Fibre optics

Q. Explain the construction and working of optical fibre

Optical fibre is a long, thin transparent dielectric material made up of glass or plastic,
which carries electromagnetic waves of optical frequencies from one end of the fibre to the
other by means of total internal reflections.
An optical fibre is in cylindrical shape consisting of three sections
1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Outer Jacket

Fig.1: Structure of optical fibre

The structure of an optical fibre is given in Fig.1. An inner cylindrical material made
up of glass or plastic called core. The core is surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or
plastic is called the cladding. The refractive index of the core (n1) is slightly higher than the
refractive index of the cladding (n2) [i.e. n1>n2]. Therefore core act like a denser medium
and cladding act like a rarer medium. The general n1 and n2 values are 1.48 and 1.46
respectively. The core diameter is around 50µm and the thickness of the cladding is nearly
equal to the 1 or 2 wavelengths of light propagation through the fibre. The cladding enclosed
in a polyethylene jacket called as outer jacket. The outer jacket protects the fibre from the
surrounding atmosphere.
Principle of Optical fibre:
Once light rays enters into the core through its one end propagates to the other end
due to total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface. This is the principle of optical
fibre.
The phenomenon of total internal reflection in a straight optical fibre is explained
based on the refractive indices of the core and cladding. Let the refractive index of core is n1
and that of cladding is n2, such that n1>n2.
As shown in Fig.2, a ray of light AO is incident at ‘O’ on the end face of the core. Let
this ray makes an angle of incidence θo with the axis of the fibre. This ray refracted into the
core and passes along OB, the angle of refraction in the core is θ1. The ray OB is incident on
1

the core-cladding interface with an angle of incidence, 90-θ1. Suppose the angle of incidence
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is equal to critical angle (θc=90-θ1) in core at the core-cladding surface, then the angle of
refraction in cladding is 90°, so that the ray BC passes along the interface between core and
cladding.

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Fig.2: Light propagation in Optical Fibre

If the angle of incidence for a ray at the end face is less than θo, then the angle of
refraction is less than θ1 and the angle of incidence at the core cladding surface is greater than
the critical angle, so the ray suffers the total internal reflection at the core cladding surface.
If the angle of incidence for a ray at the end face is greater than θo, then the angle of
refraction is greater than θ1 and the angle of incidence at the core cladding surface is lesser
than the critical angle, so that the ray will be refracted into the cladding and get lost in it due
to absorption.
So all those rays which enter the core at an angle of incidence less than θo will shows
the total internal reflection in the core. So the maximum incident angle at the end face to get
the total internal reflection in the core is θo.
Q.Derive an expression for acceptance angle.

As shown in the figure, if the ray is rotated around the fibre axis keeping the angle of
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incidence θo constant, it results in a conical surface. Therefore, only those rays which are with
in this cone suffer total internal reflections so that they confine to the core for propagation. If

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 Fibre optics

a ray falls at the end face of the optical fibre at an angle greater than the θo or out of the cone,
that ray does not undergo total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface, it enters into
the cladding material and get absorbed by the cladding material.
Therefore, For light rays to propagate through the optical fibre by total internal
reflection, they must be incident on the fibre core within the angle θo. This angle is known as
acceptance angle. Acceptance is defined as the maximum angle of incidence at the end face
of an optical fibre for which the ray can be propagated in the fibre.This angle is also called
as acceptance cone half angle.
A cone is obtained by rotating a ray at the end face of an optical fibre, around the
fibre axis with acceptance angle is known as acceptance cone. Expression for acceptance
angle is obtained by applying Snells law at points B and O in the figure.
Snells law at ‘B’ is

n1 sin(90-θ1)= n2 sin90° { . . = }

n1Cos(θ1) = n2

cos =

Therefore, sin = 1 − cos

= 1− …………………………… (1)

Snells law at ‘O’

sin ! = sin
or sin ! = sin … … … … … … (2)
"

Substitute Eq. (1) in Eq.(2)

−
sin ! = '1 − = … … … … . . (3)
!

As the fibre is in air. So the refractive index no =1

Therefore the Eq. 3 becomes:

)*+ ,- = .0/ − .00

This is the equation for acceptance angle.

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 Fibre optics

Q.Define and derive an expression for Numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

Numerical aperture represents the light gathering capacity of an optical fibre. Light
gathering capacity is proportional to the acceptance angle, θ0. So numerical aperture can be
represented by the sine of the acceptance angle of the fibre i.e., sin θ0.
Expression for numerical aperture (NA):
Expression for numerical aperture can be obtained by applying Snell’s law at ‘O’ and
at ‘B’ in the below figure.

Let n1, n2 and n0 be the refractive indices of the core and cladding and the air medium
respectively. Applying the snell’s law at the end face of the fibre i.e, at ‘O’.
We have
sin = sin … … … … . . (1)
At Point ‘B’ on the core-cladding interface, the angle of incidence =90 - .Applying
Snell’s law at B we have
sin(90 − )= sin 90 … … … … … . (2)
cos =
cos = or

sin = 1 − cos = 1− ……………………… (3)

Substituting Eq (3) in Eq (1)

sin = '1 −

3
sin ! = 1− = ………… (4)
" 4
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If the surrounding medium of the fibre is air, then n0=1.

So, sin ! = −

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 Fibre optics

According to the definition of numerical aperture

NA=sin ! = − ………………….(5)
Let the fractional change in the refractive index (∆) be the ratio between the
difference in refractive indices of core and cladding to the refractive index of core.
3
i.e., 5 =

n1-n2=∆n1 …………………..(6)
Eq 5 can be written as
NA=sin ! = ( − )( + )………………..(7)
substituting Eq.6 in Eq.7
78 = ∆ ( + )
since n1~n2; So n1+n2 ≈ 2n1

Therefore :; = 0∆.0/ = ./ √0∆

Numerical aperture can be increased by increasing ‘∆’ and thus enhances the light
gathering capacity of the fibre. However we cannot increase ∆ to a very large value because it
leads to intermodal dispersion, which causes signal distortion.
Condition for light propagation in fibre: If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident
ray at the end of optical fibre, then the ray will propagate if θi< θo
sin θi<sin θo; sin θi< −
sin θi<NA is the condition for propagation of light in fibre
Q.Describe the different types of fibers by giving the refractive index profiles and
propagation details. (or)
Q.Derive briefly the different types of fiber with neat diagram.
Optical fibres are classified into several types based on two factors those are
1. refractive index of the core &
2.the mode of propagation
Based on the refractive index of the core again the fibres are divided into two
1.Step index fibre
2.Graded Index fibre
Based on the the mode of propagation the fibres are divided into
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1.Single mode fibre 2.Multi mode fibre

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 Fibre optics

In all optical fibres the refractive index of the cladding material is uniform. The
construction, refractive index of core and cladding with radial distance of the fibre, ray
propagation and applications of various fibres are discussed below.
Step index fibre: The refractive index is uniform throughout the core of this fibre. As
we go radially in this fibre, the refractive index undergoes a step change at the core-cladding
interface. Based on the mode of propagation of the light rays, step index fibres are of two
types : a) single mode step index fibres and b) multi mode step index fibres. Here mode
means, the number of available paths for light propagation in a fibre.
Single mode step index fibre : The core diameter of this fibre is less than 10µm and
outer diameter of the cladding is 60 to 70 µm. There is only one path for ray propagation, so
it is called single mode fibre. The cross sectional view, the refractive index profile and ray
propagation are shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Single mode step index optical fibre

In this type, transmission of light is by successive total internal reflections. i.e., it is a
reflection type fibre. These are extensively used in the market. Lasers are used as light
sources in these fibres. These fibres are mainly used in submarine cable system.
Multi mode step index fibre : The construction of multi mode step index optical
fibre is similar to single mode step index fibre except that its core and cladding diamteres are
much larger to have many paths for light propagation. The core diameter of this fibre varies
from 50 to 200 µm and the outer diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm. The
crossectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagation is shown in Fig.2. Light
propagation in this fibre is by multiple total internal reflections. i.e., it is a reflective type
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fibre. It is used in data links which have lower bandwidth requirements.

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 Fibre optics

Transmission of signal in step index fibre: Generally, the signal is transmitted

through the fibre in digital form i.e., in the form of 0’s and 1’s. The propagation of pulses
through the multi mode fibre is shown in fig.2. The pulse which travels along the path 1
(straight) will reach first at the other end of fibre. Next, the pulse that travels along the path 2
(Zig-Zig) reaches the other end with some time delay. Lastly, the pulse that travels along path
3 reaches the other end . Hence, the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened.This
is known as intermodal dispersion. This intermodal dispersion restricts the usage of
multimode step index fibre in higher bandwidth application. To overcome this problem,
graded index optical fibres are used.

Fig.2 Multi mode step index fibre crossectional view and ray propagation
Garded index fibre:
In this fibre, the refractive index of the core is not constant and it decreases
continuously from centre radilly to the surface of the core. The refractive index is maximum
at the centre and minimum at the surface of core. This fibre can be singlemode or multimode.
The crossectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagation of multimode graded
index fibre is shown in Fig.3. The diameter of core varies from 50 to 200 µm and the outer
diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm.
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 Fibre optics

The refractive index profile is circularly symmetric. As refractive index changes

continuously radially in core, the light rays suffer continuous refraction in core. The
propagation of light rays is not due to total internal reflection but by refraction as shown in
Fig.3. In graded index fibre, light rays travel at different speeds in diffrents parts of the fibre.
Near the surface of the core, the refractive index is lower, so rays near the outer surface travel
faster than the rays travel at the centre. Because of this, all the rays arrive at the receiving end
of the fibre approximately same time.Therefore the intermodal sipersion can be reduced to a
large extent using graded index fibres. Either LED or laser is used as light source. Its typical
applications is in the telephone trunk between central offices.

Fig.3 Multi mode graded index fibre crossectional view and ray propagation
Q.Classify the differences between step index and graded index fiber.
Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber
The refractive index of the core is uniform The refractive index of core is non-
and step or abrupt change in refractive index uniform the refractive index of core
takes place at the interface of core and decreases parabolically from the axis
cladding in step index fiber. of the fiber to its surface.

The light ray travel in zig zag manner inside The light ray propagates in the form of
the core. The ray travel in the fiber as skew rays or helical rays. They will
meriditional rays and they cross the fiber not cross the fiber axis.
axis for every reflection.
Signal distortion is more in case of high Signal distortion is very low even
angle in multimode step index fiber .In though the rays travel with different
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single mode step index fiber ther is no speed inside the fiber.
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distortion.

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 Fibre optics

The band width is about 50MHz km for The bandwidth of fiber is lies between
multimode step index where as it is more 200MHz Km to 600MHz even though
than 1000MHz Km in case of single mode it has an infinite bandwidth.
step index fiber.
Attenuation of light ray is more in Attenuation is less in graded index
multimode step index fiber but for single fiber.
mode step index fiber is very less.
NA of multimode step index fiber is more NA of graded index fibers is less.
where as in single mode step index fiber it is
very less.

• crossectional and propogation view crossectional and propogation view

Q.Discuss about the losses in optical fibre
Or
Q.Explain attenuation in Optical fibres.
Reduction in the intensity of light as it propagates within the fiber is called
“attenuation”.
Generally the attenuation is measured using the input and output power intensity
values and the units for attenuation is dB/km
/> C
Attenuation coefficient = = @AB /> C D EF/HI
? -

where L is the lenth of the fibre

Pi is the input optical power; Po is the output optical power
The causes of attenuation are numerous some of them are absorption, scattering
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and bending losses etc.

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Absorption is defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of

optical power into another energy form, such as heat. Absorption in optical fibers is explained
by three factors:

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 Fibre optics

• Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

• The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
• The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing
molecules or oxygen defects.
Intrinsic Absorption. - Intrinsic absorption is caused by the interaction of one or
more components of the glass. If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections
or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal
level of absorption.
In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometers (nm) to 1600
nm. Figure 1 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation. This wavelength
of operation is between two intrinsic absorption regions. The first region is the
ultraviolet region (below 400-nm wavelength). The second region is the infrared region
(above 2000-nm wavelength).
Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is occurs when photon interacts with an
electron in the valence band and excites it to a higher energy level near the UV region.
The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic
vibration frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration of
silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. The interaction between the vibrating bond and the
electromagnetic field of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption.
Extrinsic absorption also called as impurity absorption. It occurs when hydroxyl
ions (OH-) are introduced into the fiber. Water in silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-
OH) bond. This bond has a fundamental absorption at 2700 nm. However, the harmonics or
overtones of the fundamental absorption occur in the region of operation. These harmonics
increase extrinsic absorption at 1383 nm, 1250 nm, and 950 nm.
Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level of impurities
-
(OH ) present in the fiber. If the amount of impurities in a fiber is reduced, then fiber
attenuation is reduced. The presence of other impurities such as iron, copper and chromium
also causes absorption. 10
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Fig1.absorption and scattering attenuation in optical fibre

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 Fibre optics

SCATTERING. - Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light

with density fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative
to the average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with
the density areas as shown in figure. Light is then partially scattered in all directions.
In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main
source of loss is called Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering occurs when the size of the
density fluctuation (fiber defect) is less than one-tenth of the operating wavelength of light.
Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
(1/λ4). As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.
BENDING LOSS. - Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is
classified according to the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss.
Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a
fiber is cabled. Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber
diameter. Microbend and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss
caused by microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During
installation, if fibers are bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.
The bending loss can be represented by absorption coefficient (α)
−N
J = K LM( )
NO
where C is constant
R=radius of curvature of fibre bend and Rc= r/(NA)2
r=radius of the fibre. If the fibre bends with radius of curvature is of magnitude equal
to radius of the fibre then the higher losses will arise.

Q.Explain with a block diagram, the basic instrumentation technique adopte to explain
the communication system.
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or
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Q.Explain optical fibre communication link with block diagram.

or
Q.Application of optical fibre in communication systems

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 Fibre optics

Fibre optics mainly deals with the communication (including voice signals,
vedio signals or digital data) by transmission of light through optical fibres.
Optical fibre communication system essential consists of three parts.
a) transmitter
b) optical fibre and
c) receiver
The transmitter includes modulator, encoder, light source, drive circuits and
couplers. The light source can be a light emitting diode (LED) or a semiconductor laser
diode.

Fig. Block diagram of optical fibre communication system

By using encoder, initially AF (audio frequency) electrical signal coverts to binary
data and this binary data comes out as a stream of electrical pulses and these electrical pulses
are converted into optical pulses by modulating the light emitted by the light source. This
digital optical signal is launched into the optical fibre cable. The transmitter also has couplers
to couple the transmitted light signals with the fibre. Fibres might require connectors to
increase the length of the fibre medium. To transmit signals to long distances, repeaters are
used after certain lengths in the optical fibre to overcome the attenuation and time delay
distortion in the optical fibre. An optical repeater consists of a receiver and a transmitter
arranged adjacently. Finally, at the end of optical fibre the signal is fed to the receiver. The
receiver contains light detector. This can be either Avalanche Photo diode or PIN diode. In
the photodetector , the signal is converted into optical pulses of electric current, which is then
fed to the decoder, which converts the sequence of binary data stream into an analog signal as
that fed at the transmitting end.
Q.Advantages of optical fibres in communication
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The following are the advantages of optical fibres in communication:

1. Wider band width: the information carrying capacity of a transmission system is
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directly proportional to the frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency
is in the range of 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz and the

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 Fibre optics

microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater transmission
bandwidth than the conventional communication system. So , light can be transmitted more
information at a higher rate than the systems that operate at radio and microwave frequencies.
2.Smaller diameter and light weight: Optical fibres are light weight, smaller
diameter and flexible; so, they can be handled more easily than copper cables.
3.Lack of crosstalk between parallel fibres: In copper cable communication
circuits, signals often stray one circuit to another, resulting in other cells being heard in the
background. This cross talk is negligible in optical fibres even when many fibres are cabled
together.
4.Temperature resistant: In contrst to copper cables, they high tolerance to
temperature extremes.
5.Longer life span: The life span of optical fibres is expected to be 20 to 30 years
whereas copper cables have life span of 12-15 years.
6 Easy maintanence
7.Much safer than copper cables: This is because only light and not electricity is
being conducted.
8.Low cost: Optical fibers are made up of silica, which is available with in low cost.
9. Optical fibres posses low transmission loss and noise free transmission is
obtained as compared to copper cables.
Q.Light sources for fiber optics
Light sources for fiber optics act as signal emitters and must meet certain
requirements. They are:
• The light emitted must be monochromatic that means it should have single frequency
i.e., emission band width must be as narrow as possible.
• The light must be of high intensity so that it can transmit longer distances inspite of
the intrinsic losses.
• The light source must be capable of easily modulated. Led and diode lasers can be
easily modulated by modulating the current flow through them but other sources like
ionisation lamps and other lasers require external modulation.
• The lasers must be small and compact so that the output can be easily and effectively
coupled to the fibers.
• The light sources must be durable and inexpensive.

Light emitting diodes and semiconductor lasers almost satisfy all the above
requirements. Hence they are extensively used as light sources for fiber optic communication.
Short questions:
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Q.What is meant by Intermodal dispersion:

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Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light
pulse is made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate along the fiber, light energy
distributed among the modes is delayed by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each

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 Fibre optics

mode propagates along the fiber at different speeds. Since modes travel in different
directions, some modes travel longer distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode
travels a different distance over the same time span, as shown in figure 2-25. The modes of a
light pulse that enter the fiber at one time exit the fiber a different times. This condition
causes the light pulse to spread. As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion
increases.

Q.A step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.16, and core refractive index of 1.45.
Calculate the acceptance angle of the fiber and the refractive index of the cladding.

Q. An optical fiber fractional index change 0.14 and refractive index of cladding is 1.3,
calculate refractive index of core.

Q. An optical fibre has a core material of refractive index of 1.55 and cladding material
of refractive index 1.50. The light is launched into it in air. Calculateits numerical
aperture.
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 Fibre optics

Q. A fiber has a core refractive index of 1.44 and cladding refractive index of 1.4. Find
its numerical aperture and acceptance angle.

Q. The refractive index of the core is 1.5 and the fractional change In refractive index
between the core and cladding is 1.8%. Calculate (i) The velocity of light in the core and
(ii) the velocity of light in the cladding

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Dr.T.Ramesh Engineering Physics