International Journal of Social Science (IJSS)

Vol.3 Issue.1 June 2023, pp: 23-28

ISSN: 2798-3463 (Printed) | 2798-4079 (Online)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.53625/ijss.v3i1.5607 23
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HATE CRIMES IN SOCIAL MEDIA: A CRIMINOLOGICAL REVIEW
By
Nelufer Yesmen1, Arnab Naha2, Sumona Sharmin3
1,2,3
Department of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhashani science and Technology University, Santosh,
Tangail-1902, Bangladesh
Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Hate crime in social media is a common phenomenon around the world.
Received April 24, 2023 Hate crime against different races, minorities, and ethnic people or groups is
Revised May 03, 2023 now spreading via social media platforms in form of hate speech. The
Accepted May 27, 2023 anonymity of the internet user and the availability of the internet make this
crime very easy to commit by the offender. This paper aims to find out the
targets of hate crime in social media and its effect on the victims. The
Keywords:
people who are victimized by hate crime in social media because of their
Hate Crime, Social Media,
race, gender especially female and religious minority. The study has done by
Race, Ethnicity, Minority,
secondary data analysis. Hate crime in social media has a devastating effect
Gender, Religion
on the victim both physically and mainly psychologically which makes them
mentally inferior, degradation of self-esteem, and also create a fear of
violence in their mind. The existing laws against hate crime in social media
should be implemented more precise way and different types of detection
methods should be applied to detect the offenders. This paper can be helpful
to increase awareness about hate crime in social media which is unnoticed
by many researchers in our country and can lead a way to stop victimization
in social media platforms.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Nelufer Yesmen
Department of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhashani science and Technology University, Santosh,
Tangail-1902, Bangladesh, India
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
Hate means bias against people or a group of people and hate crimes are those which are committed on the
ground of the victim’s actual race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender and disability (Atte
Oksanen, 2014). Generally, hate crimes can be divided in to two types: physical assault and verbal abuse. The verbal
abuse uses a kind of hate crime that can be committed by the use of social media which is known as hate speech
against a person or group based on their race, religion, ethnic origin and sexual orientation. Hate speech can be
defined as statements that, ‘express hatred or degrading attitudes toward collective often times directed against
minorities (Hawdon J, 2017). According to Ring (2013) social media is “the collective of online communication
channels dedicated to forums, microblogging, social networking, social bookmarking, social curating and wikis are
among the different types of social media. Example- Facebook, Twitter etc. We live in an era of tele communication
and technology, in this era globalization spread across every country of the world with the help of social media using
internet. As this social media platform opens a new area of communication become a boon for human civilization but
it has also a dark side and one of the dark sides of social media is spreading hate through communication in the
social media. Smartphones, laptop computers, and fast mobile wireless connection for instance, are some of the
primary means of converging online and offline spaces. New technologies have also played an important role in
accelerating the success of social networking sites. The hateful content of social media spread to a broader audience
without editorial control and often behind a veil of anonymity. While any one come across a lot of material in the
social media that offends him or her a small portion of it is actually illegal. Hate material online is recorded by police
as hate crime when a crime defined in a law is committed with hate motivation. A large number of attacks on
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24 International Journal of Social Science (IJSS)
Vol.3 Issue.1 June 2023, pp: 23-28
ISSN: 2798-3463 (Printed) | 2798-4079 (Online)
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immigrants and other minorities has raised new concerns about the connection between online hate speech online
and violent acts, as well as the role of the state in combating the hate speech. Researchers say trends in hate crimes
around the world changes in the political climate, and that social media can magnify this discord. At their most
extreme, rumors and online hate speech can be resulted in to violence against ethnic minorities.
Using bad comments is a common scenario to express hate about a specific person or a group in social media.
Around 29% comments all over the internet are either bad or illicit. Stupid people put unnecessary and illogical
comments and harass targeted people or group. Sometimes, these kinds of bad comments are supported by stupid
people and the victim is exposed to serious kinds of danger and humiliation (Tade, 2011). Spreading false news and
rumors about someone by social sites is another medium of spreading hate in our country. In our country there have
found different types of online pages where there may use one’s news which might turn into another news by
creating false news and rumors and make a harassing situation in one’s lifestyle (Yar, 2019).

RESEARCH METHODS
This study is based on secondary data analysis. Data collected from journal articles, books, reports, other
electronic and printed media documents.
Objectives
The main objective of this paper to identify the hate crimes in social media platform. The other objectives
are to find out the targets of hate crimes in social media and effects of hate crime in social media.
Analysis
To define Hate speech in social media platform legal scholars focused on the expressive value of language
to classify hateful speech. According to Geenwalt (1989) any analysis of the law in regard to hate speech offline has
to consider the extent to which the language has expressive value which can provoke a response of violence, they
may deeply wound those at whom the speech is directed which can cause offence to those that they hear it and has
degrading effect on social relationship within any community. In a study of Perry and Olsson (2009) the web creates
a new common space for hate groups and that can form a ‘global racist culture’ if hate speech in online social media
is unchallenged (Burnap, 2015). Hate speech is offense motivated, in whole or in a part, by the offender’s bias
against an aspect of a group of people, so online hate speech may not be a crime but it is harmful to people
(Silva,2016). In online platform the hate speech is a kind of which is defined as speech that attacks a person or group
on the basis of attributes such as race, religion, ethnic origin, national origins, disability, sexual orientation, or gender
identity (ElSherief, Kulkarni, Nguyen, Wang, & Belding, 2018). the use of online media such as Facebook has
prompted youths to become self-derogatory as they seek the acceptance of other users online. This social derogatory
has led to increasing negative social consequences such as posting of nude photos to express hate against a specific
person or a group.
The targets of hate crime in social media
The paper of Silva, et al. the hate speech target is categorized by the hate base which provide words like
ethnicity, race, religion etc. and FBI reported hate crime categories. By formalizing these two categories Silva, et al.
ended up with nine categories of hate speech targets, they are:
Categories Online hate speech targets

Race Nigga, black people, white people

Behavior Insecure people, sensitive people

Physical Obese people, beautiful people

Sexual orientation Gay people, street people

Class Ghetto people, rich people

Gender Pregnant people, cunt, sexist people

Ethnicity Chinese people, Indian people, Pakistani

Disability Retard, bipolar people

Religion Religious people, Jewish people

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International Journal of Social Science (IJSS)
Vol.3 Issue.1 June 2023, pp: 23-28
ISSN: 2798-3463 (Printed) | 2798-4079 (Online)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.53625/ijss.v3i1.5607 25
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Other Drunk people, shallow people

(Leandro Silva, 2016)

Whisper is a popular anonymous social media site, launched in March 2012 as a mobile application.
Whisper users post short anonymous messages called “whispers” in this platform. Whisper represents a valuable
venue for studying online hate speech. In fact, recent works suggest that Whisper offers an interesting environment
for the study of online hate speech. These efforts show that users present a disinhibition complex in Whisper are
more likely to shed their hesitation and disclose more personal information in their communications. (Mainack
Mondal L. A., 2017)
Mainack Mondal et al. in their paper categorize top ten hate targets that from the data set of whisper and twitter.
They manually level 178 hate targets into categories which accounts to more than 97% of both twitter and whisper
hate speech.
Table 2. The hate categories observed in hate speech from twitter and whisper
Categories %Posts (Twitter) %Posts (Whisper)
Race 48.73 35.81
Behavior 37.05 19.27
Physical 3.38 14.06
Sexual orientation 1.86 9.32
Class 1.08 3.63
Ethnicity 0.57 1.96
Gender 0.56 1.89
Disability 0.19 0.82
Religion 0.07 0.41
Other 6.50 12.84
Research from Mondal .et al, they identified 20,305 tweets and 7604 whispers containing hate speech. The top
hate targets from twitter and whisper shows racist hate words like Black people, white people or Nigga are the most
significant hate words. They use 65% of twitter data set and 99% of the whisper data set to identify top ten targets of
hate in twitter and whisper. From their study most of the posts target Nigga (31.11%) in twitter and Black people
(10.10%) in whisper, other notable targets of the posts are Fake people (9.77%) and Fat people (8.46%) in whisper.
(Mainack Mondal L. A., 2017)
In 2014 a self-administered online survey of 2849 web users, the researchers found that 66% people who had
experienced online harassment most incident occurred on a social networking platform (Vittorio Lingiardi, 2019). In
2014, A nonprofit agency of twitter which known as Women, Action and the Media (WAM) found that among 317
genuine harassment reports that were submitted to WAM, 27% of them related to hate speech (Matias, 2022)
Race ethnicity on national origin-based discrimination can be seen in social platform which is a type of hate
speech. Researchers have used various types of measures to asses this type of discrimination (Kawachi, 2003)
Some social media researchers have focused on race-based discrimination which specially describe the racist
concepts (Yang, 2018).

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Race as a hate crime in social media
In a study of internet based racial hate crime in United states from the period of 2001-2008 it was found that
broadband availability increases the race base hate crime and social media increase racist group operations,
especially the racism is conducted by lone wolf preparator (Jason Chan, 2016).Racism is a continuity violence which
creates threats and intimidation. Because of racism the repeated insult, threat or violence now extends into the social
media and it creates a climate of unsafety which is experience by minority group. A black person is always known
that he or she belong to such a group that is threatened in this manner (Matthew L Williams, 2020).
Gender as a hate crime in social media
Gender based hate crime are the consequences of gender inequality which affect the woman. The gender-
based hate crimes are criminal offences which is motivated by bias against the person’s gender. The gender-based
hate crime on social media has a long-lasting impact on the victim which hamper the social cohesion and security by
perpetuating gender inequalities. (ODHR, 2021). Hate speech against women in social media platform can be
happened in various ways like threat of sexual harassment, stalking, sending and sharing nude pictures which impact
women’s freedom, dignity and equality (WILK, 2018). Online gender-based violence is a global gender rights
tragedy. An online poll conducted by Amnesty International across eight high-income countries in 2017 revealed that

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23% of women had experienced some form of abuse or harassment in social media platforms, ranging from 16% in
Italy to 33% in the United States (Dehingia, 2020). Another conducted in 2014 across the European Union found that
1 in 10 women reported having experienced online gender-based abuse since the age of 15. Online abuse can take
different forms including bullying, stalking, impersonation, non-consensual pornography, revenge porn or image
based sexual abused (Dehingia, 2020):
Online hate crime against the religious minority
For the United States specifically research has shown that anti Muslim hate crimes since President Donald
trump’s presidential campaigns have been concentrated in counties with high twitter usage (M ̈uller, 2018). Religious
minorities specifically Muslims are often targeted by hateful online comments (Awan I. , 2014). The conflation of
Muslims and Islam with terrorism which particularly developed after September 11, 2001 play a vital role in
Islamophobic attitudes (Di`ene, 2006). A significant increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes was observed after the
terrorist attacks because the terrorists identify themselves as Muslim and they are acting in the name of Islam
(Alexandra Olteanu, 2018). Because of this Muslim identity where the Muslim are minors being the most vulnerable
to hostility including online intimidation, abuse and threats of violence (Awan I. a., 2022). Online hate speech has
become an alarming phenomenon in Bangladesh now a days. Online hatred against minority religious groups (Hindu,
Christian, Buddhism) was experienced through online media by the major religious groups in Bangladesh. (Hossain,
2022). In a survey of 2018 among 29 respondents 11 participant from the religious minority groups stated that they
had experienced abuse, discrimination, denigrated and being offended through social media by random people and
they also said 69.2% offenders belong to Muslims the majority religion of Bangladesh and other respondents 15.4%
were victimized and discriminated by atheists. (Hossain, 2022)
Effects of hate crime in social media
Hate speech can be pervasive and have serious effect, according to a special Rapporteur to the UN Human
rights council the failure in dealing with the hate speech in time can be resulted in subordination of targeted
minorities which can make them vulnerable attacks but even it can influence the majority population to do more
online hatred (Alexandra Olteanu, 2018). The main characteristics of the online hate speech unlike other forms of
online communication it aims to degrade individual due to their particular social, racial or religious group (Hawdon
J, 2017). An act of online hate speech can only mark a single incident can lead to a repeated victimization (Leonhard
L, 2018). The online hate speech can be resulted in to counter hate speech can be resulted in to counter speech
(Krasodomski-Jones, 2022). Many researchers suggest that the hateful counter speech may be counterproductive and
it can cause more uncivil attitudes and behavior (B Neyhan, 2010) and it can also cause more hostile discourse (Lu,
2017). Many researchers have shown the hate speech in online media has a diverse psychological effect on
individual or groups (Nielsen, 2002). Hate speech can create short term psychological consequences such as mood
swings, anger, loneliness, fear and long-term effects can be erosion of social trust which can lead to radicalization
and can create a mind set up to accept the extremist ideology (Oana ªTEFÃNIÞÃ, 2021). Hate speech offends the
dignity which creates emotional distress, affects the personal development of the victim and also can cause
psychometric disorder, anxiety, depression and alcoholism (Brown, 2015). In anti-Muslim online hate speech, the
victims experience a heightened state of fear of abuse and they are always worried because the threats of online
could materialize in real world at any time (Awan I. Z., 2016).The online sexist hate speech against woman have
immediate short term, long term and intergenerational effects on women. It effects women and their belongings the
people they care for and their extended community and society and this type of violence effect women’s sense of
safety, physical and psychological health. (WILK, 2018)
Criminological explanations
Theory is a set of interconnected statements that can give logical explanation of a particular phenomenon. As
social media hate is a form of crime it can be discussed through criminological point of view and using theories of
criminology. Social media hate crime can be discussed through the structured action theory and space transition
theory of Criminology. Structured Action theory emphasizes that social structure as gender, race, class are
constructed through every day interaction. Barbara perry’s structured action theory of ‘doing difference’ can give a
macro level explanation of hate crime. According to Perry crime can be understood as the ultimate from of
discrimination which emerge from cultural segregation. The power dynamics is very important to explain hate crime
in society. Because of this power dynamics the notion of ‘difference’ emerged which results from belong to a
particular group, which has similar identity and characteristics. Eventually who fall outside of this societies
construction of identity they are seen as different. Because of this difference they are resisted and feared, for some
individuals this difference creates helplessness and insecurity about their place in society and eventually this
helplessness transfer into animosity against the different group. Finally, the different group forced to take the
subordinate position to the society. This process of subordination can lead to hate violence to the target group. To
explain how this hate against a particular group or race spread through the social media we can discuss this through

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International Journal of Social Science (IJSS)
Vol.3 Issue.1 June 2023, pp: 23-28
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.53625/ijss.v3i1.5607 27
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‘space transition theory ‘coined by Jai shankar. Space transition theory explain how criminal behavior is directed
through cyber space. Space transition involves the movement of persons from one space to another which means
physical space to cyber space. According to space transition theory a person who has repressed criminal behavior
have a tendency to commit crime in cyber space. From this point of view, a person who has hate against a particular
group or race can express his or her hate feelings through social media which is a cyber platform like Facebook,
Twitter, Whisper etc. Because of identity flexibility and anonymity in the cyber space the criminals use to spread
hate through social media platform. From this explanation it can be realized that social media is a great source of
doing hate crime because of this flexibility in social media it is very easy for doing hate crime by the preparator and
the targeted people can be easily victimized through social media.

4. CONCLUSION
Hate crime in social media is now a easiest way to do crime for a offender. Because of anonymity in social
media platform, it is very easy for offender to spread his or hatred to minority community which sometimes not
possible in to the real world and the offender can send and share the hate speech to many people and the number of
victims of these hate speeches can be huge. So, hate crime in social media is one of the great disadvantages of cyber
platform. In social media platform hate speech can affect the both social life in both individual and collective level.
Hateful comments and contents can cause harm and suffering in psychologically and physically to anyone. The
online hate speech and wrongful content can motivate anyone to do crime in real world. So, hate crime which spread
in social media in the form of hate speech should be detected. In Bangladesh to detect Bengali hate speech in social
media encoder and decoder-based machine language model to classify social users’ Bengali comments in Facebook
pages can be used (Amit Kumar Das, 2021).According to section 29 of Bangladesh Digital security act 2018
publication, transmission etc. of defamatory information by any person will be punished for 3 years and Taka 5 lac
with both but law against hate speech against any minority is not specific in Bangladesh , specific laws should be
enacted and implemented to remove hate speech against the minority community in Bangladesh. In a international
view there are specific laws against hate crime in social media is very specific. The United kingdom has a range of
criminal prohibition against hate speech such as :The crime disorder act, Malicious communications act 1998 and
Communications act 2003 which prohibit speech which is derogatory on ground of race, ethnic origin , religious and
sexual orientation. In Bangladesh there is a few research and investigative work on hate crime in social media but
with the rapid growth of internet users the hate crime is increasing in social media specially against the religious
minority. Proper steps should be taken to detect the offender users to make the social media crime free.

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