO4.5H2O is of blue color.
2. FeSO4.7H2O is of green color