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Chapter 12
Distributed Database
Management Systems
Database Systems:
Design, Implementation, and Management,
Seventh Edition, Rob and Coronel

16/10/2022

In this chapter, you will learn:

• What a distributed database management system

(DDBMS) is and what its components are

• How database implementation is affected by different

levels of data and process distribution

• How transactions are managed in a distributed database

environment

• How database design is affected by the distributed

database environment
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The Evolution of Distributed Database

Management Systems
• Distributed database management system (DDBMS)
– Governs storage and processing of logically related data
over interconnected computer systems in which both data
and processing functions are distributed among several
sites

• Centralized database required that corporate data be stored

in a single central site
• Dynamic business environment and centralized database’s
shortcomings spawned a demand for applications based on
data access from different sources at multiple locations
(PDAs for example)

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Distributed Processing
and Distributed Databases

• Distributed processing
– Database’s logical processing is shared among two or
more physically independent sites
– Connected through a network
– For example, the data input/output (I/O), data selection, and data validation might
be performed on one computer, and a report based on that data might be
created on another computer

• Distributed database
– Stores logically related database over two or more
physically independent sites
– Database composed of database fragments

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DDBMS Advantages
• Advantages include:
– Data are located near “greatest demand” site
– Faster data access
– Faster data processing
– Growth facilitation: New sites can be added to the network without affecting
the operations of other sites.
– Improved communications: Because local sites are smaller and located
closer to customers
– Reduced operating costs: Add workstation not mainframe
– User-friendly interface
– Less danger of a single-point failure
– Processor independence: end user is able to access any available copy
of the data, and an end user’s request is processed by any processor at the data
location.

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DDBMS Disadvantages

• Disadvantages include:
– Complexity of management and control
– Security
– Lack of standards
– Increased storage requirements: Multiple copies of data are
required at different sites

– Increased training cost

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Characteristics of Distributed
Management Systems
• Application interface: interact with the end user, application programs, and other DBMSs
• Validation: to analyze data requests for syntax correctness
• Transformation: to decompose complex requests into atomic data request components
• Query optimization: to find the best access strategy
• Mapping: to determine the data location of local and remote fragments
• I/O interface: to read or write data from or to permanent local storage

• Formatting: to prepare the data for presentation to the end user or to an application program
• Security: to provide data privacy at both local and remote databases
• Backup and recovery: to ensure the availability and recoverability of DB in case of a failure
• DB administration
• Concurrency control: to manage simultaneous data access and to ensure data consistency
• Transaction management: to ensure that the data moves from one consistent state to another

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Characteristics of Distributed Management

Systems (continued)
• Must perform all the functions of centralized DBMS
• Must handle all necessary functions imposed by
distribution of data and processing
– Must perform these additional functions transparently to
the end user

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Characteristics of Distributed
Management Systems (continued)

Both users “see”

only one logical
database and do
not need to know
the names of the
fragments

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Mon 8-7 DDBMS Components

• Must include (at least) the following components:
– Computer workstations
– Network hardware and software
– Communications media
– Transaction processor (application processor, transaction
manager)
• Software component found in each computer that requests data
(receives and processes the application’s data requests (remote
and local))

– Data processor or data manager

• Software component residing on each computer that stores and
retrieves data located at the site
• May be a centralized DBMS

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DDBMS Components (continued)

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Levels of Data and Process Distribution

• Current systems classified by how process

distribution and data distribution supported

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Single-Site Processing,
Single-Site Data (SPSD)
• All processing is done on single CPU or host computer
(mainframe, midrange, or PC)
• All data are stored on host computer’s local disk
• Processing cannot be done on end user’s side of
system. several processes to run concurrently on a host
computer accessing a single DP
• Typical of most mainframe and midrange computer
DBMSs
• DBMS is located on host computer, which is accessed
by dumb terminals connected to it

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Multiple-Site Processing,
Single-Site Data (MPSD)
• Multiple processes run on different computers sharing
single data repository
• MPSD scenario requires network file server running
conventional applications that are accessed through LAN
• Many multiuser accounting applications, running under
personal computer network, fit such a description

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SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUS_BALANCE > 1000;
All 10,000 CUSTOMER rows must travel through the network to be evaluated at site A, even if
50 of them have balances greater than $1,000

Client/server
architecture is similar
to that of the network
file server except that
all database
processing is done at
the server site, thus
reducing network
traffic.

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Multiple-Site Processing,
Multiple-Site Data (MPMD)
• Fully distributed database management system with
support for multiple data processors and transaction
processors at multiple sites
• Classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous
• Homogeneous DDBMSs
– Integrate only one type of centralized DBMS over a
network

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Multiple-Site Processing,
Multiple-Site Data (MPMD) (continued)
• Heterogeneous DDBMSs
– Integrate different types of centralized DBMSs over a
network
• Fully heterogeneous DDBMS
– Support different DBMSs that may even support
different data models (relational, hierarchical, or
network) running under different computer systems,
such as mainframes and microcomputers

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Distributed Database
Transparency Features
• Allow end user to feel like database’s only user
• Features include:
– Distribution transparency
– Transaction transparency
– Failure transparency
– Performance transparency
– Heterogeneity transparency

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Distribution Transparency

• Allows management of physically dispersed database

as though it were a centralized database

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Transaction Transparency

• Ensures database transactions will maintain

distributed database’s integrity and consistency
• Ensures transaction completed only when all
database sites involved complete their part
• Distributed database systems require complex
mechanisms to manage transactions
– To ensure consistency and integrity

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions
• Remote request: single SQL statement accesses data
from single remote database
• Remote transaction: accesses data at single remote
site
• Distributed transaction: requests data from several
different remote sites on network
• Distributed request: single SQL statement references
data at several DP sites

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions (continued)

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions (continued)

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions (continued)

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions (continued)

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Distributed Requests and Distributed

Transactions (continued)

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Performance Transparency
• Objective of query optimization routine is to minimize total cost
associated with execution of request
• Costs associated with request are function of:
– Access time (I/O) cost
– Communication cost
– CPU time cost
• Must provide:
– distribution transparency: Allows management of physically
dispersed database as though it were a centralized
database
– Replica transparency: DDBMS’s ability to hide existence of
multiple copies of data from user

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Distributed Database Design

• Design concepts for centralized Database:
– The Relational Database Model
– Entity Relationship Modeling; and
– Normalization of Database Tables
• Three new issues for distributed Database:
– Data fragmentation
• How to partition database into fragments
– Data replication
• Which fragments to replicate
– Data allocation
• Where to locate those fragments and replicas

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Data Fragmentation

• Breaks single object ( Db or table) into two or more

segments or fragments
• Each fragment can be stored at any site over computer
network
• Information about data fragmentation is stored in
distributed data catalog (DDC), from which it is accessed
by TP to process user requests

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

• Strategies
– Horizontal fragmentation
• Division of a relation into subsets (fragments) of tuples (rows)
• Each fragment represents the equivalent of a SELECT statement,
with the WHERE clause on a single attribute.
– Vertical fragmentation
• Division of a relation into attribute (column) subsets
• This is the equivalent of the PROJECT statement in SQL.
– Mixed fragmentation
• Combination of horizontal and vertical strategies
• A table may be divided into several horizontal subsets (rows), each
one having a subset of the attributes (columns).

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

Company’s corporate management requires information about its

customers in all three states, but company locations in each state (TN, FL,
and GA) require data regarding local customers only.

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

Each horizontal fragment may have a different number of rows, but each
fragment must have the same attributes.

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

Suppose the company is divided into two departments: the service

department and the collections department. Each department is located
in a separate building, and each has an interest in only a few of the
CUSTOMER table’s attributes.

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

Each vertical fragment must have the same number of rows, but the inclusion
of the different attributes depends on the key column

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

Company’s structure requires that the CUSTOMER data be fragmented

horizontally to accommodate the various company locations; within the
locations, the data must be fragmented vertically to accommodate the two
departments (service and collection).

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Data Fragmentation (continued)

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Data Replication

• Storage of data copies at multiple sites served by

computer network
• Fragment copies can be stored at several sites to serve
specific information requirements
– Can enhance data availability and response time
– Can help to reduce communication and total query
costs

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Data Replication (continued)

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Data Replication (continued)

• Replication scenarios
– Fully replicated database
• Stores multiple copies of each database fragment at multiple sites
• Can be impractical due to amount of overhead
– Partially replicated database
• Stores multiple copies of some database fragments at multiple
sites
• Most DDBMSs are able to handle the partially replicated database
well
– Unreplicated database
• Stores each database fragment at single site
• No duplicate database fragments

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Data Allocation
• Deciding where to locate data: which data to locate where

• Data distribution over computer network is achieved through data

partition, data replication, or combination of both

• Allocation strategies
– Centralized data allocation
• Entire database is stored at one site
– Partitioned data allocation
• Database is divided into several disjointed parts (fragments) and stored
at several sites

– Replicated data allocation

• Copies of one or more database fragments are stored at several sites
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Client/Server vs. DDBMS

• Way in which computers interact to form system

• Features user of resources, or client, and provider of
resources, or server
• Can be used to implement a DBMS in which client is the
TP and server is the DP

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Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

• Client/server advantages
– Less expensive than alternate minicomputer or
mainframe solutions
– Allow end user to use microcomputer’s GUI, thereby
improving functionality and simplicity
– More people in job market have PC skills than mainframe
skills
– PC is well established in workplace
– Numerous data analysis and query tools exist to facilitate
interaction with DBMSs available in PC market
– Considerable cost advantage to offloading applications
development from mainframe to powerful PCs

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Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

• Client/server disadvantages
– Creates more complex environment
• Different platforms (LANs, operating systems, and so on) are
often difficult to manage
– An increase in number of users and processing sites
often paves the way for security problems
– Possible to spread data access to much wider circle of
users
• Increases demand for people with broad knowledge of
computers and software
• Increases burden of training and cost of maintaining the
environment

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