Introduction to Well Hydraulics

Fritz R. Fiedler

A well is a pipe placed in a drilled hole that has slots (screen) cut into it that allow water
to enter the well, but keep the aquifer material out. A well is said to be fully penetrating
when the screened section extends through the entire saturated thickness of the aquifer.
Typically, a submersible pump is placed near the bottom of the well, and water is
removed from the well via piping located within the well. When water is pumped from
the well, the water level is drawn down below the static, or un-pumped water level within
the well; because of the resulting pressure difference, water from the surrounding aquifer
flows radially towards the pumped well, forming a cone of depression. After the well has
been pumped for a long time at a constant rate, the water level equilibrates. The cone of
depression represents the actual water surface in an unconfined aquifer, and the
potentiometric (pressure) water surface in a confined aquifer. Figure 1 illustrates pumped
wells in confined and unconfined aquifers.

h0

h0 h2 h1

Figure 1. Wells in confined and unconfined aquifers. (after Fetter, C. W., Applied
Hydrogeology, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.)

Aquifer properties (e.g., hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storativity) can be

determined by pumping the well at a known, constant rate, and measuring the equilibrium
(steady state) water level drawdown (static level, h0, minus h) at various distances from
the pumped well, and/or measuring the water levels at various times and locations before
equilibrium is reached. Smaller diameter monitoring wells are used to measure water
levels at various distances from the pumped well.

Confined Aquifer, Steady State

The following derivation applies to a fully penetrating well in a confined, homogeneous,

isotropic aquifer, pumped at a constant discharge rate until steady state is reached. The
control volume is defined by a cylinder of radius r and height b, which is centered on the
pumped well.
dh
∫ ρ w v • dA = Q = 2πrb (1)
cs dr
where ρw = density of water
v = velocity (vector quantity)
A = area (vector quantity)
Q = discharge from the well, L3/T
r = distance from the center of the pumped well, L
b = aquifer saturated thickness, L
h = piezometric head, as defined in Figure 1, L

Using the boundary conditions h = h1 @ r = r1, and h = h2 @ r = r2, the differential

equation can be solved for Q in the following steps:
h2 r
Q 2 dr
∫ dh = 2πKb ∫ r (2)
h
1 r 1

Q r
h2 − h1 = ln 2 (3)
2πKb r1

 
 h2 − h1 
Q = 2πKb   (4)
 ln r2  
  r1  

Equation 4 is known as the Thiem Equation. Remember that the aquifer transmissivity is
T = Kb. Also, if the drawdown s = h0 – h is used, the Equation 4 takes the more useful
form
 
 s1 − s 2 
Q = 2πKb   (5)
 ln r2  
  r1  
Unconfined Aquifer, Steady State

The derivation for the unconfined situation is very similar to that for the confined case,
but now the aquifer saturated thickness is variable. Again, the assumptions are a fully
penetrating well in an unconfined, homogeneous, isotropic aquifer, pumped at a constant
discharge rate until steady state is reached. Additionally, it is assumed that the vertical
flow components are negligible. Starting from the control volume and using the variable
h rather than the constant b
dh
∫ ρ w v • dA = Q = 2πrh (6)
cs dr
After integrating with the same boundary conditions as above, the Thiem-Dupuit formula
is obtained
 
 h22 − h12 
Q = πK   (7)
 ln r2  
  r1  
Also as in the previous case, s can be substituted for h
 
 s12 − s 22 
Q = πK   (8)
 ln r2  
  r1  

Confined Aquifer, Transient

Only confined aquifer transient well hydraulics are considered in this introduction. Using
the same assumptions as above, plus the following:
Start pumping at a rate of Q @ t = 0
Initial condition: h(r,0) = h0
Boundary condition: h(∞,t) = h0
Darcy’s Law applies (laminar flow)

The governing partial differential equation is

∂ 2 h 1 ∂h S ∂h
+ = (9)
∂r 2 r ∂r T ∂t
Theis developed an approximate analytical solution to this equation
∞
Q  e −u 
4πT ∫u  u 
s = h0 − h =  du (10)

r 2S
where u =
4Tt
 ∞
 e −u 
∫  u du ≡ W (u) is called the well function
u

A series expansion was used to approximate the well function integral

u2 u3
W (u ) = −0.5772 − ln u + u − + −L
2 ⋅ 2! 3 ⋅ 3!
Values of W(u) as a function of u are given in tables and plotted as type curves. The
latter are typically provided as a plot of log(u) versus log W(u), and are used in the
graphical solution procedure known as type curve matching.

Equation 10 can be re-written in the form known as the Theis Equation

Q
s= W (u ) (11)
4πT
This is sometimes expressed in “U.S. customary units” with s in feet, Q in gallons per
minute, T in gallons per day per foot, r in feet, and t in days
114.6Q
s= W (u ) (12)
T

1.87 r 2 S
u= (13)
Tt
Drawdown, s, can be predicted given Q, T, r, S, and t. Often pump tests, or aquifer
discharge tests are performed to determine the aquifer properties (T and S). To do this, a
well is pumped at a constant Q and s is recorded versus t at a monitoring well some
distance r from the pumped well. As noted above, a graphical procedure can then be
used to estimate T and S; this procedure is not described here. Instead, the Cooper-Jacob
approach is presented.

Cooper-Jacob Methods (for confined aquifer, transient)

Cooper and Jacob (1946) found that for small r and large t the higher order terms in the
series expansion are negligible and W(u) can be approximated
W (u ) = −0.5772 − ln(u ) (14)
This results in less than a 3% error when u is less than 0.01 (when this method is used, it
is standard to have u be less than 0.01). Substituting Equation 14 into Equation 11
Q
s= (−0.5772 − ln(u )) (15)
4πT
In the time-drawdown method, this is solved by considering a change in drawdown, ∆s =
s2 – s1 over a time interval t1 to t2 which are one log cycle apart
 Q   Tt 2   Tt1 
∆s = s 2 − s1 = ln 2  − ln 2  (16)
4πT  r S  r S 
Reducing this and switching to base-10 logarithms results in
2.3Q  t 2 
∆s = log  (17)
4πT  t1 
Note that if t1 and t2 are one log cycle apart, log (t2/t1) = 1. Using this and solving for T
2.3Q
T= (18)
4π∆s
If it is assumed that s = 0 at t = t0, an expression for S is obtained
2.25Tt 0
S= (19)
r2
The following steps are taken to compute T and S from s versus t data:
1. Plot s versus t on semi-log scale as shown in Figure 2

Figure 2. Cooper-Jacob time-drawdown method. (after Fetter, C. W., Applied

Hydrogeology, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.)

2. Fit a straight line to the “late-time” data, as shown on Figure 2.

3. Extend the line to s = 0, and determine the value of t0.
4. Find ∆s for any (convenient) t1 to t2 pair that spans one log cycle; in Figure 2 10
minutes to 100 minutes is used.
5. Compute T and S using Equations 18 and 19, respectively.
6. Check to make sure the value of u is less than 0.01.

If three or more monitoring wells are available, the distance-drawdown method can be
used. Here, drawdown is measured simultaneously at various distances r from the
pumped well. Drawdown is plotted as a function of distance (log) on a semi-log scale.
The equations, derived in a manner similar to above, are
 2.3Q
T= (20)
2π∆s

2.25Tt
S= (21)
r02
where r0 is the distance where s = 0, and r1 and r2 are taken over one log cycle . The
solution steps are as follows:
1. Plot r versus s as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Cooper-Jacob distance-drawdown method. (after Fetter, C. W., Applied

Hydrogeology, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.)

2. Fit a straight line to the data as shown in Figure 3.

3. Extend the straight line to s = 0 and determine the value of r0.
4. Find ∆s for any (convenient) r1 to r2 pair that spans one log cycle (e.g., 10 to 100
feet).
5. Compute T and S using Equations 20 and 21, respectively.
6. Check to make sure the value of u is less than 0.01.