Computer hardware

 Article
 Talk

 Read
 Edit
 View history

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

PDP-11 CPU board

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the case, central
processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer
data storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.[1][2]

By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware
is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software is "soft"
because it is easy to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A

combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other systems
exist with only hardware.

Von Neumann architecture

Main articles: Von Neumann architecture and Stored-program computer
Von Neumann architecture scheme

The template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in a 1945
paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. This describes a design architecture for
an electronic digital computer with subdivisions of a processing unit consisting of an arithmetic
logic unit and processor registers, a control unit containing an instruction register and program
counter, a memory to store both data and instructions, external mass storage, and input and
output mechanisms.[3] The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a stored-program computer
in which an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time because they
share a common bus. This is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the
performance of the system.[4]

Types of computer systems

Personal computer

Basic hardware components of a personal computer, including a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU,

a RAM, two expansion cards, a power supply, an optical disc drive, a hard disk drive, a keyboard
and a mouse

Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan
The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and
relatively low price. Desktop personal computers have a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse, and a
computer case. The computer case holds the motherboard, fixed or removable disk drives for
data storage, the power supply, and may contain other peripheral devices such as modems or
network interfaces. Some models of desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into
the same case as the processor and power supply. Separating the elements allows the user to
arrange the components in a pleasing, comfortable array, at the cost of managing power and data
cables between them.

Laptops are designed for portability but operate similarly to desktop PCs.[5] They may use lower-
power or reduced size components, with lower performance than a similarly priced desktop
computer.[6] Laptops contain the keyboard, display, and processor in one case. The monitor in the
folding upper cover of the case can be closed for transportation, to protect the screen and
keyboard. Instead of a mouse, laptops may have a touchpad or pointing stick.

Tablets are portable computers that use a touch screen as the primary input device. Tablets
generally weigh less and are smaller than laptops.

Some tablets include fold-out keyboards, or offer connections to separate external keyboards.
Some models of laptop computers have a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be
configured as a touch-screen tablet. They are sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable laptops" or
"tablet-laptop hybrids".[7]

Case

Main article: Computer case

The computer case encloses most of the components of the system. It provides mechanical
support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power
supplies, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case is
also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer and
protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple
disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less
expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case.
Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit.
Hobbyists may decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity
called case modding.

Power supply

Main article: Power supply unit

A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage
direct current (DC) power for the computer. Laptops can run on built-in rechargeable battery. [8]
The PSU typically uses a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), with power MOSFETs (power
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) used in the converters and regulator circuits
of the SMPS.[9]

Motherboard

Computer motherboard
Main article: Motherboard

The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry that
connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives (CD,
DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the
expansion slots. The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).[10]

Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

 The CPU (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable
a computer to function, and is referred to as the brain of the computer. It takes program
instructions from random-access memory (RAM), interprets and processes them and then
sends back results so that the relevant components can carry out the instructions. The
CPU is a microprocessor, which is fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS)
integrated circuit (IC) chip. It is usually cooled by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling
system. Many newer CPUs include an on-die graphics processing unit (GPU). The clock
speed of the CPU governs how fast it executes instructions and is measured in GHz;
typical values lie between 1 GHz and 5 GHz. Many modern computers have the option to
overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output
and thus a need for improved cooling.
 The chipset, which includes the north bridge, mediates communication between the CPU
and the other components of the system, including main memory; as well as south bridge,
which is connected to the north bridge, and supports auxiliary interfaces and buses; and,
finally, a Super I/O chip, connected through the south bridge, which supports the slowest
and most legacy components like serial ports, hardware monitoring and fan control.
 Random-access memory (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively
accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it
takes up memory; this is stored in the RAM until the web browser is closed. It is typically
a type of dynamic RAM (DRAM), such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), where MOS
memory chips store data on memory cells consisting of MOSFETs and MOS capacitors.
RAM usually comes on dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB,
4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger.
  Read-only memory (ROM), which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is
powered on or otherwise begins execution, a process known as Bootstrapping, or
"booting" or "booting up". The ROM is typically a nonvolatile BIOS memory chip,
which stores data on floating-gate MOSFET memory cells.
o The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) includes boot firmware and power
management firmware. Newer motherboards use Unified Extensible Firmware
Interface (UEFI) instead of BIOS.
 Buses that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for
graphics and sound.
 The CMOS (complementary MOS) battery, which powers the CMOS memory for date
and time in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a watch battery.
 The video card (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics.
More powerful graphics cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing
intensive video games or running computer graphics software. A video card contains a
graphics processing unit (GPU) and video memory (typically a type of SDRAM), both
fabricated on MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips.
 Power MOSFETs make up the voltage regulator module (VRM), which controls how
much voltage other hardware components receive.[9]

Expansion cards

Main article: Expansion card

An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion
slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the
motherboard.

Storage devices

Main article: Computer data storage

A storage device is any computing hardware and digital media that is used for storing, porting
and extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and
permanently and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar computing
device. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers. Dedicated
storage devices include RAIDs and tape libraries.

Fixed media

Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are found in
virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives
(SSDs) are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives
in terms of dollar per gigabyte,[11] so are often found in personal computers built post-2007.[12]
SSDs use flash memory, which stores data on MOS memory chips consisting of floating-gate
MOSFET memory cells. Some systems may use a disk array controller for greater performance
or reliability.

Removable media

To transfer data between computers, an external flash memory device (such as a memory card or
USB flash drive) or optical disc (such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or BD-ROM) may be used.
Their usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an
optical disk drive (ODD), and virtually all have at least one Universal Serial Bus (USB) port.
Additionally, USB sticks are typically pre-formatted with the FAT32 file system, which is
widely supported across operating systems.

Input and output peripherals

Main article: Peripheral

Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The
following are either standard or very common to many computer systems.

Input device

Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad
instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and image
scanners.

Output device

Output devices are designed around the senses of human beings. For example, monitors display
text that can be read, speakers produce sound that can be heard.[13] Such devices also could
include printers or a Braille embosser.

Mainframe computer

Main article: Mainframe Computer

A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many
hundreds or thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform
large numbers of calculations for governments and large enterprises.
An IBM System z9 mainframe

Departmental computing

Main article: Minicomputer

In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more departments started to use cheaper and dedicated
systems for specific purposes like process control and laboratory automation. A minicomputer,
or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s[14][15]
and sold for much less than mainframe[16] and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct
competitors.

Supercomputer

Main article: Supercomputer

A supercomputer is superficially similar to a mainframe but is instead intended for extremely

demanding computational tasks. As of November 2021, the fastest supercomputer on the
TOP500 supercomputer list is Fugaku, in Japan, with a LINPACK benchmark score of 415
PFLOPS, superseding the second fastest, Summit, in the United States, by around 294 PFLOPS.

The term supercomputer does not refer to a specific technology. Rather it indicates the fastest
computations available at any given time. In mid-2011, the fastest supercomputers boasted
speeds exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion (10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating-point
operations per second. Supercomputers are fast but extremely costly, so they are generally used
by large organizations to execute computationally demanding tasks involving large data sets.
Supercomputers typically run military and scientific applications. Although costly, they are also
being used for commercial applications where huge amounts of data must be analyzed. For
example, large banks employ supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various
investment strategies, and healthcare organizations use them to analyze giant databases of patient
data to determine optimal treatments for various diseases and problems incurring to the country.

This section needs expansion with: mobile phone, cloud computing, embedded system and
internet of things hardware; systems on chip more generally. You can help by adding to it.
(October 2018)
Hardware upgrade
When using computer hardware, an upgrade means adding new or additional hardware to a
computer that improves its performance, increases its capacity, or adds new features. For
example, a user could perform a hardware upgrade to replace the hard drive with a faster one or a
Solid State Drive (SSD) to get a boost in performance. The user may also install more Random
Access Memory (RAM) so the computer can store additional temporary data, or retrieve such
data at a faster rate. The user may add a USB 3.0 expansion card to fully use USB 3.0 devices, or
could upgrade the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for cleaner, more advanced graphics, or more
monitors. Performing such hardware upgrades may be necessary for aged computers to meet a
new, or updated program's system requirements.

In large organizations, hardware upgrades are handled by administrators who are also in charge
of keeping networks running smoothly. They replace network devices like servers, routers and
storage devices based on new demands and capacities.

Sales
Global revenue from computer hardware in 2016 reached 408 billion Euros.[17]

Recycling
Main article: Computer recycling

Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there is a growing movement to recycle old
and outdated parts.[18] Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as: lead, mercury,
nickel, and cadmium. According to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the
environment unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and
recycling parts will reduce air pollution, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.[19]
Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to
recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be
made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive, the
graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and other similar removable parts can be reused.

Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future
production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of plastics that are present in
bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems.
Components frequently contain copper, gold, tantalum,[20][21] silver, platinum, palladium, and lead
as well as other valuable materials suitable for reclamation.[22][23]

Toxic computer components

The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the
metal plates. Resistors, semi-conductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain
cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium.[24] When these types
of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment.

Environmental effects

The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States
and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section,
discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (January
2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency only around 15% of the e-
waste actually is recycled. When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get
mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins
include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.[25]
That's why even wires have to be recycled. Different companies have different techniques to
recycle a wire. The most popular one is the grinder that separates the copper wires from the
plastic/rubber casing. When the processes are done there are two different piles left; one
containing the copper powder, and the other containing plastic/rubber pieces.[26] Computer
monitors, mice, and keyboards all have a similar way of being recycled. For example, first, each
of the parts are taken apart then all of the inner parts get separated and placed into its own bin. [27]

Computer components contain many toxic substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. Circuit boards contain
considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or create
air pollution due to incineration. In US landfills, about 40% of the lead content levels are from e-
waste.[28] The processing (e.g. incineration and acid treatments) required to reclaim these
precious substances may release, generate, or synthesize toxic byproducts.

Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents

hazardous waste, including heavy metals and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill
or waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far
more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable
disposal of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive of the European Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.[29]

Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste

As computer hardware contain a wide number of metals inside, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) encourages the collection and recycling of computer hardware. "E-
cycling", the recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation, reuse, shredding and
general collection of used electronics. Generically, the term refers to the process of collecting,
brokering, disassembling, repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or
discarded electronic equipment, otherwise known as electronic waste (e-waste). "E-cyclable"
items include, but are not limited to: televisions, computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners,
telephones and cellular phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has a cord,
light or takes some kind of battery.[30]
Recycling a computer is made easier by a few of the national services, such as Dell and Apple.
Both companies will take back the computer of their make or any other make. Otherwise a
computer can be donated to Computer Aid International which is an organization that recycles
and refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.[31]

References
1.

 "Parts of computer". Microsoft. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved
5 December 2013.
  Gilster, Ron (2001). PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Internet Archive. New York ;
London : McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-212990-8.
  von Neumann, John (30 June 1945). First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (PDF)
(Report). University of Pennsylvania. Contract No. W-670-ORD-4926. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 9 August 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  Markgraf, Joey D. (2007). "The Von Neumann bottleneck". Archived from the original on
9 June 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
  PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. 26 April 2001. pp. 21.
ISBN 9780072129908.
  "Desktop computer vs. Laptop computer". www.computerhope.com. 30 December 2019.
Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  Cipriani, Jason (29 May 2020). "Best 2-in-1 Detachable Laptops 2020: The Best Tablet-
Laptop Hybrids". IGN. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  "How long should a laptop battery last?". Computer Hope. Archived from the original on
21 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  Harding, Scharon (17 September 2019). "What Is a MOSFET? A Basic Definition". Tom's
Hardware. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
  "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently
Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum. 2 April 2018. Retrieved
28 July 2019.
  Domingo, Joel. "SSD vs. HDD: What's the Difference?". PCMag. Archived from the
original on 19 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  Edwards, Benj (17 January 2012). "Evolution of the Solid-State Drive". PCWorld.
Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. 2001. pp. 20.
ISBN 9780072129908.
  Henderson, Rebecca M.; Newell, Richard G., eds. (2011). Accelerating energy
innovation : insights from multiple sectors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 180.
ISBN 978-0226326832.
  Huang, Han-Way (2014). The atme AVR microcontroller : MEGA and XMEGA in
assembly and C. Australia ; United Kingdom: Delmar Cengage Learning. p. 4. ISBN 978-
1133607298.
 Estabrooks, Maurice (1995). Electronic technology, corporate strategy, and world
transformation. Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books. p. 53. ISBN 0899
888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
8

Everything You Need to Know About

Computer Hardware
This is what your computer's made of
Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer system.

There are many different kinds of hardware that can be installed inside, and connected to the
outside, of a computer.

Computer hardware may sometimes be seen abbreviated as computer hw.

Lifewire / Chloe Giroux

Take a tour inside of your desktop PC to learn how all the hardware in a traditional desktop PC
connects together to create a complete computer system like the one you may be using right now.

List of Computer Hardware

Here are some common individual computer hardware components that you'll often find inside a
modern computer. These parts are almost always found inside the computer case, so you won't
see them unless you open the computer:

 Motherboard
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Power Supply Unit (PSU)
 Video card
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
 Solid-State Drive (SSD)
 Optical disk drive (e.g., BD/DVD/CD drive)
 Card reader (SD/SDHC, CF, etc.)

Common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a computer, although many
tablets, laptops, and netbooks integrate some of these items into their housings:

 Monitor
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
 Flash drive
 Printer
 Speakers
 External hard drive
 Pen tablet

Less common individual computer hardware devices, either because these pieces are now usually
integrated into other devices or because they've been replaced with newer technology:

 Sound card
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Expansion card (FireWire, USB, etc.)
 Hard drive controller card
 Analog modem
 Scanner
 Projector
 Floppy disk drive
 Joystick
  Webcam
 Microphone
 Tape drive
 Zip drive

The following hardware is referred to as network hardware, and various pieces are often part of a
home or business network:

 Digital modem (e.g., cable modem, DSL modem, etc.)

 Router
 Network switch
 Access point
 Repeater
 Bridge
 Print server
 Firewall

Network hardware isn't as clearly defined as some other types of computer hardware. For
example, many home routers will often act as a combination router, switch, and firewall.

In addition to all the items listed above, there's more computer hardware called auxiliary
hardware, of which a computer might have none, or several, of some kinds:

 Fan (CPU, GPU, Case, etc.)

 Heat sink
 Data cable
 Power cable
 CMOS battery
 Daughterboard

Some of the devices listed above are called peripheral devices. A peripheral device is a piece of
hardware (whether internal or external) that isn't actually involved in the computer's main
function. Examples include a monitor, video card, disc drive, and mouse.

Troubleshooting Faulty Computer Hardware

Computer hardware components individually heat up and cool down as they're used and then not
used, meaning that eventually, every single one will fail. Some may even fail at the same time.

Fortunately, at least with desktop computers and some laptop and tablet computers, you can
replace the non-working piece of hardware without having to replace or rebuild the computer
from scratch.

Here are some resources you should check out before you go out and purchase a new hard drive,
replacement RAM sticks, or anything else you think may be going bad:
Memory (RAM)

 Find free memory test programs.

 Learn how to replace the memory (RAM) in your computer.

Hard Drive

 Explore free hard drive testing programs.

 Find the best commercial hard drive repair software.
 Learn how to replace a hard drive.
 Learn what to do when your hard drive is making noise.

Computer Fan

 Learn how to fix a loud computer fan.

 Find out how to fix the CPU fan error.

Device Manager

In Microsoft Windows, hardware resources are managed by Device Manager. It's possible that a
"faulty" piece of computer hardware is really just in need of a device driver installation or
update, or for the device to be enabled in Device Manager.

Hardware devices won't work at all if the device is disabled, or may not be running properly if
the wrong driver is installed.

Here are some device manager troubleshooting resources:

 Learn how to view a device's status in Windows.

 Learn to enable a device in Device Manager in Windows.
 Learn how to update drivers in windows.
 Learn several ways to find free driver downloads.
 Check out the best free driver updater tools.

If you decide that some hardware needs replacing or upgrading, find tech support information
from the manufacturer, including warranty information (if it applies to you), or look for identical
or upgraded parts that you can buy directly.

Hardware vs. Software

A computer system isn't complete unless there's also software, which is different than hardware.
The software is data that's stored electronically, like an operating system or a video editing tool,
which runs on the hardware.
Hardware gets its name due to the fact that it's strict when it comes to modifications, whereas
software is more flexible (i.e., you can easily upgrade or change software).

Firmware is closely related to hardware and software, too. Firmware is used to tie the two
together so that a software program knows how to interface with a piece of hardware.

Frequently Asked Questions

 What are the four main types of computer hardware? The four primary categories of
computer hardware include input devices, output devices, processing devices, and storage
devices.
 How do you clean your computer hardware? Learn how to clean your PC to help
extend its life and make it run more efficiently. Always unplug computers prior to
cleaning, and only use recommended materials such as lint-free cloths, canned air, and
carefully applied isopropyl alcohol.

Oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

Skip to main content

 
 
 
 
















 Tech News
 Internet
 Computers
  Cell Phones
 Consumer Electronics
 Graphic Design & Video Editing
 Home Theater & Audio
 Industrial Technology

What Is Computer Hardware? Definition

Plus 20 Examples
 Paul Goodman
 Feb 8, 2023 7:22 PM EST

Read on if you wish to know what computer hardware is and see some examples.

Public domain image via Pixabay

What Is Computer Hardware?

Hardware (sometimes abbreviated to HW) can be defined as the physical components that a
computer system needs to function. This distinguishes it from software, which consists of written
instructions that tell the physical components what to do.

Internal and External Hardware Components

The components that make up hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external.

Internal components are those installed inside the computer, typical examples being the
motherboard, power supply, and central processing unit (CPU).

External components are connected to the outside of the computer; these can also be referred to
as peripherals, or peripheral devices, common examples being the monitor, keyboard, and
mouse.

20 Examples of Computer Hardware

Below are 20 hardware examples. The first 9 components listed usually belong to the internal
category, and the other 11 are typically external.

1. Motherboard
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Power Supply
4. Random Access Memory (RAM)
5. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
6. Video Card
7. Solid-State Drive (SSD)
8. Optical Disc Drive (e.g. BD drive, DVD drive, CD drive)
9. Card Reader (e.g. SD, SDHC)
10. Monitor
11. Keyboard
12. Mouse
13. Printer
14. Speakers
15. External Hard Drive
16. Desktop Image Scanner
17. Projector
18. Joystick
19. Headphones
20. USB Flash Drive

I will explain each of the components listed in more detail below.

1. Motherboard
The motherboard (known colloquially as a mobo) is the main printed circuit board of a computer.
It houses the CPU and operates as a hub that all other hardware runs through. It allocates power
to the other components, co-ordinates them, and enables communication between them.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit, or CPU for short, is responsible for processing all information from
programs run by your computer. Each CPU has a clock speed, which is the number of
instructions it can process in any given second, measured in gigahertz. The quality of a
computer's CPU has a major effect on overall system performance.

3. Power Supply
The main role of the power supply unit is to convert the alternating current (AC) from an outlet
to a direct current (DC). The computer components need DC to run normally. The power supply
unit also controls voltage to prevent overheating issues.

4. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the physical hardware inside a computer that temporarily
stores data. It is normally found in the memory slots of the motherboard. Its role is to serve as the
computer's "working memory" for the information created by programs.

Generally speaking, the faster the RAM, the faster the processing speed at which memory moves
data to other components.

5. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

The hard disk drive is the main data storage device of a computer. This is where the operating
system, software titles, and the majority of files are stored. Unlike RAM, hard drives are non-
volatile, which means that they maintain their stored data even when powered off.

6. Video Card
The video card (also known as a graphics card) is an expansion card that enables the computer to
send output images to a video display device such as a monitor. The video card typically installs
via a slot on the motherboard.

7. Solid-State Drive (SSD)

Solid-state drives are designed to be housed inside the computer as an alternative to traditional
hard disk drives. Although they look almost identical to traditional hard disk drives from the
outside, they have no moving parts. This means that they use less power, access data faster, and
are generally more reliable.

8. Optical Disc Drive (BD Drive, DVD Drive, CD Drive)

An optical disc drive (ODD) uses laser light or electromagnetic waves to read or write data onto
optical discs. Common optical media designed for use with these types of drives are compact
discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. Optical disc drives can also be called disc drives, CD drives,
DVD drives, and BD drives.

9. Card Reader (SD, SDHC)

Most personal computers and tablets have built-in memory card readers. This enables them to
read data from memory cards, which are portable electronic storage devices used for storing
digital information. Most contemporary memory cards use flash memory, although other
memory technologies are currently being developed.

10. Monitor
The monitor is a hardware device that displays the video and graphics information generated by
the computer via the video card. Monitors can also be called video display units, video display
terminals, or simply screens.

Older monitors were bulky and built using cathode ray tubes, but nowadays, they usually use
LCD technology and are lighter and thinner.
Computer keyboard

Clay Banks, via Unsplash.com

11. Keyboard
The keyboard is a typewriter-style device that enables users to interact with their computers.
Users input text, characters, and other commands by pressing special buttons known as keys.
Although the keyboard is normally considered to be an external hardware component, it is an
essential part of most computer systems.

12. Mouse
The computer mouse is a hand-held pointing device used to manipulate objects on a computer
screen. The standard modern mouse is able to direct a cursor using optical sensors. Most mouses
also have two buttons (left-click and right-click), used for selection and menus access, and a
scrolling wheel.
Computer mouse

Mohammadreza Alidoost, via Unsplash.com

13. Printer
Printers are output devices that generate hard copies of electronic data stored on the computer,
usually in the form of text or images on paper. The most common types of modern printers use
inkjet or laser technology and connect to the computer either via the computer's USB port or Wi-
Fi.

14. Speakers
Computer speakers are a common output device and are used for listening to music, movies, and
other audio. They are available in a range of different qualities and prices, the more sophisticated
versions having an additional subwoofer to provide enhanced bass output.
Computer speakers

Dhru J, via Unsplash.com

15. External Hard Drive

An external hard drive is a drive that typically connects to the computer's USB port. Some draw
power from the computer via the data cable; others need an AC wall connection.

The main benefit of an external drive is its portability; you can carry relatively large amounts of
data around with you or transfer data between different computers.

16. Desktop Image Scanner

A desktop image scanner is an input device that transfers images or text to a computer using
optical technology. The computer converts the signal to a digital image, enabling it to be edited,
emailed, or printed.

17. Projector
Projectors are external hardware devices that enable a roomful of people to experience visuals
generated by a single computer. They can "project" still or moving images onto a blank wall,
screen, or another surface. Modern digital projectors are often used for watching movies,
enhancing presentations, or as teaching aids. They connect to a computer via the HDMI ports.

18. Joystick
A joystick (also known as control column) is an input device that is used by a player to interact
with a computer game. Joysticks are also used to control various real-life vehicles, such as
airplanes, trucks, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and unmanned underwater vehicles, which
are increasingly computerized.
Computer headphones

Lasse Jensen, via Unsplash.com

19. Headphones
Headphones are hardware output devices used to listen to audio. Typically, they plug into a
computer line out or the speakers. They enable the listener to enjoy music, movies, or other
audio in private and without disturbing other people close by.

20. USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a portable data storage device. Unlike optical drives, flash drives have no
moving parts, making them more durable. A USB flash drive has an integrated USB interface
and connects to the computer via a USB port.

This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to
substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.

© 2019 Paul Goodman

Comments
Vivek sharma on July 17, 2020:

Thank you sir Thank you very much

Salman Mujeedat O on December 29, 2019:

Diagram should be includedl

Savannah savage queen on September 19, 2019:

Plese use the parts of a desktop computer and tell us where each part falls under that is the
valuable information you left out

Abdihakiin mahamed on September 03, 2019:

This write is good i need example of output

© 2023 The Arena Media Brands, LLC and respective content providers on this website.
HubPages® is a registered trademark of The Arena Platform, Inc. Other product and company
names shown may be trademarks of their respective owners. The Arena Media Brands, LLC and
respective content providers to this website may receive compensation for some links to products
and services on this website.
Uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
CS 101

 Course Information
 Schedule
 Quick Links

Computer Hardware
Computer Hardware
 Computers have two main parts: hardware and software
 Like piano (hardware) and music (software)
 In this section: hardware

The computer is an amazingly useful general-purpose technology, to the point that now cameras,
phones, thermostats, and more are all now little computers. This section will introduce major
parts and themes of how computer hardware works. "Hardware" refers the physical parts of the
computer, and "software" refers to the code that runs on the computer.

Chips and Transistors

 Transistor - vital electronic building block
-Transistors are "solid state" - no moving parts
-One of the most important inventions in history
-"Switch" that we can turn on/off with an electric signal
 Silicon chip - fingernail sized piece of silicon
 Microscopic transistors are etched onto silicon chips
 Chips can contain billions of transistors
 Chips are packaged in plastic, with little metal legs
 e.g. CPU chips, memory chips, flash chips
 Silicon (metalloid) vs. Silicone (soft substance on cooking utensils)

Here is a silicon chip inside its plastic package. I pulled this out of the e-waste pile at the
Stanford CS building, so it's probably kind of old. This is a small chip with just a few "pins" of
electrical connection. Later we'll see a bigger chip with hundreds of pins.

Inside the plastic package is a fingernail sized silicon chip with transistors and other components
etched on its surface. Tiny wires connect the chip to the outside. (CC licensed attribution
sharealke 3. wikipedia user Zephyris)

Modern computers use tiny electronic components which can be etched onto the surface of a
silicon chip. (See: wikipedia chip) Note that silicon (chips, solar panels) and silicone (soft
rubbery material) are different!

The most common electronic component is the "transistor" which works as a sort of amplifying
valve for a flow of electrons. The transistor is a "solid state" device, meaning it has no moving
parts. It is a basic building block used to construct more complex electronic components. In
particular, a "bit" (below) can be built with an arrangement of 5 transistors. The transistor was
invented in the early 1950's, replacing the vacuum tube. Since then, transistors have been made
smaller and smaller, allowing more and more of them to be etched onto a silicon chip.

Moore's Law
 Transistors get 2x smaller about every 2 years
- sometimes listed as about 18 months
  Can fit twice as many transistors per chip
 Due to better chip etching technology
-But a cutting edge chip factory costs more than 1 billion dollars
 Observation vs. scientific "law"
 2 Effects:
 a. chips have twice the capacity every 2 years
-speed does not double, capacity doubles which is still very useful
 b. or keeping capacity constant, chips get smaller and cheaper every 2 years
 (b) is why computers are now in cars, thermostats, greeting cards
 Example: $50 MP3 player capacity every 2 years: 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB
 Rule of thumb: 8x capacity every 6 years
 8x in 6 years may match your phone's capacity increase
 Moore's law will probably not go on forever

Moore's law (Gordon Moore, Intel co-founder) states that the density of transistors on a chip
doubles about every 2 years or so (sometimes listed as every 18 months). The increase is due to
improved chip making technology. It is not a scientific law, just a broad prediction that seems to
keep working. More broadly, it captures the idea that per dollar, computer technology (not just
transistors) gets exponentially better as time goes along. This is quite clear if you look at the cost
or capability of computers/cameras etc. you have owned. Moore's Law results in more capable
computers (compare what an iPhone 7 can do vs. the original iPhone) as well as cheaper
computers (less capable computers show up everywhere, like in thermostats and cars).

Computers in life: Control Systems

 Control system: responds to external state
 e.g. car engine: vary fuel mix based on temperature
 e.g. set off the airbag on high G-forces from collision
 Chips are a great, cheap way to build control systems
 The pre-computer control systems did not work so well
 One reason cars work so much better today

Control System / Moore's Flashlight Demo

 Maglite XL200 flashlight has a chip in it
 Example of a control system
 Moore's law makes this application of a chip feasible
 Flashlight converts angular position to brightness. (1-click)
 Also has an angle to blink-speed mode. (2-clicks)

Computer Hardware - CPU, RAM, and persistent storage

Now let's talk about the three major parts that make up a computer -- CPU, RAM, and
Persistent Storage. These three are found in all computers: laptops, smartphones, and tablets.

1. CPU
 CPU - Central Processing Unit
 Acts like a brain: follows the instructions in the code
 "general" - images, networking, math .. all on the CPU
 Performs computations, e.g. add two numbers
 vs. RAM and persistent storage which just store data
 "gigahertz" = 1 billion operations per second
 A "2 gigahertz" CPU performs 2 billion operations per second

CPU - Central Processing Unit - inevitably referred to as the "brains" of the computers. The CPU
does the active "running" of code, manipulating data, while the other components have a more
passive role, such as storing data. When we say that a computer can "add two numbers, a billion
times a second" .. that's the CPU. When you hit the Run button, the CPU ultimately "runs" your
code. Later on, we will complete the picture of how your Javascript code is run by the CPU.

Aside: CPU "Cores"

 Modern CPU chips have multiple "cores"
 Each core is a semi-independent CPU
 Key: having 4 cores is not 4x faster than having 1 core
 i.e. 4 cars does not get you there faster than 1 car
 Diminishing returns
 More than 4 cores is often useless

CPU Examples
 e.g. Run button - "print information," do some math
 e.g. Send text message - format the bytes, send out the bytes, verify they were sent
CPU Variant: GPU - Graphics Processing Unit
 Like the CPU, but specialized to handle images
 Computer games use the GPU heavily
 Modern CPUs are mostly fast enough, more energy going into GPUs

2. RAM
 RAM - Random Access Memory
 Acts like a whiteboard
 Temporary, working storage bytes
 RAM stores both code and data (temporarily)
 e.g. open an image in Photoshop
- image data loaded into the bytes of RAM
 e.g. adding 2 to a number in a calculator
- manipulating bytes in RAM
 "persistent"
-RAM is not persistent. State is gone when power turned off
-e.g. You're working on a doc, then power goes out and you lose your work (vs. "Save")

RAM - Random Access Memory, or just "memory". RAM is the working scratchpad memory
the computer uses to store code and data that are being actively used. RAM is effectively a
storage area of bytes under the control of the CPU. RAM is relatively fast and able to retrieve the
value of any particular byte in a few nanoseconds (1 nanosecond is 1 billionth of a second). The
other main feature of RAM is that it only keeps its state so long as it is supplied with power --
RAM is not "persistent" storage.

Suppose you are working on your computer and it suddenly loses power and the screen goes
blank. You understand that what you were working on is gone. RAM has been wiped clean,
leaving you only with what you last saved to disk (below).

RAM Examples
 You have many tabs open in your browser
- the data for each tab is in RAM
 A program is running
- the code of the program is in RAM
 A program is manipulating a large image
- the data of the image is in RAM
 e.g. you can run out of RAM - cannot open a new tab or program because all the RAM is
in use
 Aside: now phones have 2-4GB of RAM ... enough for most purposes

3. Persistent Storage: Hard Drive, Flash Drive

  Persistent storage of bytes
 "Persistent" means preserved even when not powered
 e.g. Hard drive - stores bytes as a magnetic pattern on a spinning disk
- aka "hard disk"
- High pitch spinning sound you may have heard
 Hard drives have been the main, persistent storage tech for a long time
 BUT now flash is getting more popular.

How a Hard Drive Works Video (Webm is an open standard video format, works in Firefox and
Chrome). 4:30 in the video to see some reading/writing of bits.

Persistent Storage, Newer Technology: Flash

 "Flash" is a transistor-like persistent storage technology
"solid state" - no moving parts
-aka "Flash drive"
-aka "Flash memory"
-aka "SSD": Solid State Disk
 Flash is better than a hard drive in every way but cost - faster, more reliable, less power
 Flash is more expensive per byte
 Formats: usb key, SD card in camera, flash storage built into a phone or tablet or
computer
 Flash used to be very expensive, so most computers used hard disks
 Flash is getting cheaper (Moore's law)
 However per-byte, hard drives are still substantially cheaper
 Not to be confused with "Adobe Flash", a proprietary media format
 Warning: flash does not persist forever. It may not hold the bits past 10 or 20 years.
Nobody knows for sure

Persistent storage - long term storage for bytes as files and folders. Persistent means that the
bytes are stored, even when power is removed. A laptop might use a spinning hard drive (also
known as "hard disk") for persistent storage of files. Or it could use a "flash drive", also known
as a Solid State Disk (SSD), to store bytes on flash chips. The hard drive reads and writes
magnetic patterns on a spinning metal disk to store the bytes, while flash is "solid state": no
moving parts, just silicon chips with tiny groups of electrons to store the bytes. In either case, the
storage is persistent, in that it maintains its state even when the power is off.

A flash drive is faster and uses less power than a hard disk. However, per byte, flash is
significantly more expensive than hard drive storage. Flash has been getting cheaper, so it may
take over niches at the expense of hard drives. Flash is much slower than RAM, so it is not a
good replacement for RAM. Note that Adobe Flash is an unrelated concept; it is a proprietary
media format.

Flash storage is what underlies USB thumb drives, SD cards for use in cameras, or the built-in
storage in a tablet or phone.
File System
 How are the bytes in persistent storage organized?
 e.g. Bytes on a flash drive?
 "File system" - organize the bytes of persistent storage, files and folders
 "File" - a name, a handle to a block of bytes
 e.g. "flowers.jpg" refers to 48KB of image data bytes

The hard drive or flash drive provides persistent storage as a flat area of bytes without much
structure. Typically the hard disk or flash disk is formatted with a "file system" which organizes
the bytes into the familiar pattern of files and directories, where each file and directory has a
somewhat useful name like "resume.txt". When you connect the drive to a computer, the
computer presents the drive's file system to the user, allowing them open files, move file around,
etc.

Essentially, each file in the file system refers to a block of bytes, so the "flowers.jpg" name refers
to a block of 48KB of bytes which are the data of that image. The file system in effect gives the
user a name (and probably an icon) for a block of data bytes, and allows the user to perform
operations on that data, like move it or copy it or open it with a program. The file system also
tracks information about the bytes: how many there are, the time they were last modified.

Microsoft uses the proprietary NTFS file system, and Mac OS X has its Apple proprietary HFS+
equivalent. Many devices (cameras, MP3 players) use the very old Microsoft FAT32 file system
on their flash cards. FAT32 is an old and primitive file system, but it is good where wide support
is important.

Persistent Storage Examples

 This one is easy to understand, since you have used files and files sytems
 e.g. 100 separate 1 GB video files .. need 100 GB of storage capacity

Pictures of Hardware
Below are images of a low-end Shuttle computer with a 1.8ghz CPU, 512MB of RAM, and a
160GB hard drive. It cost about $200 in around 2008. It broke, and so became a classroom
example.

Here is the flat "motherboard", a little smaller than a 8.5 x 11 piece of paper, that the various
components plug in to. At the center is the CPU. At the far right is the RAM memory. Just to the
right of the CPU are a couple support chips. Prominently, one of the chips is covered with a
copper "heatsink" .. this presses tightly against the chip, dissipating the heat from the chip into
the surrounding air. The CPU also had a very large heatsink, but it was removed to make the
CPU visible.

 Motherboard
 CPU metal package, held by lever
 Copper heatsink
The CPU is held tightly against the motherboard by a little lever mechanism. Here the
mechanism is released so the CPU can be picked up. The fingernail sized CPU is packaged
underneath this metal cover which helps conduct the heat from the CPU up to its heatsink. The
gray stuff on the metal chip cover is "thermal paste", a material which helps conduct heat from
the chip housing to its (not shown) heatsink.

 CPU chip in metal package

 Heatsink has been removed
 Bottom of package .. many connections (little wires)
Flipping the CPU over shows the little gold pads on the bottom of the CPU. Each pad is
connected by a very fine wire to a spot on the silicon chip.

Here is a picture of another chip, but with the top packaging removed. You see the pinky-
fingernail silicon chip at the center with the tiny transistor details etched onto it. At the chip
edge, see the very fine wires connecting parts of the chip to outside pads (CC licensed attribution
sharealke 3. wikipedia user Zephyris)

Now looking from the side, the heatsink and the RAM memory card can be seen more clearly,
sticking up from the motherboard.

 RAM memory card

 Plugs in to motherboard
 512 MB card (4 chips)
RAM is built with a few chips packaged together onto a little card known as a DIMM that plugs
into the motherboard (dual inline memory module). Here we see the RAM DIMM removed from
its motherboard socket. This is a 512MB DIMM built with 4 chips. A few years earlier, this
DIMM might have required 8 chips in order to store 512MB .. Moore's law in action.

This is a hard drive that connects to the motherboard with the visible standard SATA connector.
This is a 160GB, "3.5 inch" drive referring to the diameter of the spinning disk inside; the whole
drive is about the size of small paperback book. This is a standard disk size to use inside a
desktop computer. Laptop computers use 2.5 inch drives, which are a bit smaller.
  160 GB hard drive (persistent storage)
 i.e. persistent
 Connects to motherboard with standard SATA cable

This is a USB flash drive that, like a hard drive, provides persistent byte storage. This is also
known as a "thumb drive" or "USB key". It is essentially a USB jack connected to a flash storage
chip with some support electronics:
 Flash drive (the other type of persistent storage)
 i.e. persistent
 Contains a flash chip, solid state
 SD Card, similar idea
Here it is taken apart, showing the flash chip that actually stores the bytes. This chip can store
about 1 billion bits .. how many bytes is that? (A: 8 bits per byte, so that's about 125 MB)
Here is a "SD Card" which provides storage in a camera. It's very similar to the USB flash drive,
just a different shape.

Microcontroller - Cheap Computer Chip

 Microcontroller
 Complete computer on one chip
 Small CPU, RAM, storage (Moore's law)
 Chip can cost under $1
 Car, microwave, thermostat

Arduino Computer
 This is an "arduino" board, microcontroller chip (CPU, RAM, storage all in one)
--www.arduino.cc
 As low as $10
 Open source, free, not Windows only, tinkering
  Art project -- switches, sensors, lights

Most problems are software problems. Some are definitely hardware problems. And some
can be caused by one or the other. This chart lists 16 of the most common problems.
Knowing where to start troubleshooting can save you lots of time. And if you need to call in
the cavalry, you’ll know which customer service department to call.

Note: Of course, there are exceptions to the rule.

Problem SOFTWARE HARDWARE

Could be malware, too

many start-up items Could be hard drive is fragmented or starting
Computer is slow
(Windows) or build up of to fail, not enough RAM or an old CPU
temporary files

Could be automatic OS
Computer keeps Could be graphics card, motherboard or
update problem, adware,
restarting network card drivers
virus or other malware

Keyboard, mouse,
printer or other Could be computer port issues or peripheral
Could be driver issues
peripherals aren’t component issues
working properly

Peripheral commands
interpreted incorrectly ✓
App command not Software if it’s happening Hardware if it’s happening in more than one
working in only one app app

Could be an app in
Internet is slow background is consuming Could be hard disk failing
the bandwidth

Downloads take forever ✓

Computer freezes ✓
Attachments won’t
open ✓
PC blue screen of death ✓ (although it could be your drivers)
Pop-up ads ✓
Corrupt files or long
delays accessing files ✓
Google performing
oddly ✓
Sudden shut off…or
sudden anything weird ✓
 Graphical errors like
your computer screen ✓
is jumbled

Unusual noises ✓

If you’re lucky, your problem is a software problem that can be easily resolved by running a
repair utility or uninstalling and reinstalling if it’s a desktop app or logging off and on again if
it’s a cloud app. To keep problems away, keep your software updated. To keep your computer
clean and in good shape, pay attention when things seem weird so you can start troubleshooting
before it ruins your day. If you get a new computer and it’s having problems already — quick,
trade it in while you still can.

If your company is a Leapfrog client, your first (and only) call should be to our super-smart and
friendly Help Desk frogs at 404-870-2124 or 866-870-2124. They’ll figure everything out for
you and even fix it remotely.

Ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

How to Tell a Hardware Problem From a

Software Problem
Chris Hoffman

@chrisbhoffman

Oct 21, 2013, 4:04 am EST | 4 min read

Your computer seems to be malfunctioning — it’s slow, programs are crashing or Windows may
be blue-screening. Is your computer’s hardware failing, or does it have a software problem that
you can fix on your own?

This can actually be a bit tricky to figure out. Hardware problems and software problems can
lead to the same symptoms — for example, frequent blue screens of death may be caused by
either software or hardware problems.

Computer is Slow
We’ve all heard the stories — someone’s computer slows down over time because they install
too much software that runs at startup or it becomes infected with malware. The person
concludes that their computer is slowing down because it’s old, so they replace it. But they’re
wrong.

If a computer is slowing down, it has a software problem that can be fixed. Hardware problems
shouldn’t cause your computer to slow down. There are some rare exceptions to this — perhaps
your CPU is overheating and it’s downclocking itself, running slower to stay cooler — but most
slowness is caused by software issues.

Blue Screens
RELATED: Everything You Need to Know About the Blue Screen of Death

Modern versions of Windows are much more stable than older versions of Windows. When used
with reliable hardware with well-programmed drivers, a typical Windows computer shouldn’t
blue-screen at all.
If you are encountering frequent blue screens of death, there’s a good chance your computer’s
hardware is failing. Blue screens could also be caused by badly programmed hardware drivers,
however.

If you just installed or upgraded hardware drivers and blue screens start, try uninstalling the
drivers or using system restore — there may be something wrong with the drivers. If you haven’t
done anything with your drivers recently and blue screens start, there’s a very good chance you
have a hardware problem.

Computer Won’t Boot

RELATED: What to Do When Windows Won't Boot

If your computer won’t boot, you could have either a software problem or a hardware problem.
Is Windows attempting to boot and failing part-way through the boot process, or does the
computer no longer recognize its hard drive or not power on at all? Consult our guide to
troubleshooting boot problems for more information.

When Hardware Starts to Fail…

Here are some common components that can fail and the problems their failures may cause:

The Best Tech Newsletter Anywhere

Join 425,000 subscribers and get a daily digest of features, articles, news, and trivia.

By submitting your email, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

 Hard Drive: If your hard drive starts failing, files on your hard drive may become corrupted. You
may see long delays when you attempt to access files or save to the hard drive. Windows may
stop booting entirely.
 CPU: A failing CPU may result in your computer not booting at all. If the CPU is overheating, your
computer may blue-screen when it’s under load — for example, when you’re playing a
demanding game or encoding video.
 RAM: Applications write data to your RAM and use it for short-term storage. If your RAM starts
failing, an application may write data to part of the RAM, then later read it back and get an
incorrect value. This can result in application crashes, blue screens, and file corruption.
 Graphics Card: Graphics card problems may result in graphical errors while rendering 3D
content or even just while displaying your desktop. If the graphics card is overheating, it may
crash your graphics driver or cause your computer to freeze while under load — for example,
when playing demanding 3D games.
 Fans: If any of the fans fail in your computer, components may overheat and you may see the
above CPU or graphics card problems. Your computer may also shut itself down abruptly so it
doesn’t overheat any further and damage itself.
 Motherboard: Motherboard problems can be extremely tough to diagnose. You may see
occasional blue screens or similar problems.
 Power Supply: A malfunctioning power supply is also tough to diagnose — it may deliver too
much power to a component, damaging it and causing it to malfunction. If the power supply
dies completely, your computer won’t power on and nothing will happen when you press the
power button.

Other common problems — for example, a computer slowing down — are likely to be software
problems.

It’s also possible that software problems can cause many of the above symptoms — malware that
hooks deep into the Windows kernel can cause your computer to blue-screen, for example.
The Only Way to Know For Sure
We’ve tried to give you some idea of the difference between common software problems and
hardware problems with the above examples. But it’s often tough to know for sure, and
troubleshooting is usually a trial-and-error process. This is especially true if you have an
intermittent problem, such as your computer blue-screening a few times a week.

You can try scanning your computer for malware and running System Restore to restore your
computer’s system software back to its previous working state, but these aren’t guaranteed ways
to fix software problems.

The best way to determine whether the problem you have is a software or hardware one is to bite
the bullet and restore your computer’s software back to its default state. That means reinstalling
Windows or using the Refresh or reset feature on Windows 8. See whether the problem still
persists after you restore its operating system to its default state. If you still see the same problem
– for example, if your computer is blue-screening and continues to blue-screen after reinstalling
Windows — you know you have a hardware problem and need to have your computer fixed or
replaced. If the computer crashes or freezes while reinstalling Windows, you definitely have a
hardware problem.
Even this isn’t a completely perfect method — for example, you may reinstall Windows and
install the same hardware drivers afterwards. If the hardware drivers are badly programmed, the
blue-screens may continue.