TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction:
2.0 Exploring groundwater
2.1 Surface methods:
2.2 Subsurface methods
3.0 Geomorphological Methods
3.1 Study of Land forms
3.2 Topography and Drainage
3.3 Drainage density of stream network
4.0 Geological Methods
4.1 Structural methods
5.0 Geophysical methods:
5.1 Gravity Method
5.2 Magnetic Method
5.3 Seismic Method
6.0 Electrical Resistivity Method
7.0 Electromagnetic Method
8.0 Geophysical Logging Techniques
9.0 Photogeology
10.0 Remote Sensing
11.0 Applications to water management

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is an invisible natural resource. It is available in different proportions, in
various rock types and at various depths, on the surface layer of the earth. In the historical
past, when there is no visible flow of water along the rivers, people used to dig small pits,
in the river alluvium, wait and collect the groundwater coming through seepage and use it
for their drinking purposes and for meeting the domestic needs. Similarly, to the people of
mountainous regions, natural springs provided the sources of water supply. Springs are the
outcome of seepage from any groundwater system, in hilly terrains or in limestone regions.
More than 60 percent of the global population thrives by using only the groundwater
resources. The groundwater which was existing at shallow depths in the open wells, has
gone deep due to over-exploitation. Exploring these water sources become a challenging
task to geo-scientists.
Groundwater is a renewable source. Groundwater gets replenished after every rainfall.
This is called as rainfall recharge. The level of water seen in an open well denotes the
uppermost surface of the zone of saturation of the porous media. This is called as the water
table. After every recharge, the water table raises, denoting that the porous media has
saturated with more water. When we pump out water, the water level goes down.
Continuous pumping of water, beyond the recharge, will make the wells go dry and force
to deepen the well. The search of groundwater got increased, due to the non-availability of
sources and due to the declining water tables.
Groundwater is not uniformly distributed everywhere. The occurrence of groundwater
varies from formation to formation. In a typical crystalline hard rock terrain, the
quantitative occurrence of groundwater depends on the weathered and fractured zones. The
occurrence of groundwater in a sedimentary terrain will be more promising. Groundwater
prospecting is a very thought provoking scientific exercise in most of the places. There is
a need to understand the methods of groundwater exploration, as it is a practical decision-
making approach.

2.0 EXPLORING GROUNDWATER

Groundwater exploration is a typical task of a hydrogeologist or an engineer. Identifying
the location of its availability is a challenging task. Exploration of groundwater requires a
basic understanding of its position in the subsurface geological setup. Groundwater
Exploration is attempted through either by direct or indirect methods. Test drilling is the
direct approach to find out the resource. This is an expensive affair. Every individual cannot
go for test drilling. During the last two centuries, more and more techniques have been
developed to explore the groundwater. They are classified into surface and sub-surface
methods.

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AERIAL SURFACE SUBSURFACE ESOTERIC
1. Photogeological Methods 1. Geological Methods 1. Geological 1. Water diving
2. Landsat/IRS 2. Geomorphological Methods 2. Hydrological 2. Astrological
3. Infrared imagery. 3. Hydrogeological Methods 3. Tracer techniques 3. Biophysical
4. Geophysical Methods 4. Geophysical Logging
techniques
a. Electrical & EM
b. Seismic
c. Magnetic
d. Gravity
5. Geobotanical Methods

6. Geochemical Methods

2.1 SURFACE METHODS

The surface methods are easy to operate and implement. These require minimum facilities
like topo-sheets, maps, reports, some field measurements and interpretations of data in the
laboratories.

2.2 SUBSURFACE METHODS

The subsurface methods of groundwater exploration include both Test Drilling & Borehole
Geophysical Logging techniques. When compared to the surface methods, the subsurface
methods are very expensive. These are done for government level projects where large
scale investigations are carried out to ascertain the results of surface surveys. The
subsurface methods are very accurate methods as the help in direct observations of features
in the form of bore-hole lithology as core samples and also geophysical measurements of
formation properties.

3.0 Geomorphological Methods

Surface drainage is the subdued replica of topography. It is controlled by the basement
rocks. Mostly, groundwater flow coincides with the surface drainages. The streams and
water courses may also be controlled by some underlying structures. Junctions of streams
at the down slopes are promising zones for groundwater. Landforms originate due to
several geological processes. Some of them are likely to contain relatively permeable
strata. River-borne modern alluvial terraces, floodplains, stratified valley-fill deposits in
abandoned channels, glacial outwash and moraine deposits are good landforms for
groundwater. Alluvial fans, beach ridges, partly drift filled valleys, sand dunes, moist
depressions, and marshy environments are good localities.

3.1 Study of Land forms

Landforms are the likely indicators to show the relatively permeable strata. The locations
of modern alluvial terraces and floodplains, stratified valley-fill deposits, glacial outwash

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plains, glacial deltas, kames, moraine complexes, eskers, alluvial fans and beach ridges are
good locations for groundwater occurrence. Partly drift-filled valleys marked by a chain
of elongate closed depressions, largely masked bedrock valleys cutting across modern
valleys that are indicated by local non-slumping of weak shale strata in valley sides, sand
dunes assumed to overlie sandy glacio-fluvial sediments, nearby locations of lakes and
streams are very good indicators for groundwater prospecting.

3.2 Topography and Drainage

Physiographic methods analyze the surface topography and drainages. The locations of
confluence and junctions of surface streams at the downstream points of small watersheds
are good locations for groundwater for confluence. Hydraulic gradients of groundwater
systems will always follow the topographic gradients and slopes. Such locations are also
suitable for water collection and storage for recharge.

3.3 Drainage density of stream network

Drainage density is the ratio between the total length of all streams and the area of
watershed or river basin. The resultant drainage density is used to indicate the potentiality
of groundwater. If the drainage density is low, groundwater potentiality will be more. If it
is high, due to more streams, runoff will be more.

4.0 Geological Methods

A geologic investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and hydrogeologic
interpretation of existing topographic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps and logs,
and other pertinent records. This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field
reconnaissance and by evaluation of available hydrologic data on stream flow and springs,
well yields, groundwater recharge, discharge, and levels and water quality. In some places,
the drainages may be fully controlled by the presence of minor and major structures like
joints, faults and lineaments. Such zones are good and potential zones for groundwater
exploration. These are the conduits for groundwater flow.

4.1 Structural methods

Contact points between permeable water-bearing strata overlying relatively impermeable
strata usually along the sides of valleys that cut across the interface between different strata
are suitable locations for groundwater. Springs occurring on or near the base of hillsides,
valley slopes, and local scarps are indicators of groundwater occurrence over hilly terrain.
Dykes are good barriers for arresting the flow of groundwater. Location of dykes and
analyzing their dip and strike help in selecting the groundwater potential zones in the
upstream side.

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5.0 Geophysical methods
Exploring the ground water by geophysical method is termed Ground water geophysics.
Geophysical investigations are conducted on the surface of the earth to explore the ground
water resources by observing some physical parameters like density, velocity,
conductivity, resistivity, magnetic, electromagnetic & radioactive phenomena.
Geophysical methods comprise of measurement of signals from natural or induced
phenomena of physical properties of sub surface formation. Geophysical methods detect
the differences, or anomalies of physical properties within the earth's crust. Density,
magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties that are most commonly
measured. The purpose of exploration is to detect the indirect indicators and locate the
potential zones for exploitation. The main geophysical methods which are useful in solving
some of the problems of hydrogeology, are the Electrical, Seismic, Gravity, and Magnetic
methods.

5.1 Gravity Method

The gravity method is a widely used geophysical method for finding out mineral resources
and groundwater in sedimentary terrain. Gravimeters are used in this method to measure
the differences in density on the earth's surface that may indicate the underlying geologic
structures. Because the method is expensive and because differences in water content in
subsurface strata seldom involve measurable differences in specific gravity at the surface,
the gravity method has little application to groundwater prospecting. Under special
geologic conditions, such as a large buried valley, the gross configuration of an aquifer can
be detected from gravity variations.

5.2 Magnetic Method

The magnetic method enables detecting the magnetic fields of the earth which can be
measured and mapped. Magnetometers are the equipment used to measure the magnetic
fields and variations. Because magnetic contrasts are seldom associated with groundwater
occurrence, the method has little relevance for exploring groundwater. Indirect
information pertinent to the groundwater studies, such as the presence of dikes that form
aquifer boundaries or limits of a basaltic flow, could be obtained with this method.

5.3 Seismic Method

Seismic methods are of two kinds as seismic refraction and reflection methods. The seismic
refraction method involves the creation of a small shock at the earth's surface either by the
impact of a heavy instrument or by a small explosive charge and measuring the time
required for the resulting sound, or shock, wave to travel known distances. Seismic waves
follow the same laws of propagation as light rays and may be reflected or refracted at any
interface where a velocity change occurs. Seismic reflection methods provide information
on geologic structure thousands of meters below the surface, whereas seismic refraction

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methods-of interest in groundwater studies-go only about 100 meters deep. The travel
time of a seismic wave depends on the media through which it is passing through. The
velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in unconsolidated materials. Based
on these indications, it is possible to delineate the subsurface zones of fractures, fissures,
faults and lineaments.

6.0 Electrical Resistivity Method

The purpose of electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution by
making measurements on the ground surface. From these measurements, the true resistivity
of the subsurface can be estimated. The ground resistivity is related to various geological
parameters such as the mineral and fluid content, porosity and degree of water saturation
in the rock. Electrical resistivity surveys have been used for many decades in
hydrogeological, mining and geotechnical investigations. More recently, it has been used
for environmental surveys. Each electrical property is the basis for a geophysical method.
The resistivity measurements are normally made by injecting current into the ground
through two current electrodes, and measuring the resulting voltage difference at two
potential electrodes (P1 and P2). From the current (I) and voltage (V) values, an apparent
resistivity (pa) value is calculated, using pa = k V / I, where k is the geometric factor which
depends on the arrangement of the four electrodes. The electrode arrangement in these
investigations are called as arrays. Some of the most common electrode arrays are Wenner,
Schlumberger, pole-pole, pole-dipole and dipole-dipole array.

There are two (2) techniques used for the Resistivity method and they are; The Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) and The Constant Separation Traversing (CST).
I) The Vertical Electrical Sounding: The VES probes the subsurface vertically and
get information from the stationary position of the resistivity meter and the
movement of the electrodes. It is used mainly for ground water exploration and

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 to map the thickness of an over burden. An example is the Schlumberger array
method.
II) The Electrical Profiling: Another classical survey technique is the profiling
method. In this case, the spacing between the electrodes remains fixed, but the
entire array is moved along a straight line. Resistivity here is determined from
the lateral variations in the fixed separation of the electrodes (current and
potential) and the movement across a horizontal profile.

7.0 Electromagnetic Method

The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of a magnetic field by current
flowing in a conductor. Coiling a current-carrying conductor around a core material that
can be easily magnetized, such as iron, can form an electromagnet. The magnetic field will
be concentrated in the core. This arrangement is called a solenoid. The more turns we
wrap on this core, the stronger the electromagnet and the stronger the magnetic lines of
force become. The magnetic field that surrounds a current-carrying conductor is made up
of concentric lines of force. The strength of these circular lines of force gets progressively
smaller the further away from the conductor. If a stronger current is made to flow through
the conductor, the magnetic lines of force become stronger. The strength of the magnetic
field is directly proportional to the current that flows through the conductor. There are two
methods as Passive and Active methods. The Passive method uses the natural ground
signals (e.g., magnetotellurics), natural sources like lightning, magnetosphere activities,
etc. The Active method uses a transmitter to induce ground current, using an artificial
source.

8.0 Geophysical Logging Techniques

The term “logging” refers to making records of some measurements or observations.
Borehole geophysical logging is a procedure to collect and transmit specific information
about the geologic formations penetrated by a well by raising and lowering a set of probes
or sondes that contain water-tight instruments in the well. The data obtained is normally
used to determine the general lithology of formations, distribution of structures, vertical
flow of fluids, and the water yielding capabilities of the formations.
Geophysical logging technique utilizes the measurement of certain physical parameters
across different subsurface formations with the help of sensing probe inside the bore hole
providing a continuous record of these parameters versus depth. These parameters are
interpreted in terms of lithology, porosity, moisture content & quality of formation fluids.
Different physical properties like electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility,
radioactivity & velocity etc are utilized. The primary purpose of well logging is the
identification of formations traversed by a bore hole & salinity of fluids. Well logging is
used;

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 i. for stratigraphic correlation, detection of bed boundaries, porous & permeable
zones
ii. for the water well design & construction and
iii. for sea water intrusion studies of coastal aquifers.

9.0 Photogeology
Photogeology is the art of making aerial photographs that are suitable for analyzing the
earth’s physiographic features, rack types, structures, mineralized zones, water resources,
types of vegetation, zones of cultivation and urbanization.
Observable patterns, colors, and relief make it possible to distinguish differences in
geology, soils, soil moisture vegetation, and land use. Thus, photogeology can differentiate
between rock and soil types and indicate their permeability and areal distribution-and hence
areas of groundwater recharge and discharge. Maps classifying an area into good, fair, and
poor groundwater yields can be prepared. Aerial photographs also reveal the fracture
patterns in rocks, which can be further related to the porosity, permeability, and ultimately
the well yields. They are suitable for identifying the formations that are potential zones for
the occurrence of groundwater.

10.0 Remote Sensing techniques

Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about the
Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that
information. In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between
incident radiation and the targets of interest. Remote sensing shows an increasing role in
the field of hydrology and water resources development. Remote sensing provides multi-
spectral, multi-temporal and multi-sensor data of the earth’s surface which are suitable for
mineral explorations, water resources evaluation, environmental monitoring and
groundwater targeting. Remote sensing techniques help in the demarcation of groundwater
potential zones, identification of groundwater recharge sites and, to analysis the future
artificial recharge sites.

11.0 Applications to Water Management

 Locating Undeveloped Resources:
Unlike surface water sources like rivers and lakes, groundwater exists in underground
formations called aquifers. Groundwater exploration methods, employing techniques like
electrical resistivity surveys or seismic refraction, act as a means to see through the Earth's
surface, revealing the location and potential yield of hidden aquifers (Brunner et al., 2009).
This is particularly crucial in arid and semi-arid regions where surface water scarcity
necessitates the exploration of alternative freshwater sources.

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  Sustainable Management of Aquifers:
Once an aquifer is located, exploration methods provide valuable data on its characteristics,
such as depth, water quality, and flow rate (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). This information
forms the bedrock of sustainable aquifer management practices. By understanding the
capacity of an aquifer, we can regulate groundwater withdrawal to prevent
overexploitation, a condition that can lead to environmental problems like saltwater
intrusion (where seawater contaminates freshwater aquifers) or land subsidence (sinking
of the ground surface).

 Water Quality Assessment:

Certain groundwater exploration techniques, like electromagnetic induction surveys, can
provide insights into the water quality within an aquifer ([McNeill, 1999]