Water Resour Manage (2012) 26:3947–3959

DOI 10.1007/s11269-012-0114-1

Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks:

A PAT Design Strategy

Armando Carravetta · Giuseppe Del Giudice ·

Oreste Fecarotta · Helena M. Ramos

Received: 15 February 2012 / Accepted: 9 July 2012 /

Published online: 8 August 2012
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract Pump operating as turbine (PAT) is an effective source of reducing the

equipment cost in small hydropower plants. However, the manufacturers provide
poor information on the PAT performance thus representing a limit for its wider
diffusion. Additional implementation difficulties arise under variable operating con-
ditions, characteristic of water distribution networks (WDNs). WDNs allow to obtain
widespread and globally significant amount of produced energy by exploiting the
head drop due to the network pressure control strategy for leak reductions. Thus a
design procedure is proposed that couples a parallel hydraulic circuit with an overall
plant efficiency criteria for the market pump selection within a WDN. The proposed
design method allows to identify the performance curves of the PAT that maximizes
the produced energy for an assigned flow and pressure-head distribution pattern.
Finally, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is shown as a suitable alternative for
performance curve assessment covering the limited number of experimental data.

Keywords Pump as Turbine (PAT) · Water Distribution Networks (WDNs) ·

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) · Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) ·
Leak reduction

A. Carravetta · G. Del Giudice · O. Fecarotta (B)

Department of Hydraulic, Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering,
Università di Napoli Federico II, via Claudio, 21, 80125 Napoli, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Carravetta
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Del Giudice
e-mail: [email protected]

H. M. Ramos
Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon,
Avenida Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-01 Lisboa, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
3948 A. Carravetta et al.

1 Introduction

Major concerns in the management of water supply networks are water and energy
savings (Gonçalves et al. 2011). These two forms of thrift are strictly related to
pipeline water leakages: indeed, abnormal water consumption reflects directly in en-
ergy wasting. The rate of water losses in a corrupted branch of the network is strictly
related to the pressure value (Nazif et al. 2010; Araujo et al. 2006; Vairavamoorthy
and Lumbers 1998). Thus, in order to avoid expensive investments in the rehabilita-
tion of older pipelines, a partial reduction of water leakages in urban areas can be
achieved by placing control valves to reduce the pipeline water pressure (Almandoz
et al. 2005; Tucciarelli et al. 1999; Walsky et al. 2006; Prescott and Ulanicki 2008).
The number of pressure reducing valves (PRV) is therefore increasing and, in the
framework of a virtuous energetic policy, any attempt should be accomplished by the
water network managers in order to convert energy dissipation in energy production
(Carravetta and Giugni 2009). Nevertheless, energy production in water supply
systems has been realized only in few cases and mainly in the transmission pipelines,
where the available hydraulic power is considerable and fairly constant. Conversely,
the dissipation nodes in the urban WDNs frequently present a large variability in
flow rate and head drop (Karadirek et al. 2012). The power availability in the WDNs
is a relevant issue in order to evaluate the economical convenience of dissipation
conversion. The theoretical convertible power is considerable and for Germany can
be assessed as 4.7 MW (Voitht Hydro, personal communication) and extrapolating
these data to the European Union area, a potential power of approximately 28.5
MW can be assessed. Because PRVs replacement with electromechanical equipment
for energy production is cost effective, a fashionable challenge for hydraulic and
mechanical engineers consists in finding technical solutions combining efficiency
and economical convenience. To this aim PAT (pump as turbine) systems are often
claimed as the cheapest and most sustainable solution (Nautiyal et al. 2010a) for
energy production. Indeed, pumps can be used in turbine mode by reversing flow
direction (Chapallaz et al. 1992) with the engine acting as a generator. However, to
the authors’ knowledge there is still no standard design criteria available for a pattern
of variable flow-rate and pressure head conditions produced by the variability
of users demand, and an almost complete lack of technical information on PAT
behaviour still stands out. In the present work a design method based on a Variable
Operating Strategy (VOS) is proposed to predict the PAT behaviour and to find the
optimal solution which maximizes the produced energy in the variable-operating-
conditions of an hydro-plant scheme.

2 Energy Dissipation-Production Nodes

In water supply networks (Fig. 1) several energy dissipation nodes can be found with
different characteristics, depending on the water network type (e.g. transmission,
distribution) and on other issues such as geodetic quote variations, wear of pipelines
and presence of water towers (Liberatore and Sechi 2009).
Control valves are placed within the water transmission network in order to face
large variations of the geodetic quotes or to dissipate any residual head at the end
of the pipeline. Furthermore, PRV are used to dissipate the surplus energy head
Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3949

Fig. 1 Water supply system

resulting from the lower head losses of smoother new pipes during the earlier stage
of their life cycle. Filion et al. (2004) showed that the conversion of this energy excess,
together with the premature replacement of pipes, could be convenient. In all these
cases the seasonal variability of flow rates and available head drop is very low and
traditional turbines—Pelton, Francis, Kaplan or propeller—can be conveniently used
(Afshar et al. 1990). On the other hand, the hydraulic regime in the water distribution
network is much more variable, because flow rate and pressure head depend on the
user demand (Fontana et al. 2012). Energy production nodes are located at the base
of the reservoir-service tank (elevated or ground tank), or between the elevated and
the ground tank, or inline (Afshar et al. 1990). The large variability of the hydraulic
characteristics is shown in Fig. 2, where the flow rates (Q) and upstream pressure
head (PH) values, measured in a PRV station of an urban water distribution system
of Pompei in the Campania region (I), are shown for a daily demand pattern. The
head drop of the PAT system and consequently the installed power of the energy
production plant may vary depending on the value of the backpressure (BP), namely
the preset head value downstream the pressure-reducing valve ensuring the optimal
pressure distribution in all the branches. In Fig. 2 the available head is the difference
between the pressures head (PH) and the required backpressure (BP). In all these
cases, due to the low installed power and the need to reduce both the purchasing and
maintenance costs, the use of PATs could be the best solution. Several applications

Fig. 2 Pressure head, flow

rate variations and
backpressure (BP)
3950 A. Carravetta et al.

can be found in technical literature on reversible electromechanical devices, used in

stand-alone and grid-off power plants (Arriaga 2010), but in the last years the use of
PAT is suggested for energy production even in the water supply systems (Ramos
et al. 2005, 2010).

3 PAT Characteristic Curves

PATs are generally used in combination with asynchronous electric generator,

having constant rotation speed. In such conditions the performances of the machines
are described by the characteristic curves, which relates the flow rate and head
drop. The device efficiency curve, depending on the discharge, presents a maximum:
the corresponding values of discharge and head drop (QTB , H BT ) is called Best
Efficiency Point (BEP). Both characteristic and efficiency curves can be obtained
in three ways: experimentally (Gantar 1988; Fernandez et al. 2004; Derakhshan
and Nourbakhsh 2008a), by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) (Rodrigues et al.
2003; Natanasabapathi and Kshirsagar 2004) and by any one-dimensional method
(Stepanoff 1957; Childs 1962; Hanckock 1963; Grover 1980; Sharma 1985; Schmiedl
1988; Alatorre-Frenk and Thomas 1990). The first choice is the most reliable, but a
large number of experiments is necessary for the whole range of flow conditions and
generator rotation speed. These results are generally available for classical turbines
but not for PATs. CFD could be considered a valid alternative to experiments. A
good agreement was found by several authors between experimental and numer-
ical characteristic curves (Kerschberger and Gehrer 2010; Nautiyal et al. 2010b).
Such opportunity is even more feasible by an optimal design of the computational
grid leading to a computation time reduction without a sensible lack of precision
(Fecarotta et al. 2011). For pumped storage power plants, a large number of one-
dimensional methods for PAT performance prediction (Williams 1994) and machine
selection (Singh and Nestmann 2010) have been proposed. Derakhshan and Nour-
bakhsh (2008a) developed a semi-empirical method tested on a 250 mm diameter
shaft PAT. This algebraic method relates the BEP (Q BP , H BP ) in pump mode to the
BEP (QTB , H BT ) in turbine mode, and the latter to the turbine performance curves.
The procedure could be also reverted in order to select a pump from the pump
manufacturers catalogues, once the point (QTB , H BT ) is assigned.
Once the prototype characteristic and efficiency curves are available, the results
may be extended to obtain the characteristic curves of other similar devices of
different runner diameter and rotation speed, by using the Suter (Suter 1966; Wylie
et al. 1993) parameters (see Appendix). Two machines of the same type (e.g.
centrifugal, semiaxial) can be considered similar if they have either the same turbine
specific speed (NST ) or the same pump specific speed (NSP ):
1 1
PTB 2 Q BP 2
NST = N BT 4
NSP = N BP 3
(1)
H BT 3 H BP 4
where N B , Q B , P B e H B are rotational speed, flow rate, power and head drop at
the best efficiency point (BEP), respectively, and the superscript T and P refers to
turbine and pump mode, respectively. There are two ways to regulate the behavior
of a PAT. The first is the PAT installation in a series-parallel combination (Nautiyal
et al. 2010b) as represented in Fig. 3. The characteristic curve of a PAT together
Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3951

Fig. 3 Installation scheme

of a PAT

with the available head, measured in Fig. 2, are plotted in Fig. 4. Herein, for an
available head higher than the head-drop deliverable by the machine (left points) the
series valve dissipates the excess pressure. Instead, when the discharge is larger, the
PAT produces a head-drop higher than the available head: in this case the bypass is
opened to reduce the discharge flowing in the PAT. This form of regulation implies
an effective energy production lower than the maximum based on both available
discharges and heads.
The second way consists in an electrical regulation of the rotational speed. The
angular velocity of the runner can be changed by varying the frequency of the electric
signal by using an inverter.

4 Variable Operating Strategy

Two main problems must be addressed for the design of a small hydro power plant in
a water distribution network. The first is the lack of complete series of characteristic
curves for industrial PAT. Indeed, such curves are needed for multistage mode, shaft
geometry and rotation speed. The second is the absence of a strategy for turbine
selection and overall efficiency computation. In Fig. 4 all the working conditions of
the PRV Campania station of Fig. 2 are shown in a discharge, Q, and head-drop,

Fig. 4 Working conditions of

the PAT
3952 A. Carravetta et al.

H, plot. A PAT operating region wich includes all working conditions is defined.
In the same plot the characteristic curve of an hypothetical PAT is also shown. The
series-parallel combination system (Fig. 3) allows to convert the available operating
points in PAT operating points. The proposed method is based on the preliminary
introduction of an overall plant efficiency defined as

i=1
n
HiT QiT ηiT ti
ηp = (2)
i=1 Hi Qi ti
n

being η p the overall plant efficiency, namely the fraction of the stream hydraulic
energy that can be transformed in electric energy by the power plant, n the number of
available operating points, HiT and QiT the head drop and the discharge delivered by
the PAT, ηiT the PAT efficiency, Hi and Qi the available head drop and discharge and
ti the time-interval discretization of discharge-head drop pattern, i.e. the operating
points (Fig. 5).
Then the following PAT design variable operating strategy (VOS) is suggested:

1. A measured pattern of flow-rate and pressure-head conditions is assigned and

available head is determined based on required backpressure (BP);
2. PAT type is considered (e.g. centrifugal, semiaxial.);
3. A wide set of PAT characteristic curves is considered in the PAT operating
region;
4. For each curve the overall plant efficiency is calculated by Eq. 2;
5. The PAT that maximize the produced energy, i.e. the PAT having the largest η p ,
is considered the optimal design solution;
6. The near-optimal machine is selected from the market and its turbine mode
curves are calculated by Eq. 2 to verify the actual efficiency.

In order to perform step 3 and 4, the characteristic and efficiency curves for
a whole set of PATs, having their BEPs in the operating region, are necessary.
Such trail curves are obviously not available to technicians and a new approach is
proposed herein: once a machine type (e.g. centrifugal, semiaxial) is considered and

Fig. 5 Regulation of the PAT

Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3953

a single reference prototype machine (superscript I) curve is known, by using the

turbomachine affinity law,
  12   12   34   12   54
N BI DI I H BI Q IBI H BI II
PB H BI
II
= = = (3)
NB DI H BI I Q IB H BI I I
PB H BI I

BEPs (Q IBI , H BI I ) and produced power at the BEP (P B

II
) can be determined for
II II
any PAT, having D diameter and N rotational speed, similiar (superscript I I)
to the prototype one. Furthermore, since the Suter parameters can be calculated
from the prototype data by Eq. 4 (see Appendix and Fig. 9), thus the performances
curves of the similar PATs (Ramos and Almeida 2001, 2002) can be assessed. This
procedure was used to obtain Fig. 6, where the BEP variations with the diameter
and the rotational speed, together with some characteristic curves of seven similar
turbines, are plotted. Finally, by the application of VOS on the PATs whose BEPs
lye in the operating region, the diameter and the rotational speed of the PAT that
gives the largest overall efficiency, together with its BEP and characteristic curve,
can be identified and step 4 to 5 can be performed.
The possibility of using a reference characteristic curve of a PAT based on CFD
rather than the experimental procedure (Fecarotta et al. 2011; Carravetta et al. 2011)
produces great advantages. Indeed, shaft geometry and stage numbers (for multi-
stage machines) can be easily modified in numerical simulations. In the following
the VOS method has been tested both with CFD and experimental curves. The
proposed design procedure has been applied on two different machine types, A
1
(centrifugal, single stage, NsT = 44.0 [rpm kW 2 m− 3 ]) and B (semi-axial, 4 stages,
4

1
NsT = 35.9 [rpm kW 2 m− 3 ]), whose prototypes specifications are given in Table 1.
4

Semi-axial machines usually have NsT values greater than centrifugal machines, but
the number of stages (sn ) yields a specific speed reduction related to sn 3/4 (Ramos
2000). For both prototypes the experimental characteristic and efficiency curves
were available, together with the 3D geometrical models, thus also the CFD curves
were calculated. For each CFD calculation, a great effort has been made in order
to minimize the number of elements and the computational resources request, as

Fig. 6 Regulation of the PAT

3954 A. Carravetta et al.

Table 1 Runner diameters, BEP performances and rotational speeds of the two pumps
PAT ns D QTB HBT n N ST N SP
[mm] [l/s] [m] [rpm]
A-Centrifugal 1 240 29 27.6 3,000 44.0 24.7
B-Semi-axial 4 110 24 70.6 3,000 35.9 24.2

N ST and N SP (Eq. 1) are expressed in [rpm kW 2 m− 3 ] and [rpm (m3 /s) 2 m− 3 ] respectively
1 4 1 4

suggested by Fecarotta et al. (2011). The single stage configuration of the machine
A has been simulated dividing the fluid domain into 2,121,688 elements, while the
4 stages of the machine B have been divided into 2,083,965 elements. The massflow
value at the inlet section and the average static pressure value at the outlet of the two
machines have been considered as boundary conditions. The CFX software has been
used and an upwind first order numerical scheme has been used for advection, as well
as a high resolution second order numerical scheme for the turbulence and a second
order backward eulerian scheme for the transient calculations. The agreement of the
CFD results with the experimental data, as shown in Figs. 7 and 8, is very high and
these results have been used to perform the VOS turbine selection method.
VOS has been applied to six hypothetical power plants (A1, A2, A3, B1, B2,
B3) generated by modifying the backpressure value for the set of data of Fig. 4, as
reported in the second column of Table 2. For each of the six plants, the optimal
PAT has been found by the application of the VOS. The CFD prototypes curves
have been used as reference, in order to find the optimal design rotational speeds and
diameters of the machine type A—for cases A1, A2 and A3—and of machine type
B—for cases B1, B2 and B3, as reported in the third and fourth columns of Table 2.

Fig. 7 Characteristic and

efficiency curves of the
machine A
Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3955

Fig. 8 Characteristic and

efficiency curves of the
machine B

The overall efficiencies η p of the six plants, resulting from the application of the
VOS, are reported in the fifth column. According to the available pressure head and
discharge measurements, η p calculations have been performed on 15 min sampling,
assuming constant (Qi , Hi ) values foe each time interval. VOS results show that in all
cases more than 50 % of the available energy can be converted by a PAT installed in a
series-parallel combination. The average daily energy production (ADEP) is shown
in the seventh column of Table 2. It is interesting to observe that the choice of a
runner diameter or a runner speed different from the VOS optimal one will produce
a high performance reduction. For example, for case A1 the use of D = 230 mm
instead of D = 194 mm will prduce an efficiency η p = 0.34, while a runner speed
n = 1,500 instead of n = 3,000 will produce an efficiency η p = 0.21.
Furthermore, in order to verify the real efficiency of such designed plants, the
characteristic and the efficiency curves of the six PATs have been simulated by
Eq. 7 using the experimental prototypes curves. Such values of efficiency η EX p
P

are reported in the sixth column of Table 2. The results show that more than the

Table 2 Results of VOS for different backpressure (BP) values

Case BP n D ηp η EX
p
P ADEP
[m] [rpm] [mm] [-] [-] [kWh]
Machine A A1 20 3,000 194 0.57 0.54 250.3
A2 50 1,500 229 0.54 0.53 118.2
A3 60 1,000 264 0.49 0.50 54.4
Machine B B1 20 3,000 106 0.59 0.55 258.5
B2 50 1,500 138 0.57 0.55 127.4
B3 60 1,000 151 0.53 0.48 59.1
3956 A. Carravetta et al.

half of the available energy can be reconverted by PATs. The comparison between
the design and experimental efficiencies shows that the CFD technique could be a
valid tool for the calculation of the PAT performance curves, since the average and
maximum errors, (η p − η EXp
P
)/η EX
p
P
, are, respectively, 4.46 and 10.4 %.
The last step of VOS consists in selecting the PAT from the market, once
the machine type (e.g. centrifugal, semi-axial) and the runner diameter have been
selected. The near-optimal PAT, similar to the prototype one, can be identified by
the comparison of NSP , since it is known for the prototype and can be easily calculated
from the pump performances reported on the pump catalogues.

5 Conclusions

The main result of the paper is the Variable Operating Strategy (VOS) for PAT
design in WDNs. A number of straightforward item rules are stated that allow PAT’s
geometry selection for a given flow-head distribution pattern and optimal network
back pressure. VOS design allows maximum efficiency of the power plant and a
continuous pressure regulation for a PAT installed in a series-parallel configuration.
The PAT characteristic curve, expressing the relation between flow rate and head
drop, and the related efficiency curve, could be determined, alternatively, experi-
mentally, based on CFD - computational fluid dynamics, or calculated analytically
by one-dimensional methods. Furthermore VOS, used in combination with a CFD
based characteristic curves, furnishes very accurate design solutions. In absence
of a complete pump producers’ characterization of PAT performance, CFD is a
valid alternative to experiments. Computational fluid dynamics is an ideal tool for
simulating pump geometries in PAT reverse working conditions. The effect of any
change in runner configuration, or of pump stage increase, can be simulated and
used in VOS comparisons.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Caprari s.p.a. and Eng. Lauro Antipodi
for having provided both the experimental performance curves and the 3D-geometry of the two
machines.

Appendix

In 1966 Suter introduced two parameters (see also Wylie et al. 1993):

h t
WH = ; WT = 2 2 ; (4)
q2 (θ 2 + 1) q (θ + 1)

where
ω
θ= (5)
q

represents the operating condition of the machine and

HT NT QT TT
h= , ω = , q = , t = , (6)
H BT N BT QTB T BT
Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3957

Fig. 9 Suter parameters of the

two machines

Being T the torque applied to the runner. The two functions W H(θ) and WT(θ)
are unique for similar machines. Thus, once they are available for a prototype
machine, they can be used to calculate the head drop H T and the efficiency η T of
similar PATs in any operating condition θ

  WT T
H T = q2 (θ 2 + 1)W H H BT , η T = θ η (7)
WH B

where η TB is the efficiency of the machine at the BEP. In Fig. 9 the Suter parameters
of the machines A and B are shown for the turbine operating mode.

References

Afshar A, Jemaa F, Marino M (1990) Optimization of hydropower plant integration in water supply
system. J Water Res Pl-ASCE 116(5):665–675
Alatorre-Frenk C, Thomas T (1990) The pumps as turbines approach to small hydropower. In: World
congress on renewable energy, Reading
Almandoz J, Cabrera E, Arregui F, Cabrera E, Cobacho R (2005) Leakage assessment through water
distribution network simulation. J Water Res Pl-ASCE 131(6):458–466
Araujo L, Ramos H, Coelho S (2006) Pressure control for leakage minimisation in water distribution
systems management. Water Resour Manage 20(1):133–149
Arriaga M (2010) Pump as turbine—a pico-hydro alternative in Lao people’s democratic republic.
Renew Energy 35:1109–1115
Carravetta A, Giugni M (2009) Functionality factors in the management and rehabilitation of
water networks. In: Management of water networks, proc conf efficient management of water
networks. Design and Rehabilitation Techniques, Franco Angeli Ed. Milano
Carravetta A, Fecarotta O, Ramos H (2011) Numerical simulation on pump as turbine: mesh
reliability and performance concerns. In: IEEE (ed) international conference on clean electrical
power. Ischia, Franco Angeli Ed. Milano
Chapallaz J, Eichenberger P, Fischer G (1992) Manual on pumps used as turbines. DeutschesZentru
fur Entwicklungstechnologien, GATE, Eschborn
3958 A. Carravetta et al.

Childs S (1962) Convert pumps to turbines and recover HP. Hydrocarbon Processing and Petroleum
Refiner 41(10):173–174
Derakhshan S, Nourbakhsh A (2008a) Experimental study of characteristic curves of centrifugal
pumps working as turbines in different specific speeds. Exp Therm Fluid Sci 32:800–807
Fecarotta O, Carravetta A, Ramos H (2011) CFD and comparisons for a pump as turbine: mesh
reliability and performance concerns. Int J Energy Environ 2(1):39–48
Fernandez J, Blanco E, Parrondo J, Stickland M, Scanlon T (2004) Performance of a centrifugal
pump running in inverse mode. Proc Inst Mech Eng A J power energy 218(4):265–271
Filion Y, MacLean H, Karney B (2004) Life cycle energy analysis of a water distribution system.
J Infrastruct Syst 10(3):120–130
Fontana N, Giugni M, Portolano D (2012) Losses reduction and energy production in water-
distribution networks. J Water Res Pl-ASCE 138(3):237–244
Gantar M (1988) Propeller, pump running as turbines. In: Conference on hydraulic machinery
Gonçalves F, Costa L, Ramos H (2011) ANN for hybrid energy system evaluation: methodology and
WSS case study. Water Resour Manage 25:2295–2317
Grover K (1980) Conversion of pumps to turbines. In: GSA Inter corp. Katonah, New York
Hanckock J (1963) Centrifugal pump or water turbine. Pipe Line News, 25–27
Karadirek I, Kara S, Yilmaz G, Muhammetoglu A, Muhammetoglu H (2011) Implementation of
hydraulic modelling for water-loss reduction through pressure management. Water Resour
Manage. doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0032-2
Kerschberger P, Gehrer A (2010) Hydraulic development of high specific-speed Pump-turbines
by means of an inverse design method, numerical flowsimulation (CFD) and model testing.
In: 25th IAHR symposium on hydraulic machinery and systems. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and
Environmental Science, vol 12
Liberatore s, Sechi G (2009) Location and calibration of valves in water distribution networks using
a scatter-search meta-heuristic approach. Water Resour Manage 23:1479–1495
Natanasabapathi S, Kshirsagar J (2004) Pump as turbine: an experience with CFX-5.6. In: Corporate
research and engineering division. Pune, India, Kirloskar Bros. Ltd
Nautiyal H, Varun, Kumar A (2010a) CFD analysis on pumps working as turbines. Hydro Nepal,
vol 6, 35–37
Nautiyal H, Varun, Kumar A (2010b) Reverse running pumps analytical, experimental and compu-
tational study: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:2059–2067
Nazif S, Karamouz M, Tabesh M, Moridi A (2011) Pressure management model for urban water
distribution networks. Water Resour Manage 24:437–458
Prescott S, Ulanicki B (2008) Improved control of pressure reducing valves in water distribution
networks. J Hydraul Eng-ASCE 134(1):56–65
Ramos H, Almeida A (2001) Dynamic orifice model on waterhammer analysis of high or medium
heads of small hydropower plants. J Hydraul Res 39(4):429–436
Ramos H, Almeida A (2002) Parametric analysis of water-hammer effects in small hydro schemes.
J Hydraul Eng-ASCE 128(7):1–8
Ramos H (2000) Guidelines for design of small hydropower plants. WREAN and DED, Belfast,
North Ireland
Ramos H, Covas D, Araujo L, Mello M (2005) Available energy assessment in water supply systems.
In: XXXI IAHR congress. Seoul, Korea
Ramos H, Mello M, De P (2010) Clean power in water supply systems as a sustainable solution: from
planning to practical implementation. Water Sci Technol 10(1):39–49
Rodrigues A, Singh P, Williams A, Nestmann F, Lai E (2003) Hydraulic analysis of a pump as a
turbine with CFD and experimental data. In: IMechE seminar computational fluid dynamics for
fluid machinery
Schmiedl E (1988) Serien-Kreiselpumpentagung. Karlsruhe
Sharma K (1985) Small hydroelectric projects—use of centrifugal pumps as turbines. In: Kirloskar
Electric o. Bangalore, India
Singh P, Nestmann F (2010) An optimization routine on a prediction and selection model for the
turbine operation of centrifugal pumps. Exp Therm Fluid Sci 34(2):152–164
Stepanoff A (1957) Centrifugal and axial flow pumps. John Wiley, New York
Suter P (1966) Representation of pump characteristics for calculation of water hammer. Sulzer Tech
Rev 4:45–48
Tucciarelli T, Criminisi A, Termini D (1999) Leak analysis in pipeline systems by means of optimal
valve regulation. J Hydraul Eng-ASCE 125(3):277–285
Vairavamoorthy K, Lumbers J (1998) Leakage reduction in water distribution systems: optimal valve
control. J Hydraul Eng-ASCE 124(11):1146–1154
Energy Production in Water Distribution Networks 3959

Walsky T, Bezts W, Posluzny E, Weir M, Withman B (2006) Modeling leakage reduction through
pressure control. J Am Water Works Ass, pp 148–155
Williams A (1994) The turbine performance of centrifugal pumps: a comparison of predictione
methods. Proc Inst Mech Eng A J power energy 208(1):59–66
Wylie E, Streeter V and Suo L (1993) Fluid transient in systems. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
7632