PHY113

General Physics
I
 Module 2
Motion and Forces
Unit 1: Scalars and Vectors
Unit 2: Velocity and acceleration
Unit 3: Newton’s laws of motion
Unit 4: Collision, momentum and Impulse
Unit 5: Work, Energy and Power
 Unit 1
Scalars and Vectors
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Definition of scalar and vector quantities
3.2 The difference between scalars and vectors
3.3 Vector addition and subtraction
3.4 Relative velocity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Some physical quantities, such as time, temperature, mass, and density, can be
described completely by a single number with a unit. But many other important
quantities in physics have a direction associated with them and cannot be described
by a single number. A simple example is describing the motion of an airplane: We must
say not only how fast the plane is moving but also in what direction. The speed of an
object combined with its direction of motion is an important concept worth
considering in physics.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain the concept of scalars and vectors
ii. Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities and their representation
iii. Conceptualize vector addition and subtraction operation
iv. Conceptualize relative velocity

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Definition of Scalar and Vector Quantities

3.1.1 Scalar Quantities

A quantity which is completely specified by a certain number associated with a suitable

unit without any mention of direction in space is known as scalar. Examples of scalar
are time, mass, length, volume, density, temperature, energy, distance, speed etc. The
number describing the quantity of a particular scalar is known as its magnitude. The
scalars are added subtracted, multiplied and divided by the usual arithmetical laws.
For example, 6 kg + 3 kg = 9 kg,
4 x 2 s = 8 s.

3.1.2 Vector Quantities

A quantity which is completely described only when both their magnitude and
direction are specified is known as vector. In contrast, a vector quantity has both
magnitude (the “how much” or “how big” part) and direction in space. Examples of
vectors are force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, torque, momentum,
gravitational force, electric and magnetic intensities etc. Combining vectors requires
a different set of operations. To understand more about vectors and how they combine,
we start with the simplest vector quantity
Vector Representations:
A vector quantity is represented by a straight line segment, say ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ. The arrow head
indicates the direction from P to Q. The length of the vector represents its magnitude.
Sometimes the vectors are represented by single letter such as V or ⃗V . The magnitude
⃗ | means modulus of V
of a vector is denoted by |V| or by just V, where |V ⃗ which is a
positive value

Types of Vectors
Unit vector
A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 and directed along the given vector is called
a unit vector. If a⃗ is a vector then a unit vector in the direction of a⃗, denoted by â (read
as a cap) is given as,
⃗a
â =
|a|
Where |a| is the magnitude of vector 𝑎
Free Vector
A vector whose position is not fixed in space. Thus, the line of action of a free vector
can be shifted parallel to itself. Displacement is an example of a free vector as shown

Localized or Bounded Vectors: A vector which cannot be shifted parallel to itself,

i.e., whose line of action is fixed is called a localized or bounded vector. Force and
momentum are examples of localized vectors.
Coplanar Vectors: The vectors which lies in the same plane are called coplanar
vectors
Concurrent Vectors: The vectors which pass through the common point are called
concurrent vectors
Negative of a Vector: The vector which has the same magnitude as the vector “a”
but opposite in direction to a is called the negative to “a”
Null or Zero Vector: It is a vector whose magnitude is zero. We denote the null
vector by O. The direction of a zero vector is arbitrary.

Equal Vectors: Two vector a⃗ and ⃗b are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and direction. If a⃗ and ⃗b are equal vectors then a⃗ = ⃗b

3.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Addition of Vectors

Suppose a⃗ and ⃗b are any two vectors. Choose point A so that a⃗ = ̅̅̅̅
OA and choose point
C so that ⃗b = ̅̅̅̅
AC. The sum a⃗ + ⃗b of a⃗ and ⃗b is the vector ̅̅̅̅
OC. Thus the sum of two
vectors a⃗ and ⃗b is performed by the Triangle Law of addition

Subtraction of Vectors

If a Vector ⃗b is to be subtracted from a vector a⃗, the difference, vector 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ can be

obtained by adding vectors a⃗ and −b ⃗ .The vector −b⃗ is a vector which is equal and
parallel to that vector 𝑏⃗ but its arrow-head points in opposite direction. Now the
⃗ can be added by the head-to-tail rule. Thus the line AC
vectors a⃗ and −b ̅̅̅̅ represents, in
⃗
magnitude and direction, the vector a⃗ − b

Properties of Vector Addition

1. Vector addition is Commutative
i.e. a⃗ + ⃗b = a⃗ + ⃗b where a⃗ and ⃗b are any two vectors
2. Vector addition is Associative

i.e. (a⃗ + ⃗b) + c = a⃗ + (b

⃗ + c) where a⃗, ⃗b and c are any three vectors

3. 𝐨
̅ is the identity in vectors addition
i.e. for every vector a⃗
a⃗ + o̅ = a⃗ Where o̅ is the zero vector

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. Which of the following is not a vector quantity ? A. Speed B. Velocity C. Force

D. Acceleration E. Electric Field
2. Which of the following is not a scalar quantity? A. Density B. Weight C. Speed
D. Mass E. Temperature
3. Two forces, whose resultant is 100N, are perpendicular to each other. If one of
them makes an angle of 600 with the resultant, calculate its magnitude: (Sin
600 = 0.8660, Cos 600 = 0.5000)
A. 200. N B. 173.2N C. 115.5N D. 86.6N
4. Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities. Which of the following are
scalars and which are vectors? Speed, velocity, mass, density, force ,
displacement, weight, acceleration, momentum
5. A toy train moves along a winding track at an average speed of 0.25m/s. How
far will it travel in 4.00 minutes?

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you have learnt the concept of scalar and vector quantities, types of vectors
and how vectors addition and subtraction operation are carried out.

5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have defined scalar quantities asnumbers and can combine with the
usual rules of arithmetic. Vector quantities have direction as well as magnitude and
combined according to the rules of vector algebra. The negative of a vector has the
same magnitude but points in the opposite direction.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1. What do you understand by the word scalar and vector quantities?
2. Explain the meaning of resultant of two vectors?
3. What are the types of vectors?

7.0 References/Further Reading

Hannagan, T.J. (1982) College Physics, Macmillan Press Ltd.
M.W. Anyakoha (Ph.D )New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools, (1991)
Scalar and Vectors.
 Unit 2
Velocity and Acceleration
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Understanding of physical quantities such as velocity and acceleration
concepts
3.2 How to determine the vector velocity of a body from a knowledge of its
path.
3.2 How to find the vector acceleration of a body, and why a body can have
an acceleration even if its speed is constant.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In this unit we will study velocity and acceleration, the part of mechanics that enables
us to describe motion. We will concentrate on the simplest kind of motion: a body
moving along a straight line. To describe this motion, we introduce the physical
quantities velocity and acceleration. An important note is that both velocity and
acceleration are vectors. We’ll develop simple equations to describe straight-line
motion in the important special case when the acceleration is constant.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. describe straight-line motion in terms of average velocity, instantaneous
velocity, average acceleration, and instantaneous acceleration.
ii. interpret graphs of position versus time, velocity versus time, and acceleration
versus time for straight-line motion.
iii. solve problems involving straight-line motion with constant acceleration,
including free-fall problems.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Velocity

3.1.1 Definition of Velocity

Velocity is a vector quantity that embraces both the speed and the direction of motion.
If an object undergoes displacement 𝑆 in a time interval t, then
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑠
⃗𝑎𝑣 =
𝑉 …………………………………………………….. (1)
𝑡

The direction of the velocity vector is the same as that of the displacement vector. The
SI unit of velocity (and speed) are those of distance divided by time such as m/s other
units include cm/sec, km/h

Instantaneous Velocity
Sometimes the average velocity is all you need to know about a particle’s motion but
the average velocity of a particle during a time interval can’t tell us how fast or in what
direction, the particle is moving at any given time during the interval. To do this we
need to know the velocity at any specific instant of time or specific point along the
path. This is called instantaneous velocity, and it need to be defined carefully.
Definition of Instantaneous Velocity

The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero; it equals the instantaneous rate of change of position with time.
Instantaneous velocity, like average velocity is a vector quantity
As the average velocity evaluated for a time interval that approaches zero,
instantaneous velocity can be determined. Thus, if an object undergoes a displacement
Δ𝑆 in a time Δt, then for that object the instantaneous velocity is
Δ𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = lim = ………………………………………………..(2)
Δ𝑡 →0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Considering a particle moving along the x-axis. Suppose that at time t1 the particle is
at point P1 and has x-component of (instantaneous velocity) v1x, and at a later time t2
it is at point P2 and has x-component of velocity v2x. so the x-component of velocity
changes by an amount Δ𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 during the time interval Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 .
Therefore, acceleration measures the time rate-of-change of velocity along the
component of any predefined direction:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 𝛥𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = = (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, )……..(3)
𝑡2 −𝑡1 𝛥𝑡

Where 𝑣2𝑥 = final velocity, 𝑣1𝑥 = initial velocity, and

(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) is the time interval over which the change occurred.
The units of acceleration are those of velocity divided by time is (m/s2) or km/hr2
Instantaneous Acceleration
We can now define instantaneous acceleration following the same procedure that we
used to define instantaneous velocity.

3.1.2 Definition of Instantaneous Acceleration

The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval approaches zero. In the language of calculus, instantaneous acceleration
equals the instantaneous rate of change of velocity with time
Thus
Δ𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = lim = (instantaneous x-acceleration) ……………..(4)
Δ𝑡 →0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Uniform accelerated motion along a straight line:
This is an important situation. In this case, the acceleration vector is constant and lies
along the line of the displacement vector, so that the direction of 𝑣 and 𝑎 can be
specified with plus and minus signs. Direction is important, and a positive direction
must be chosen when analyzing motion along a line. Either direction may be chosen
as positive. If a displacement, velocity or acceleration is in the opposite direction, it
must be taken as negative.

3.2 Proof of equations of motion

If we represent the displacement by x (positive if in the positive direction, and negative

if in the negative direction), then the motion can be described with the five equations
for uniformly accelerated motion
Assuming the x-acceleration 𝑎𝑥 is constant, the average x-acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣−𝑥 for any
time interval is the same as 𝑎𝑥 Therefore the derivation of equations of motion for the
position x and the x-velocity 𝑣𝑥 as functions of time is given by.
To find an expression for 𝑣𝑥 we first replace 𝑎𝑎𝑣−𝑥 by 𝑎𝑥 :
𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = ……………………………………………… (5)
𝑡2 −𝑡1

Now we let 𝑡1 = 0 and let 𝑡2 be any later time t. we use the symbol 𝑣0𝑥 for the x- velocity
at the initial time t=0; the x-velocity at the later time t is 𝑣𝑥 . Then we have
𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = …………………………………………….(6)
𝑡−0

𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎𝒙 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 (constant x- acceleration only) ……………………..(7)

Next we’ll derive an equation for the position x as a function of time when the x-
acceleration is constant. To do this, we use two different expressions for the average x-
velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 during the interval from t = 0 to any later time t. The first expression
comes from the definition of 𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 , which is true whether or not the acceleration is
constant. We call the position at time the initial position, denoted by 𝑥0 . The position
at the later time t is simply x. Thus for the time interval the average velocity gives
𝑥− 𝑥0
𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = …………………………………..(8)
𝑡

We can also get a second expression for 𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 that is valid only when the x-acceleration
is constant, so that the x-velocity changes at a constant rate. In this case the average x-
velocity for the time interval from 0 to t is simply the average of the x-velocities at the
beginning and end of the interval:
𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = (constant x- acceleration only) ………………………(9)
2

(This equation is not true if the x-acceleration varies during the time interval.)
We also know that with constant x-acceleration, the x-velocity 𝑣𝑥 at any time t is given
by Equation (1) Substituting that expression for 𝑣𝑥 into Equation (2), we find
𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = = …………………………………………..(10)
2 2
𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + (constant x – acceleration only) …………..(11)
2

Finally, we set Eqs. (2.9) and (2.11) equal to each other and simplify:
𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑥− 𝑥0
𝑣0𝑥 + = ………………………………………………………….(12)
2 𝑡

𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + (constant x – acceleration only)………..(13)
2

Make t the subject of the formula in equation (1) - 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 ………………..(14)

𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥
= 𝑡………………………………………………………………………..(15)
𝑎𝑥
𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥 𝑎𝑥 ( 𝑥 0𝑥 )2
𝑎𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 ( )+ ………………………………………………………….(16)
𝑎𝑥 2

Simplifying further gives us

2
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (constant x – acceleration only) ………………………..(17)
are the equations of motion with constant acceleration. By using these equations, we
can solve any problem involving straight-line motion of a particle with constant
acceleration.

3.3 Relative Velocity

You’ve no doubt observed how a car that is moving slowly forward appears to be
moving backward when you pass it. In general, when two observers measure the
velocity of a moving body, they get different results if one observer is moving relative
to the other. The velocity seen by a particular observer is called the velocity relative to
that observer, or simply relative velocity.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. A bus moving in a straight line at a speed of 20m/s begins to slow at a constant

rate of 3.0m/s each second. Find how far it goes before stopping ?
2. a body with initial velocity 8.0m/s moves along a straight line with a constant
acceleration and travels 640m in 40s. For the 40s interval, find a. average
velocity b. the final velocity c. the acceleration

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you should have learnt that distance and speed are scalar quantities while
velocity and acceleration are vector quantities. Also the explain the terms used in the
equations of motion
5.0 Summary
1 Displacement is defined as the distance travelled in a specified direction. It is a vector
quantity.
2. Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity
3. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement
4. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It is a vector quantity
3. Equations of uniformly accelerated motions are;
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑠= (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
2

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

1. What do you understand by the word displacement, speed, velocity, instantaneous
velocity, acceleration, instantaneous acceleration?
2. A body moving with uniform acceleration a has two points (5, 15) and (20, 60) on
the velocity – time graph of its motion. Calculate a A. 0.25m/s2 B. 3.00m/s2 C.
4.00m/s2 D. 9.00m/s2 E. 16.00m/s2
3. Distinguish between uniform acceleration and variable acceleration. Illustrate by
means of a velocity time graph

7.0 References/Further Reading

M.W. Anyakoha (Ph.D )New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools, (1991)
Scalar and Vectors.
Hannagan, T.J. (1982) College Physics, Macmillan Press Ltd.
 Unit 3
Newton’s Law of Motion
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Mass and Weight
3.2 Force and the Newton
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Motion has been discussed in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration. Now
we want to discuss about why does a body remain at rest, and a body moving with
uniform velocity continue its uniform motion? What will make the body at rest to
move, and a body moving with uniform velocity to change its state of motion? Such an
agent that changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line of a body is called Force

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain:
i. the concept of mass and weight in physics
ii. The significance of net force on an object, and what happens when the net
force is zero.
iii. The relationship among the net force on an object, the object’s mass, and its
acceleration.
iv. Newton’s laws of motion

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Mass and Weight
One of the most familiar forces is the weight of a body, which is the gravitational force
that the earth exerts on the body. (If you are on another planet, your weight is the
gravitational force that planet exerts on you.) Unfortunately, the terms mass and
weight are often misused and interchanged in everyday conversation. It is absolutely
essential for you to understand clearly the distinctions between these two physical
quantities.

3.1.1 Mass
Mass is a property of an object which is one way of specifying the quantity of matter in
it. The concept of mass can be explained formally in terms of the effect of a total force
on a body, using the equation of motion discussed later in this chapter. Alternatively,
mass can be determined in terms of the gravitational force on the object. At a fixed
location the gravitational force on different objects (their weights) is proportional to
their masses. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg) and the unit of weight is
the newton (N). Mass characterizes the inertial properties of a body. The greater the
mass, the greater the force needed to cause a given acceleration; this is reflected in
Newton’s second law,
3.1.2 Weight
Weight, on the other hand, is a force exerted on a body by the pull of the earth. The
force that makes the body accelerate downward is its weight. Any body near the surface
of the earth that has a mass of 1 kg must have a weight of 9.8 N to give it the
acceleration we observe when it is in free fall.
More generally, a body with mass m must have weight with magnitude w given by
W = mg (magnitude of the weight of a body of mass m)……………………………………..(1)
g is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity
Hence the magnitude w of a body’s weight is directly proportional to its mass m and
its always positive.

3.1.3 Similarities between Mass and Weight

Mass and weight are related. Bodies having large mass also have large weight. A large
stone is hard to throw because of its large mass, and hard to lift off the ground because
of its large weight.
To understand the relationship between mass and weight, note that a freely falling
body has an acceleration of magnitude g, called the acceleration due to gravity.
Newton’s second law tells us that a force must act to produce this acceleration. If a 1-
kg body falls with an acceleration due to gravity the required force has magnitude.
F = ma (1kg) (9.8m/s2) = 9.8N……………………………………………………………………..(2)

3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

How do the forces that act on a body affect its motion? To begin to answer this
question, you would almost certainly agree that if a body is at rest, and if no net force
acts on it (that is, no net push or pull), that body will remain at rest. The tendency of a
body to keep moving once it is set in motion results from a property called inertia.

3.2.1 Newton First Law of Motion

This tendency of bodies to remain in their state of rest or uniform linear motion in the
absence of applied forces is known as inertia. Newton’s First Law shows that inertia is
inherent in a body at rest or the one moving with a constant velocity. Inertia is a
property of matter. Mass is a measure of inertia, the more massive an object is, the
more inertia it has.
Newton’s first law explains why passengers in a fast moving vehicle tend to move
forward when a car suddenly stops, or to be pushed backwards when the vehicle
suddenly speeds off, since there is little or no force to restrain them. Hence safety belts
are used to provide this restraining force.
Newton’s first law also explains what force does not suggest how force should be
measured.
Newton’s First Law
A body acted on by no net force moves with constant velocity (which may be zero) and
zero acceleration. Or an object at rest will remain at rest; an object in motion will
continue in motion with constant velocity, except insofar as it is acted upon by an
external force. Force is the changer of motion

3.2.2 Newton Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law is a fundamental law of nature which express the basic
relationship between force and motion. Newton’s second law enables us to define an
absolute unit of force which remains constant under all conditions. In symbols the law
states that
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹𝛼
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
𝐹𝛼 ……………………………………………………..(3)
𝑡

Where m, u, v, t are the mass, initial velocity, final velocity and time respectively of
motion of the body acted upon by a force F; and the product of m and v is called the
momentum
Hence
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹 𝛼 𝑚( )
𝑡

𝐹 𝛼 𝑚𝑎……………………………………………………(4)
𝑣−𝑢
Where = acceleration, a.
𝑡

Thus F= kma…………………………………………………………………………………………..(5)
The unit of force is chosen so that k = 1. Hence we can write
F = ma ………………………………………………………………………………………………….(6)
Also,
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹 = 𝑚( )
𝑡

Or F.t = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)…………………………………………………………………………………..(7)

The product F.t is the impulse, I of the force
I = Ft = change in momentum ………………………………………………………………...(8)
Example
An unbalanced force of 20N acts on a 4.0kg mass. What acceleration does it give it ?
Solution
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
20 = 4𝑎
𝑎 = 5𝑚/𝑠2
Example
A ball of mass 0.3kg, moving at a velocity of 20m/s is suddenly hit by a force of 5N for
a time of 0.03 sec. Find its new velocity of motion.
Solution
From Newton’s second law
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹 = 𝑚( )
𝑡

Impulse F.t = m (v-u)

𝐹. 𝑡
= 𝑣 − 20
𝑚
V = 20.5m/s
If a net external force acts on a body, the body accelerates. The direction of acceleration
is the same as the direction of the net force. The mass of the body times the acceleration
of the body equals the net force vector.

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎……………………………………………………………………………..(9)
An alternative statement is that the acceleration of a body is in the same direction as
the net force acting on the body, and is equal to the net force divided by the body’s
mass:
∑𝐹
𝑎= ………………………………………………………………………………..(10)
𝑚

The acceleration 𝑎 has the same direction as the resultant force 𝐹 .

3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law

A force acting on a body is always the result of its interaction with another body, so
forces always come in pairs. You can’t pull on a doorknob without the doorknob pulling
back on you. When you kick a football, the forward force that your foot exerts on the
ball launches it into its trajectory, but you also feel the force the ball exerts back on
your foot. If you kick a boulder, the pain you feel is due to the force that the boulder
exerts on your foot. In each of these cases, the force that you exert on the other body
is in the opposite direction to the force that body exerts on you. Experiments show that
whenever two bodies interact, the two forces that they exert on each other are always
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This fact is called Newton’s third law
of motion:
Newton’s Third Law
If body A exerts a force on body B (an “action”), then body B exerts a force on body A
(a “reaction”). These two forces have the same magnitude but are opposite in direction.
These two forces act on different bodies.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. A worker applies a constant horizontal force with magnitude 20 N to a box with

mass 40 kg resting on a level floor with negligible friction. What is the
acceleration of the box?
2. State Newton’s laws of motion.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have learnt the definition of mass and weight, similarities of mass and
weight. In addition, force, motion and Newton’s laws of motion

5.0 Summary
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. It is also a measure of the inertia of a body.
Mass is constant all over the earth.
Weight: The weight of a body is the force with which the earth pulls the body to the
earth’s centre. Weight varies from place to place, because the g in F=mg varies from
place to place.
Newton’s laws of motion
First Law: Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless acted upon by an external force. From this law, we obtain the idea of inertia.
Second Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force
Third law states that action and reaction are equal and opposite.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

1. A body of mass 0.1kg dropped from a height of 8m onto a hard floor bounces back
to a height of 2m. Calculate the change of momentum. If the body is in the contact with
the floor for 0.1sec. What is the force exerted on the body? (g=10m/s2)
2. A body of mass 2kg falls freely from rest through a height of 50m and comes to rest
having penetrated 5.0cm of sand. Calculate (i) the velocity with which the body hits
the sand, (ii) the time taken in falling (iii) the average force exerted by the sand in
bringing the body to rest.
7.0 References/Further Reading
Hannagan, T.J. (1982) College Physics, Macmillan Press Ltd.
M.W. Anyakoha (Ph.D )New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools, (1991)
Scalar and Vectors.
 Unit 4
Collision, Momentum
and Impulse
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1. Collision Theory
3.2 Momentum and Impulse
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
There are many questions involving forces that cannot be answered by directly
applying Newton’s second law, for example, when a moving van collides head-on with
a compact car, what determines which way the wreckage moves after the collision?
Our approach uses two new concepts, momentum and impulse, and a new
conservation law, conservation of momentum. This conservation law is every bit as
important as the law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of momentum
is valid even in situations in which Newton’s laws are inadequate

2.0 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain collision Theory
ii. Solve problems in which two bodies collide with each other
iii. Briefly explain the important distinction among elastic and inelastic collisions.
iv. State and explain the meaning of the law of conservation of linear momentum

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Collision Theory
When we talk about a collision in physics (between two particles, say) we mean that
two particles are moving freely through space until they get close to one another; then,
for a short period of time they exert strong forces on each other until they move apart
and are again moving freely.
There are two principal types of collision – elastic and inelastic collisions.
If in a collision between two bodies, the total kinetic energy is the same before and
after the collisions, the collision is said to be completely or perfectly elastic. Thus in
such an elastic collision both the kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.
Let us consider two objects of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and
u2 before collision and with final velocities v1 and v2 after collision in the same
direction. If the collision is perfectly elastic, we can write two equations from the law
of conservation of momentum and the law of conservation of kinetic energy. Hence,
(𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 ) = (𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )…………………………………………………………………(1)
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
2 2 2 2
Two examples of collisions that are often very nearly perfectly elastic collisions are the
collision of billiard balls and of molecules and atoms. Also a tennis ball or ping – pong
ball that bounces back to its original height after a surface is said to have had an elastic
collision with the surface. In a perfectly elastic head-on collision between two bodies,
the relative velocity of the two bodies is unchanged in magnitude but reversed in
direction.
In an inelastic collision. The kinetic energy decreases after collision but the
momentum is still conserved. In inelastic collision, the colliding bodies stuck together
and move as a unit after collision. This means that the velocities of the two bodies after
collision are
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
From conservation of linear momentum we have
(𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 ) = (𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ) = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣………………………………………….(4)
The kinetic energy of the system before collision is given by
1 1
𝐸𝐾1 = 𝑚 𝑢2 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 …………………………………………………………………………..…(5)
2 1 1 2

And after collision, the kinetic energy is

1 1 1
𝐸𝐾2 = 𝑚 𝑣2 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2 ……………………………………………………(6)
2 2 1 2 2 2

For a completely elastic inelastic collision, the kinetic energy before collision is greater
than the kinetic energy after collision i.e EK1 > EK2
The sum of the momenta before and after the collision is conserved. While the total
momentum is conserved for a system of isolated colliding particles, the mechanical
energy may or may not be conserved. If the mechanical energy (usually meaning the
total kinetic energy) is the same before and after a collision, we say that the collision
is elastic. Otherwise we say the collision is inelastic. If two objects collide, stick
together, and move off as a combined mass, we call this a perfectly inelastic collision.
When a ball is dropped to the ground, one of four things may happen:
1. It may rebound with exactly the same speed as the speed at which it hit
the ground. This is an elastic collision.
2. It may come to a complete rest, for example if it were a ball of soft
putty. I shall call this a completely inelastic collision.
3. It may bounce back, but with a reduced speed. For want of a better
term I shall refer to this as a somewhat inelastic collision.
4. If there happens to be a little heap of gunpowder lying on the table
where the ball hits it, it may bounce back with a faster speed than it had
immediately before collision. That would be a super elastic collision.
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ……………………………………………(7)

is called the coefficient of restitution, for which I shall use the symbol e.

The coefficient is 1 for an elastic collision, less than 1 for an inelastic collision, zero for a
completely inelastic collision, and greater than 1 for a super elastic collision.
3.2 Momentum
Any moving object can have momentum. This is because momentum is mass in
motion. The way we determine an object's momentum is fairly straightforward.
Momentum is the object's mass times its velocity.
in equation form, 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗, …………………………………………………………………………..(8)
where p is momentum,
m is mass in kilograms, and v is velocity in meters per second.
Momentum is proportional to both mass and velocity, meaning that a change in one
will cause the same amount of change in the other. So if you increase an object's mass,
you also increase its momentum. The same is true for velocity: increase or decrease
the object's speed, and you increase or decrease its momentum by the same amount.
But usually it's the object's velocity that changes instead of its mass, right? You may
remember that a change in velocity means the object is accelerating. You may also
remember that acceleration is caused by a force and that the greater the force, the
greater the acceleration. Therefore, the greater the acceleration, the greater the
momentum!
Example:
A body of mass 3.0 kg moves with a velocity of 10m/s. Calculate the momentum of the
body.
Solution
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
3 x 10 = 30kgm/s

3.3 Impulse
Impulse is usually associated with collision. When a body collides with another, each
receives an impulse or blow. The impulse consists of a large varying force acting for a
very short time. This change in momentum caused is called impulse. The greater the
impulse, the greater the change in momentum. To change the impulse, you can either
change the amount of force, or you can change the time interval in which that force
acts. In equation form, we can write this relationship between impulse and momentum
as:

3.3.1 Definition of impulse

We define impulse as the product of the average force acting on a particle and the time
during which it acts.
If a force F acts for a short time t, the impulse I, is given by:
𝑚𝑣
F= 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 2𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡

Ft = mv = I = Impulse
I = F x t …………………………………………………………………………………………….. (9)
The unit of impulse is the Newton – second. Impulse is a vector. It has the same
direction as the direction of force.
Example: A stationary ball is hit by an average force 50N for a time of 0.03sec. What
is the impulse experienced by the body?
Solution
I = Ft
=50 x 0.03
=1.5N-sec

3.4 Conservation of Linear Momentum

The principle of the conservation of linear momentum can be stated in different ways:
1. In any system of colliding objects the total momentum is always conserved
provided that there is no net external force acting on the system OR
2. The total momentum of an isolated or closed system of colliding bodies
remains constant
3. If two or more bodies collide in a closed system, the total momentum after the
collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision
The principle of the conservation of linear momentum follows from Newton’s third
and second laws of motion.
Consider two bodies A and B of masses mA and mB moving towards each other with
velocities uA and uB respectively.
Let the acceleration of A be aA and that of B be aB. when the two bodies collide, the
force on A is equal and opposite to the force on B, from Newton’s third law; hence we
can write:
FA = - FB ………………………………………………………………………………………………(10)
From Newton’s second law, F = ma hence
𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝐴 = −𝑚𝐵 𝑎𝐵………………………………………………………………………………(11)
we recall that acceleration a is given by
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
Hence
 𝑣𝐴 −𝑢𝐵 𝑣𝐴 −𝑢𝐵
𝑚𝐴 = −𝑚𝐵 ……………………………………………………………………(12)
𝑡 𝑡

Where t is the contact time of the two bodies during collision and u is the initial velocity
before collision and v is the final velocity after collision. Eliminating t from
𝑚𝐴 (𝑣𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 ) = −𝑚𝐵 (𝑣𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 ) ………………………………………………………….(13)
(𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 ) = (𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 )…………………………………………………….(14)
Since we have already defined momentum as mass x velocity. The above equation
means that the total momentum before the impact is equal to the total momentum
after the impact
Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1

1. A 2.0 kg brick is moving at a speed of 6.0m/s. how large a force F is needed to

stop the brick in a time of 7.0 x 10-4s
2. An 8.0g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9.00kg cube of wood, which is at rest,
and sticks in it. The cube is free to move and has a speed of 40cm/s after
impact. Find the initial velocity of the bullet

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you should have learnt the definition mass and weight, similarities of mass
and weight. In addition, force and motion and Newton’s laws of motion

5.0 Summary
Momentum (p) of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity
Impulse is the product of the force and time during which the force acts (I=ft). impulse
acts only for a short time.
Principle of the conservation of linear momentum states that when two or more
momentum remains constant, provided there are no external forces acting on the
bodies. Such a system of bodies is called an isolated system or closed system
In elastic collisions both the linear momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. In
inelastic collisions, linear momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy decreases

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

1. Distinguish between impulse and momentum. How are they related? Calculate
the momentum of:
a. The moon of mass 7 x 1022 kg travelling with a velocity of 1.05km/s
b. A tanker of mass 7 x 107kg travelling at 4m/s
c. An aircraft of mass 2.5 x 105kg travelling at 500m/s
2. Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision
3. State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
7.0 References/Further Reading
 Unit 5
Work, Energy and
Power
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 concepts of work
3.2 Concepts of energy
3.3 Concepts of Power
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In this section we’ll see how work is defined and how to calculate work in a variety of
situations involving constant forces. Even though we already know how to solve
problems in which the forces are constant, the idea of work, energy and power is still
useful in such problems.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
i. explain work, energy and power and give respective examples
ii. calculate
a. The work done, given a force and displacement it produces in its direction
b. The gravitational potential energy at a height h above a given frame of
reference
iii. Calculate the power in watts given an applied force and the time to
produce a displacement
iv. Identify the type of energy possessed by a body under given conditions.
v. State the law of conversation of energy

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Grouping and Tabulation

3.1.1 WORK
Work is said to be done whenever a force is applied to cause a displacement of a body.
When you push a car a certain distance, or you lift a load from the floor on to a table,
or you stretch or compress an elastic body some distance, you are said to do work.
When no movement takes place after you have applied a force to a body, no work is
done. You have done no work in carrying a bag for so long standing on a spot.
Work is said to be done whenever a force moves its point of application a distance in
the direction of the force.
Calculation
In physics, work has a precise definition. When a force F (Newtons) acting on an
object produces a small displacement S (metres), we say that the work done by the
force on the object is given by the product of the force and displacement produced,
namely,
W = F x S ………………………………………………………………………………………………….(1)
Unit:
Joules = Newton x metre = Joules
Other units include :
Kilojoules = KJ = 103J
Megajoules = MJ = 106J

Consider the simple case of a straight-line motion, where a force 𝐹 acts on a body that
simultaneously undergoes a vector displacement 𝑠. The component of 𝐹 in the
direction of 𝑠 is Fcosθ. The work W done by the force 𝐹 is defined to be the component
of 𝐹 in the direction of the displacement, multiplied by the displacement:
W = (Fcosθ)(s) = FsCosθ…………………………………………………………………………….(2)
Notice that θ is the angle between the force and displacement vectors. Work is a scalar
quantitiy.

If 𝐹 and 𝑠 are in the same direction θ, β, 0, Cosθ = Cos00 = 1 and W = Fs. But, if 𝐹 and
𝑠 are in opposite direction, then cosθ = cos1800 = -1 and W = -Fs; the work is negative.
Forces such as friction often do negative work.
Example 5:
A UPS delivery man pushes on a box with a force of 100 N while sliding it along the
floor a distance of 5 meters at constant speed. How much work is performed by the
UPS man in moving the box?
Solution:
In this case the force and displacement are in the same direction so
W = FsCosθ = (100w)(5m)CosO°
But CosO° = 1
W = 100 x 5 = 500wm = 500J
Work done in a force field
a. Lifting a body
Work is done against the force of gravity or against the weight of the body. We defined
the weight of a body as the force of attraction on the body due to the earth’s gravity.
The magnitude of such work done is given by
Work = Force x Distance
= mg x h ……………………………………………………………………………………….(3)
= mgh
Where m = mass of the body, g = acceleration due to gravity (g=10m/s2 and h = height
Example
A boy of mass 10kg runs up a set of steps in total height 3.0m. Find the work done
against gravity
Solution
Work done = mgh
= 10 x 10 x 3
= 300J
b. Falling Bodies
When a body falls freely in a force field, the force of the field does work on the body.
Hence for a body falling freely under gravity the earth’s gravitational force does work
on the body. If the body of mass m, falls through a vertical height h, the work done by
gravity on the body is given by w = mgh
Example
A load sack of total mass 100kg falls down from the floor of a lorry 2.0m high. Calculate
the work done by gravity on the load.
Solution
W = mgh
= 100 x 10 x 2
= 2000J

3.1.2 Energy
Energy is a very important concept both in physics and in our world at large. Energy
takes various forms. A massive truck traveling along the highway at a high speed has
much kinetic energy; a water reservoir just above a dam contains significant
gravitational potential energy.
Energy is a measure of the charge imparted to a system. It can be mechanically
transferred to an object when a force does work on that body. The amount of energy
given to an object via the action of the force over a distance equals the work done.
Further, when an object does work, it gives up an amount of energy equal to the work
it does. Because change can be effectuated in many different ways there are a variety
of forms of energy. All forms of energy, including work, have the same units, joules.
Energy is a scalar quantity. An object that is capable of doing work possess energy.
There are many forms of energy. These include:
i. Mechanical Energy ii. Heat Energy iii. Light energy iv. Chemical energy v. Electrical
energy vi. Atomic Energy vii. Solar energy
Types of Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is classified into two types – potential energy and kinetic energy
3.1.3 Kinetic Energy (K.E)
Kinetic Energy (K.E) is the energy possessed by an object because it is in motion. If an
object of mass m is moving with a speed v, it has translational kinetic energy given by
1
K.E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Measusrement of Kinetic Energy (K.E)

Kinetic energy depends only on the mass and velocity of the body. The kinetic (K.E) of
a body in motion is given by:
1
K.E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………(4)

Thus if two bodies in motion have the same mass, the faster body has the greater
kinetic energy and if they have the same velocity, the body with greater mass has a
greater kinetic energy
Example
An object of mass 5kg is moving at a constant velocity 15m/s. Calculate its kinetic
energy
Solution
1
K.E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1
K.E = 𝑥 5 𝑥 152 Joules
2

K.E = 562.5 Joules

Where m is in kg and v is in m/s, the units of K.E are joules
Examples of Kinetic Energy are;
i. A student running a race
ii. An object falling freely under gravity
iii. Wind or air in motion
iv. Electrical charges in motion
v. A moving bullet or a moving hammer head

3.1.4 Potential Energy

Potential Energy (P.E) is simply ‘stored energy’ or the energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position or state.
Such stored energy is used to do work when the body is free to move. A heavy stone on
top of a table has potential energy. When allowed to fall on to a glass plate on the floor,
it will shatter the plate. The potential energy of the stone due to its position above the
floor is expended in shattering the plate. A body may have a potential energy due to its
position in a force field. If the force field is the gravitational field, the body is said to
possess a gravitational potential energy. The stone resting on top of a table has
gravitational potential energy due to its height above the ground level. If the body is of
mass m and the height of the table is h, then the gravitational potential energy is given
by
E = mgh
Where m = mass of the body, g = acceleration due to gravity and h = height (g=10m/s2)

3.1.5 Conservation of Energy

There is an important law of nature which governs these changes in forms of energy.
This law is known as the law of conversation of energy
The law of conservation of energy states that in an isolated or closed system, the total
amount of energy is always constant, although energy may be changed from to one
form to another
By an isolated or closed system, we mean a group of objects that neither receives
energy from or gives energy to objects outside the system. For example, the whole
universe is an isolated system, because there is nothing outside it, the universe cannot
share energy with things outside it

3.1.6 Power
The definition of work makes no reference to the passage of time. If you lift a barbell
weighing 100 N through a vertical distance of 1.0 m at constant velocity, you do (100N)
(1.0m) = 100J of work whether it takes you 1 second, 1 hour, or 1 year to do it. But often
we need to know how quickly work is done. We describe this in terms of power. In
ordinary conversation the word “power” is often synonymous with “energy” or “force.”
In physics we use a much more precise definition: Power is the time rate at which
work is done. Like work and energy, power is a scalar quantity.
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = …………………………………………………………….(5)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

If the work is in joules and the time is in seconds, then the power is measured in watts.
1 watt = 1 joule per second
Other commonly used units of power are the kilowatt (kW), the megawatt (MW) and
the horsepower (h.p.),
1Kw = 1000W = 103 W
1MW = 1,000,000W = 106W
1 h.p. = 746W
Example
A car is moving at a constant speed of 20m/s. The force retarding its motion is 500N.
Calculate the engine power of the car required to maintain the motion.
Solution
Engine power = work done by the car per second in overcoming the retarding force
= force x distance moved per second
= 500N x 20m/s
= 10000Js-1
= 104 Watts or 10KW

Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 2

1. A man of mass 50kg ascends a flight of starts 5m high in 5 seconds. If

acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s2, the power expended is
A. 100W B. 200W C. 250W D. 400W E. 500W
2. What do you understand by the term work ? what is it unit?
3. A mass of 10kg moves with a velocity of 4m/s. find its kinetic energy

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you should have learnt how to calculate the work done, given a force and
displacement it produces in its direction., calculate the power in watts given an applied
force and the time it takes to produce a displacement

5.0 Summary
1. Work is said to be done when a force F moves a body a distance, S in the direction of
the force. Work is force x displacement in the direction of the force
2. Energy is the capacity to do work and is measured in joules.
3. The total energy in a closed or isolated system is constant. Thus in such a system,
energy can never be created or destroyed but can be transformed from one form to
another. This is the law of conservation of energy.
4. power is the time rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is expended. It is
measured in Watts.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

A ball of mass 8kg falls from rest from a height of 100m. Neglecting air resistance,
calculate its total energy after falling a distance of 40m
A boy weighing 350N runs up a flight of stairs consisting of 20 steps each 10cm high
in 10 seconds. What is his power ?
7.0 References/Further Reading