Chapter One

Matrices, Determinant and Systems of Linear Equation

●●●

Definition of Matrix: A rectangular array of numbers of the form 𝐴 =

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ where each 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ is called a Matrix and the notation
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

abbreviated as 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

The horizontal arrangement of the array is called a row while the vertical

arrangement of the array is called column. Here, we say that 𝐴 has size or

order 𝑚 by 𝑛 written as 𝑚 × 𝑛. That means it has 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns.

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 Matrices

●●●
● The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements
of the matrix.
● Matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and
so on.
● The word matrix is singular and matrices is its plural form.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏
Example: 𝐴 = is a 2 × 2 matrix, 𝐵 = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 is a 3 ×
𝑐 𝑑
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘
1 2 4
3 matrix, 𝐶 = 2 3 is a 3 × 2 matrix, 𝐷 = 3 is a 4 × 1 matrix
2
4 5 1
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Operation on matrices refers to sum, the difference and the
product of two given matrices. Assuming 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 and B=
(𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 , let’s define these operation.
● Addition of Matrices: The sum of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the matrix 𝐴 + 𝐵
obtained by adding corresponding entries as 𝐴+𝐵 =
(𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
● Subtraction of Matrices: The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the
matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵 obtained by subtracting corresponding entries as
𝐴 − 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
● Scalar multiple: The scalar multiple k𝐴 of 𝐴 is a matrix
obtained by multiplying each entries of 𝐴 by the scalar 𝑘 as k𝐴 =
(𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Compatibility condition: Two matrices can be added or
subtracted if they have the same size. This means that we cannot
add or subtract matrices of different size.
3 4 1 2
Example: Let 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = . Then, we can find 𝐴+B,
5 6 3 4
A-B and 3𝐴 as follows:
3 4 1 2 3+1 4+2 4 6
● 𝐴+𝐵 = + = =
5 6 3 4 5+3 6+4 8 10
● 𝐴−𝐵 = 3 4
−
1 2
=
3−1 4−2
=
2 2
5 6 3 4 5−3 6−4 2 2
● 3𝐴 = 3 3 4
=
3×3 3×4
=
9 12
5 6 3×5 3×6 15 18
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 Operations on Matrices

●●●
● Matrix Multiplication: is the operation that we can use to find
the product 𝐴𝐵.
● Note: The product 𝐴𝐵 is defined if and only if the number of
columns in the matrix 𝐴 equals the number of rows in the matrix
𝐵.
● Besides, if 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑝 and 𝐵 is p × 𝑛, then the product 𝐴𝐵 will
be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix
1 2 −2 3
● Example: Let 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = . Then, find the
0 −3 1 −1
product 𝐴𝐵.
1 2 −2 3 0 1
● Solution: 𝐴𝐵 = = .
0 −3 1 −1 −3 3
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 Equality of Matrices

●●●
Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal (write 𝐴 = 𝐵) if and
only if 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same size and all their corresponding
entries are equal. That is, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 with 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
𝑏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 1≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛.
● Example: Find the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 for which the given
matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal.
1 2 𝛼−𝛽 2
𝐴= , 𝐵= .
3 −1 𝛼 −1
● Solution: Similarly, we have 𝑎11 = 𝑏11 implies 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 1, 𝑎21 =
𝑏21 implies 𝛼 = 3, and hence 𝛽 = 2.
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 Equality of Matrices
●●●

● Remark: Two matrices are said to be equal if

they are of the same order and if all
corresponding entries are equal.

● Exercise: Solve the following matrix equation

𝑥−𝑦 𝑦+𝑧 8 1
for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑤 . =
3𝑤 + 𝑧 2𝑥 − 4𝑤 7 6

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: if all entries of a matrix are zero,
then the matrix is called zero matrix or null matrix. That is, an 𝑚 ×
𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is said to be zero matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for all 𝑖𝑗.
● Example: The following are zero matrices.
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
● 0 0 , , 0 0 0 , 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
● Row Matrix: A matrix having exactly one row is called row matrix
and denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎1𝑗 )1×𝑛 .
● Example: The matrices 𝐴 = 4 − 5 and 𝐵 = −2 3 7 are row
matrices.

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Column Matrix: A matrix having exactly one column is called column
matrix and denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖1 )𝑚×1 .
−2
4
● Example: The matrices 𝐶 = and 𝐷 = 3 are Column matrices.
−5
7
● Square Matrix: A matrix that has equal number of rows and columns is
called square matrix. If 𝐴 has 𝑛-rows and 𝑛-columns, we call it a square
matrix of size 𝑛.
𝑎11 𝑎12 2 −3 4
Example: 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎 (Square matrix of size 2), 𝐵 = 3 2 5
21 22
0 8 −2
(Square matrix of size 3)
𝑐11 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛
𝑐21 𝑐22 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛
● 𝐶=
⋮ ⋮
(Square matrix of size 𝑛)
⋱ ⋮
𝑐𝑛1 𝑐𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑛

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● In square matrix, the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 are called diagonal entries.
● The diagonal containing the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 is called main diagonal
or principal diagonal of 𝐶.

● The entries that are not in the main diagonal are called non-diagonal entries .

2 3 5
● Example: The matrix C = 5 3 2 the entries 𝑐11 = 2, 𝑐22 = 3 and
4 0 7
𝑐33 = 7 constitute the main diagonal.

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 Types of Matrices

●●●
● Definition (Trace of Square Matrix): The sum of the entries on the
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
main diagonal of a square matrix 𝐴 = of
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
order 𝑛 is called the trace of 𝐴. It is given by
𝑛

𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = ෍ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

𝑖=1

2 3 5
● Example: Consider a matrix 𝐴 = 5 3 2 , then trace of 𝐴 ,
4 0 7
𝑡𝑟 𝐴 = 2 + 3 + 7 = 12.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●

● Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑗 𝑛×𝑛

is said to be diagonal

matrix if 𝑑𝑖𝑗 = 0 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. That is, a square matrix whose every

element other than diagonal elements 𝑑𝑖𝑗 are zero, is called diagonal
matrix.

𝑑11 0 ⋯ 0
0 𝑑22 ⋯ 0
𝐷=
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝑑𝑛𝑛

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Example: The following are diagonal matrices.
● 𝐷 = 1 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 2)
0 1
1 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 2 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 3
0 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 −2 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 1
0 0 0
● 𝐷 = 0 0 0 (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 0

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the
diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.

𝛼 0
⋯ 0
●𝑆= 0 𝛼
⋯ 0
⋮ ⋮
⋱ ⋮
0 ⋯ 𝛼
0
4 0 0 0 0 0
1 0
● Example: 0 4 0 , 0 0 0 and are
0 1
0 0 4 0 0 0
examples of scalar matrix.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● A diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an
identity or unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by 𝐼𝑛 or
more simply by I.
1 0 ⋯ 0
𝐼𝑛 = 0 1 ⋯ 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 1
● Example : The following are identity matrices.
1 0 0
1 0
𝐼2 = (Identity matrix of size 2), 𝐼3 = 0 1 0 (Identity
0 1
0 0 1
matrix of size 3)
Note: Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 be a square matrix. 𝐴 is an identity matrix if and only if
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = ቐ
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

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 Types of Matrices
●●●
● Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular
matrix if all entries below the main diagonal are zeros. A square matrix
is said to be an lower triangular matrix if all entries above the main
diagonal are zeros. Thus, a triangular matrix is a matrix which is either
lower or upper triangular.

● A square matrix 𝑎𝑖𝑗 whose element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 < 𝑗 is called

a lower triangular matrix. Similarly, a square matrix 𝑎𝑖𝑗 whose
element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 > 𝑗 is called a upper triangular matrix.

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 Types of Matrices
●●●

2 3 3
● Example: The matrix 𝐴 = 0 7 5 is a particular example of
0 0 −1
upper triangular matrix.

7 0 0
● Matrix 𝐵 = 8 0 0 is a particular example of lower triangular
9 5 −3
matrix.

● Hence, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are triangular matrices.

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 Exercise
●●●

−2 −2 6
1. Given the matrix 𝑌 = 0 2 −10 . Find 𝑋 such that 2𝑋 + 3𝑌 is
8 −6 4
scalar matrix whose trace is 𝑡 = 6.

2. If a matrix 𝐴 has 𝑚 rows & 𝑚 + 5 columns and 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 has 𝑛 rows

& 11 − 𝑛 columns, find 𝑚 & 𝑛 so that both products 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 exist.

2 4
3. Let 𝐴 = and 𝐼 + 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐴2 = 0, where 𝐼 is identity matrix of
4 2
order 2, then find 𝑎 and 𝑏.

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● The transpose of a matrix 𝐴 is obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of 𝐴. It is denoted by 𝐴𝑡 .

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎21 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎12 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚2
● That is, 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮
𝑡
, then 𝐴 =
⋮ ⋮
⋱ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚
● Note that the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of matrix 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴𝑡 , and
the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of 𝐴𝑡 .

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● Example: Compute the transpose of the following matrices.
2 1 3
1 −1 −1
𝐴= , 𝐵 = 1 5 −3
1 2 3
3 −3 7
● Solution: First let us consider matrix 𝐴. Now, row 1 of matrix 𝐴
becomes column 1 of 𝐴𝑡 , and row 2 of 𝐴 becomes column 2 of 𝐴𝑡 .
Thus, we have
1 1
𝐴𝑡 = −1 2
−1 3
● Similarly,
2 1 3
𝐵𝑡 = 1 5 −3
3 −3 7

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 Transpose of a matrix
●●●
● Theorem (Properties of Matrix Transpose). When the relevant
sums, differences and products are defined, and 𝛼 is a scalar. Then,
1. (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡
3. (𝛼𝐴)𝑡 = 𝛼 𝐴𝑡
4. (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵𝑡 𝐴𝑡 whenever 𝐴𝐵 is defined
5. (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●

● A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 and

skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴.

● Example : Distinguish whether the given matrix is

symmetric or not.

1 1 3 0 1 3
𝐴= 1 2 2 (b) 𝐵 = −1 0 2
3 2 3 −3 −2 0

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●
Solution:

1 1 3 1 1 3
● For the matrix 𝐴 = 1 2 2 , 𝐴𝑡 = 1 2 2 . Thus, we have 𝐴 =
3 2 3 3 2 3
𝐴𝑡 , and hence 𝐴 is symmetric.

0 1 3 0 −1 −3
● For the matrix 𝐵 = −1 0 2 , 𝐵𝑡 = 1 0 2 . Thus, we
−3 −2 0 3 2 0
have B ≠ 𝐵𝑡 , and hence 𝐵 is not symmetric.

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●

0 1 3
● Example: −1 0 4 is a particular example of skew-
−3 −4 0
symmetric matrix since

0 −1 −3 0 1 3
𝐴𝑡 = 1 0 −4 = − −1 0 4 = −𝐴
3 4 0 −3 −4 0
● Note: For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 is
skew- symmetric.

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Symmetric and Skew-symmetric
●●●
● Any square matrix 𝐴 can be expressed uniquely as a sum of
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices. That is 𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝐾 ,
where 𝑆 is symmetric and 𝐾 is skew-symmetric.
1 1
● For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝑆 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 ) and K = 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 ).

3 2 1
● Exercise: Express the matrix 𝐴 = 4 5 6 as a sum of
7 8 9
symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.

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 Determinant
●●●
● The determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 is a scalar that is
associated with 𝐴 and denoted by det(𝐴) or 𝐴 . The
determinant of a matrix can be negative, zero or positive.
● Determinant of 𝟏 × 𝟏 Matrices: The determinant of 1 × 1
matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎11 ) is defined as det(𝐴) = 𝐴 = 𝑎11 .
Example : 3 = 3, −9 = −9 and 0 = 0.
● Determinant of 𝟐 × 𝟐 Matrices: The determinant of a 2 × 2
𝑎 𝑐
matrix 𝐴 = , denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or 𝐴 , is defined by the
𝑑 𝑏
formula
𝑎 𝑐
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐𝑑.
𝑑 𝑏

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 Determinant
●●●

● Example: Find the determinant of a matrix 𝐴 = 3 5 .

2 7
Solution: Using the above definition, the determinant of matrix 𝐴 is given by
3 5
det 𝐴 = = 3 7 − 5 2 = 21 − 10 = 11.
2 7
● Determinant of 𝟑 × 𝟑 Matrices:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 be a 3 × 3 matrix, and 𝐴𝑖𝑗 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2, 3) be
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
the 2 × 2 submatrix of 𝐴 obtained by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ - row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ -column
of 𝐴. Then determinant of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or 𝐴 , is defined as:

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 Determinant
●●●

● 𝐴 = (−1)1+1 𝑎11 𝐴11 + (−1)1+2 𝑎12 𝐴12 + (−1)1+3 𝑎13 𝐴13

𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22

𝑎11 𝑎32 𝑎33 − 𝑎12 𝑎31 𝑎33 + 𝑎13 𝑎31 𝑎32 .

● Example: Compute the determinants of the following matrices

2 3 4 3 −2 4
a. 𝐴 = 3 4 5 b. 𝐵 = −7 −1 0
4 5 9 1 5 2
● Solution: a. Using the above definition, the determinant of the matrix 𝐴
is given by

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 Determinant
●●●
2 3 4
det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 3 4 5
4 5 9
4 5 3 5 3 4
= −1 1+1 2 + −1 1+2 3 + −1 1+3 4
5 9 4 9 4 5
= 2 4 × 9 − 5 × 5 − 3 3 × 9 − 5 × 4 + 4 3 × 5 − 4 × 4 = 22 − 21 − 4
= −3
3 −2 4
−1 0 −7 0 −7 −1
det 𝐵 = 𝐵 = −7 −1 0 = 3 − (−2) +4
5 2 1 2 1 5
1 5 2
= 3 −1 2 − 0 2 + 2 2 −7 − 0 1 + 4 −7 5 − −1 5
= 3 −2 + 2 −14 + 4 −35 + 1
= −6 − 28 − 136 = −170

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Singular and Non-singular matrices
●●●

● Let 𝐴 be any square matrix. Then, 𝐴 is said to

be
❑non-singular matrix if det(𝐴) ≠ 0
❑singular matrix if det 𝐴 = 0

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● Let 𝐴 be an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix. The adjoint of 𝐴 denoted by 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is defined as
𝑡
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = [𝐶𝑖𝑗 ]𝑡 .

● An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is invertible if and only if 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0.

● Only non-singular matrices have inverses (non-singular matrices are
invertible).

● If 𝐴 is a square matrix and 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0, then

𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 = .
det 𝐴

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Remark:

● Inverse of a matrix is defined only for square matrices. Moreover, not all
square matrices are invertible. (Every square matrix is not invertible.)

● If 𝐵 is an inverse of 𝐴, then 𝐴 is also an inverse of 𝐵.

● If a matrix 𝐴 has inverse, then 𝐴 is said to be invertible.
● Inverse of a matrix is unique.
● The necessarily and sufficient conditions for a matrix to be invertible is
det 𝐴 ≠ 0. Such matrix are called ’non-singular’ matrix otherwise singular.

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Procedure of Finding Inverse by using adjoint Matrix

● Step 1: Check invertible.

● Compute the determinant det 𝐴 and check whether det 𝐴 ≠ 0. If it is so,
the matrix is invertible, otherwise not invertible.

● Step 2: Find matrix of co-factors 𝐂.

● Step 3: Find 𝐀𝐝𝐣(𝐀) by taking transpose of 𝐶; that is, Adj A = 𝐶 𝑡
● Step 4: Compute inverse from the following formula
1
𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
det 𝐴

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●

● If 𝑨 is square matrix with 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑨) ≠ 𝟎,

then 𝑨 is invertible (has an inverse) and the
inverse is computed by
−𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒅𝒋 𝑨
𝐝𝐞𝐭 𝑨
● Example:
1 2
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = .
0 1

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 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● Example: Find the adjoint of 𝐴 and inverse of 𝐴, where
−1 3 6
𝐴 = 2 −1 5
−3 7 4
Solution: First of all we have to find the minor of a matrix 𝐴
3 6
● 𝑀11 = −1 5 = −39, 𝑀12 = 2 5
= 23, 𝑀13 = = −30
7 4 −3 4 7 4
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
● 𝑀21 = = −30, 𝑀22 = = 14, 𝑀23 = =2
7 4 −3 4 −3 7
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
● 𝑀31 = = 21, 𝑀32 = = −17, 𝑀33 = = −5
−1 5 2 5 2 −1

30/04/2024 math 35
 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
So, based on this the cofactors are

● 𝑐11 = −1 1+1 𝑀
11 = −39, 𝑐12 = −1 1+2 𝑀
11 = −23,

● 𝑐13 = −1 1+3
𝑀13 = 11, 𝑐21 = −1 2+1
𝑀21 = 30, 𝑐22 = −1 2+2
𝑀22 = 14,

● 𝑐23 = −1 2+3 𝑀
23 = −2, 𝑐31 = −1 3+1 𝑀
31 = 21,

● 𝑐32 = −1 3+2
𝑀32 = 17, 𝑐33 = −1 3+3
𝑀33 = −5
−39 −23 11
● Hence, 𝐶 = 30 14 −2 . Therefore, 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 =
21 17 −5
−39 30 21
−23 14 17
11 −2 −5

30/04/2024 math 36
 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
● and

−1 3 6
● det 𝐴 = 2 −1 5 = −1 −1 5 − 3 2 5 + 6 2 −1
7 4 −3 4 −3 7
−3 7 4
= −1 × −39 + 3 × −23 + 6 × 11 = 36 ≠ 0

Now we can compute the inverse of matrix 𝐴 by using

1 1 −39 30 21
𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = −23 14 17
det 𝐴 36
11 −2 −5

30/04/2024 math 37
 Inverse of Matrix
●●●
Properties of Invertible Matrices

● Let A and B be invertible matrices of order n and 𝛼 a nonzero scalar. Then,

● (𝐴𝑡 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑡
● (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
● (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
1
● (𝛼 A)−1 = 𝛼 𝐴−1

30/04/2024 math 38
Basic Properties of Determinant
●●●
❑ If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices, then
1. det 𝐴𝑡 = det(𝐴)
1
2. det 𝐴−1 = det 𝐴 (Provided 𝐴 is invertible)
3. det 𝐴𝐵 = det(𝐴)det(𝐵) Provided AB is compatible
4. det 𝐴2 = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)2 . Generally, det 𝐴𝑚 = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)𝑚 .
5. det kA = 𝑘 𝑛 det(𝐴) if A is multiplied by the scalar 𝑘.
6. det B = tdet(A) if matrix 𝐵 is obtained from A by multiplying only one
row (Column) of A with a scalar t.
7. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal, their determinants are equal: i.e., 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇒ det 𝐴 =
det(𝐵)

30/04/2024 math 39
 Exercise
●●●
● If 𝐴 is a 3 × 3 matrix with 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 5, find det 2 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 .
● If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices with 𝐴 = 6𝐴−1 , then find
det 𝐵𝑡 𝐴2 (2𝐵)−1 .

● Let 𝐴 be 3 × 3 scalar matrix 𝑑𝑒𝑡(3𝐴) = 216. Then, find matrix 𝐴.

● Find det 6𝐵𝑡 𝐴2 3𝐵 −1
if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices where 𝐴 =
4𝐴−1 .

● If the adjoint of matrix 𝐴 is 2 −3 , find matrix 𝐴.

4 5

30/04/2024 math 40
 Exercise
●●●
● If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices with 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = −4 and 𝐶 = 3𝐵 −1
, find
det 𝐴2 𝐵𝑡 𝐶 .

● Find det 2𝐴𝐵𝑡 𝐶 −1 if 𝐴 & 𝐶 are 3 × 3 with 𝐵 = 2𝐴−1 and 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 32.

● If 𝐴 and 𝐶 are 3 × 3 matrices where 𝐴 is non-singular matrix with 𝐵 = 6𝐴−1 and

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 24, then find det 𝐶 −1 .

−8 3 6
● Let 𝑋 = 0 −2 9 . Find a matrix 𝑌 so that 3𝑌 − 2𝑋 is a scalar matrix with
3 12 −5
det 6𝑌 − 4𝑋 = 64.

30/04/2024 math 41
 Elementary Row Operations
●●●
● Let 𝐴 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. The following are known as
elementary row operations.
1. Interchanging two rows: 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑗 (Rule of Interchanging)
2. Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar: 𝑅𝑖 → 𝛼𝑅𝑖 (𝛼 is a
nonzero scalar). (Rule of Scaling)
3. Adding a multiple of one row to another: 𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛼𝑅𝑗 (𝛼 is
a nonzero scalar). (Rule of Replacement)

30/04/2024 math 42
 Elementary Row Operations
●●●
• Example: Use elementary row operations to transform the
given matrix 𝐴 into, (a) an upper triangular matrix, (b) an
identity matrix.

3 12 6
𝐴 = 1 1 −1
1 2 3

30/04/2024 math 43
 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
●●●
System of Linear Equations
● Consider a system of 𝑛 linear algebraic equation in 𝑛 unknowns.
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2,3, … , 𝑛 are the known coefficients,
𝑏𝑖 , 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2,3, … , 𝑛 are the known values and 𝑥𝑖 , (𝑖, 𝑗 =
1, 2,3, … , 𝑛) are the unknowns to be determined.

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 44

 System of Linear Equations
●●●
● In matrix form the above system can be written as
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
where 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ is coefficient matrix, 𝐵 =
⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑛
𝑥1
𝑥2
which is a column vector and 𝑋 = is the unknown column
⋮
𝑥𝑛
vector .

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 45

 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
Cramer’s Rule is the analytical method for solving the
given system of equation
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
and the solution takes the form
𝐵𝑖
𝑥𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛.
𝐴
Where 𝐵𝑖 is the matrix obtained by replacing the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ
column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝐵.

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 46

 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
● For three equations and three unknowns:
● Consider the system
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 = 𝑏2
𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 = 𝑏3
● In matrix form the above system can be written as
𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥1 𝑏1
where 𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 , 𝑋 = 𝑥2 and 𝑏 = 𝑏2 .
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑥3 𝑏3

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 47

 Cramer’s Rule
●●●
● The matrix 𝐵1 is obtained by replacing the 1𝑠𝑡 column of 𝐴 by
𝑏1 𝑎12 𝑎13
the vector 𝑏. Thus, 𝐵1 = 𝑏2 𝑎22 𝑎23 .
𝑏3 𝑎32 𝑎33
● The matrix 𝐵2 is obtained by replacing the 2𝑛𝑑 column of 𝐴 by
𝑎11 𝑏1 𝑎13
the vector 𝑏. Thus, 𝐵2 = 𝑎21 𝑏2 𝑎23 ,
𝑎31 𝑏3 𝑎33
● The matrix 𝐵3 is obtained by replacing the 3𝑟𝑑 column of 𝐴 by
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏1
the vector 𝑏. Thus, 𝐵3 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑏2
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑏3
30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 48
 Cramer’s Rule Example
●●●
● Solve the following system using Cramer’s Rule
2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1
● Solution: Here
2 −3 1
● 𝐴 = 1 1 −1 ⟹ 𝐴 = 1,
1 −2 1
1 −3 1
● 𝐵1 = 0 1 −1 ⇒ 𝐵1 =-3
−1 −2 1

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 49

 Cramer’s Rule Example
●●●
1 1 2
● 𝐵2 = 1 0 −1 ⇒ 𝐵2 = −5
1 −1 1
2 −3 1
● 𝐵3 = 1 1 0 ⇒ 𝐵3 = −8
1 −2 −1

By Cramer’s rule, we get

𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3
𝑥1 = = −3, 𝑥2 = = −5, 𝑥3 = = −8
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 50

 Cramer’s Rules as Test for Number
of Solutions
●●●
Let 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 be a system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables.

● If 𝐴 ≠ 0, then the system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 is consistent and has a unique solution.

● If 𝐴 = 0 and 𝐵𝑖 = 0 for all 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 the system is consistent and has

infinitely many solutions (but it cannot be solved by Cramer’s rule).

● If 𝐴 = 0, and at least one of the 𝐵𝑖 is nonzero, then the system has no

solution. Such systems are called inconsistent.

Note: Cramer’s Rule is valid only when the system is square system (i.e., a system in

which the number of equations is equal to the number of variables) and for systems

whose coefficient matrix is non-singular.

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 Matrix Inverse Method
●●●
● A given system of simultaneous equation can be written in
matrix form as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏. Suppose the coefficient matrix 𝐴 is
invertible. Then, if we multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 , 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏
⟹ 𝐴−1 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴−1 b ⟹ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

● Therefore, the matrix equation of the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 has a unique

solution given by 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 whenever 𝐴−1 exits. This method is
known as matrix inverse method.

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 Matrix Inverse Method Example
●●●
● Obtain the solution of the following linear simultaneous
equations by the matrix inversion method
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 15
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8

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 Solution
●●●
● Now converting given equations into matrix form

2 1 1 𝑥 5
3 5 2 𝑦 = 15
2 1 4 𝑧 8

2 1 1 𝑥 5
● Now, 𝐴 = 3 5 2 , 𝑋 = 𝑦 and 𝑏 = 15
2 1 4 𝑧 8

𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 ∴ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏
30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 54
 Solution
●●●

2 1 1
5 2 3 2 3 5
● det(𝐴) = 3 5 2 =2 −1 +1
1 4 2 4 2 1
2 1 4

= 2 × (5 × 4 − 2 × 1) − 1 × (3 × 4 − 2 × 2) + 1 × (3 × 1 − 5
× 2) = 2 × (20 − 2) − 1 × (12 − 4) + 1 × (3 − 10)
= 2 × 18 − 1 × 8 + 1 × −7 = 36 − 8 − 7 = 21

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 Solution
●●●
● The determinant of 𝐴 is not zero, therefore the inverse matrix 𝐴−1 exist. To
calculate the inverse matrix find additional minors and cofactors of matrix 𝐴
● Find the minor 𝑀11 and the cofactor 𝑐11 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 1 and
column 1.
5 2
𝑀11 = = 5 · 4 − 1 · 2 = 20 − 2 = 18 ⇒ 𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 𝑀11 = 18
1 4
● Find the minor 𝑀12 and the cofactor 𝑐12 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 1 and
column 2.
3 2
𝑀12 = = 3 · 4 − 2 · 2 = 12 − 4 = 8 ⇒ 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 𝑀12 = −8
2 4
● Find the minor 𝑀13 and the cofactor 𝑐13 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 1 and
column 3.
3 5
𝑀13 = = 3 · 1 − 2 · 5 = 3 − 10 = −7 ⇒ 𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 𝑀13 = −7
2 1
30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 56
 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀21 and the cofactor 𝑐21 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 1.
1 1
𝑀21 = = 1 · 4 − 1 · 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 ⇒ 𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀21 = −3
1 4
● Find the minor 𝑀22 and the cofactor 𝑐22 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 2.
2 1
𝑀22 = = 2 · 4 − 2 · 1 = 8 − 2 = 6 ⇒ 𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22 = 6
2 4
● Find the minor 𝑀23 and the cofactor 𝑐23 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 2 and
column 3.
2 1
𝑀23 = = 2 · 1 − 2 · 1 = 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 𝑀23 = 0
2 1

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 57

 Solution
●●●
● Find the minor 𝑀31 and the cofactor 𝑐31 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 1.
1 1
𝑀31 = = 1 · 2 − 5 · 1 = 2 − 5 = −3 ⇒ 𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 𝑀31 = −3
5 2
● Find the minor 𝑀32 and the cofactor 𝑐32 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 2.
2 1
𝑀32 = = 2 · 2 − 3 · 1 = 4 − 3 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 𝑀32 = −1
3 2
● Find the minor 𝑀33 and the cofactor 𝑐33 . In matrix 𝐴 cross out row 3 and
column 3.
2 1
𝑀33 = = 2 · 5 − 3 · 1 = 10 − 3 = 7 ⇒ 𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 𝑀33 = 7
3 5

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 Solution
●●●
● Write the matrix of cofactors:
18 −8 −7
𝐶 = −3 6 0
−3 −1 7
● Transposed matrix of cofactors:
18 −3 −3
𝑡
𝐶 = −8 6 −1 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
−7 0 7
● Find inverse matrix:
6 1 1
− −
7 7 7
𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) 8 2 1
𝐴−1 = = − −
det(𝐴) 21 7 21
1 1
− 0
3 3

30/04/2024 Prepared by Zerihun Mekoya 59

 Solution
●●●
6 1 1
− −
7 7 7 5
8 2 1
● Find a solution: 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 = − 21 7
−
21
15 =
1 1 8
− 0
3 3
6 1 1 30 15 8
.5 + − . 15 + − .8 − −
7 7 7 7 7 7 1
8 2 1 40 30 8
− .5 + . 15 + − .8 = − + − = 2
21 7 21 21 7 21
1 1 5 8 1
− . 5 + 0.15 + .8 − +0+
3 3 3 21
1 𝑥
⇒𝑋= 2 = 𝑦
1 𝑧
● Hence given system of equations has a solution 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑧 = 1.

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 Exercise
●●●
1 −2 −4
● If cofactor matrix 𝐴 is 𝐶 = 0 1 −1 and
2 −3 −8
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 < 0, then using Matrix Inverse method,
solve 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵 where 𝐵 = (6 2 −3)𝑡 .

30/04/2024 math 61
 Gaussian Elimination Method
●●●
● Here, the unknowns are eliminated by combining equations such that the 𝑛
equations in 𝑛 unknowns are reduced to an equivalent upper triangular
system which is then solved by back substitution method. The main
advantage of this method is that it is applicable to any system of linear
equations.

● To solve the system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 using Gaussian elimination method:

Step 1: Form the augmented matrix 𝐴 𝑏 of the system.

Step 2: Transform the matrix 𝐴 of 𝐴 𝑏 into an upper triangular matrix by

using elementary row operations (That is 𝐴 𝑏 ⟶ 𝑈 𝑐 .)

Step 3: Form new system using 𝑈𝑋 = 𝑐 and solve by back substitution method.
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 Gaussian Elimination Method
Example 1
●●●
● Solve the system of equations by using Gaussian
elimination method
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −1
3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = −2
.

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 Gaussian Elimination Method
Example 2
●●●
● Solve the system of equations by using Gaussian elimination method
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −1
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −1
6𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 7
● Solution: The given system of equations can be written as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏, where
1 −3 1 −1 𝑥
𝐴 = 2 1 −4 , 𝑏 = −1 and 𝑋 = 𝑦
6 −7 8 7 𝑧
● Now we have the augmented matrix 𝐴 𝑏 as
1 −3 1 −1
2 1 −4 −1
6 −7 8 7
● Apply 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 6𝑅1 . Here elementary row operation
that we applied on 𝐴, is also apply on 𝑏 simultaneously.

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 Gaussian Elimination Method
Example 2
●●●
1 −3 1 −1
0 7 −6 −1
0 11 2 13
1
● Apply 𝑅2 → 7 𝑅2
1 −3 1 −1
−6 1
0 1
7 7
0 11 2 13
● Apply 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 11𝑅2
1 −3 1 −1
−6 1
0 1 7
7
80 80
0 0
7 7

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 Gaussian Elimination Method
Example 2
●●●
7
● Apply 𝑅3 → 𝑅
80 3
1 −3 1 −1
−6 1
0 1 7 7
0 0 1 1
● Finally we can rewrite this augmented matrix as
1 −3 1 𝑥 −1
−6 1
0 1 𝑦 =
7 𝑧 7
0 0 1 1
Thus we have reduced coefficient matrix A to upper triangular matrix. Therefore
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −1
6 1
𝑦− 𝑧=
7 7
𝑧=1
● Hence given system of equations has a solution 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑧 = 1.

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 Gauss-Jordan's Method
●●●
● Gauss-Jordan method is an extension of the Gauss elimination method. The
set of equations 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 is reduced to a diagonal set 𝐼𝑥 = 𝑏′, where 𝐼 is a
unit matrix. This is equivalent to 𝑥 = 𝑏′. The solution vector is therefore
obtained directly from 𝑏′ .
● Gauss-Jordan method also provides the inverse of the coefficient matrix. The
Gauss-Jordan method requires more computational effort than Gauss
elimination process.
● Hence, the Gauss-Jordan method gives
𝐴: 𝑏 → 𝐼: 𝑑
● To find the inverse of a matrix 𝐴 using Gauss-Jordan method, we start with
the augmented matrix 𝐴 with the identity matrix 𝐼 of the same order. When
the Gauss-Jordan method procedure is completed we obtain
𝐴: 𝐼 → 𝐼: 𝐴−1

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 Gauss-Jordan's Method Example
●●●
● Solve the following system using Gauss-Jordan method:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 4
ቐ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 7
−𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −1

2 1 −1
▪ Find inverse of the matrix 1 0 −1 using Gauss-Jordan method.
1 1 2

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 Exercise
●●●
● Using both Cramer’s Rule, Matrix inversion
method, Gaussian elimination method and Gauss-
Jordan method (if possible) to solve the following
linear systems.

2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1 4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = −2

i)ቐ 3𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1 ii) ቐ 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 16
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −2 8𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 4

30/04/2024 math 69