Integration

Let

 f (x) be a function where Df ( x )=[ a , b ]

b−a
 Δx= be the subintervals
n
 a=x 0 , x 1 … , x n=b be the endpoints of the function
¿ ¿
 x 1 ⋯ xn be the sample points of the interval

Then the definite integral of f (x) for x ∈ [ a , b ] :

b

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =lim
n→∞
[ f ( x1 ) + …+f ( x n ) ] Δx
¿ ¿

[ ¿
Then f (x) is integrable if the ∃ lim f ( x1 ) + …+f ( x n ) Δx
n→∞
¿
]
Therefor by sigma notation
b n n

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =lim ∑ f ( x i ) Δx by ∑ ai=a1+ …+a n

n → ∞ i=1
¿

a i =1

Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on [a , b] or f (x) has a jump discontinuity on [a , b] then f (x) is integrable on

b
[a , b] i.e. ∃∫ f ( x ) ⅆx
a

Sum of powers Theorem

n

∑ 1=n
i=1

n
n ( n+1 )
∑ i= 2
i=1

n
n ( n+1 ) ( 2 n+1 )
∑ i 2= 6
i=1

( )
n 2
n ( n+1 )
∑ i 3= 2
i=1

Properties of sums Theorem

n n

∑ c a i=c ∑ ai
i=1 i=1

n n n

∑ ( ai +b i) =∑ a i+∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
 n n n

∑ ( ai−bi )=∑ ai−∑ bi

i=1 i=1 i=1

Procedure for calculating integrals by the integral definitions

b n
1. State the integral theorem ∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =lim ∑ ¿
f ( x i ) Δx
a n→∞ L̇=1
b−a
2. Calculate the subintervals Δx=
n
3. Calculate the right endpoints x i=a+ iΔx
4. By use of sum of powers theorem and properties of sum theorems, compute the limit
5. Use the EBT (End behavioral theorem)

Note: if a graph without the function use Reimann’s sums and if the graph is given and states by are,
use are under the curve

Reimann sums theorem

n

∑ f ( x ¿i ) Δx
L̇=1

For Left – Reimann sums

b n

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≈ ∑ f ( x ¿i−1) Δx=[ f ( x 0 )+ …+ f ( xn −1 ) ] Δx
a i̇=1

For Right – Reimann sums

b n

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≈ ∑ f ( x ¿i ) Δx=[ f ( x 0 ) + …+f ( x n ) ] Δx
a i̇=1

Midpoint rule Reimann sums

b n

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≈ ∑ f ( x i ) Δx=[ f ( x 0 ) + …+f ( x n ) ] Δ
¿

a i̇=1

xi−1 + x i
where x 1=
2
Properties of integral theorem
b

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =c ( b−a ) iff ( x )=c be a constant

a

b b

∫ ( cf ( x )) ⅆx =c ∫ f ( x ) ⅆx
a a

b b b

∫ f ( x )+ g ( x ) ⅆx =∫ f ( x ) ⅆx +∫ g ( x ) ⅆx
a a a
 b b b

∫ f ( x )−g ( x ) ⅆx =∫ f ( x ) ⅆx −∫ g ( x ) ⅆx
a a a

b c b

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =∫ f ( x ) ⅆx +∫ f ( x ) ⅆx if c is themidpoint on [ a , b ]
a a c

b
If f (x)≥ 0 for x ∈ [ a , b ] , then∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≥ 0
a
b b
If f (x)≤ g (x)for x ∈ [ a , b ] , then∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≤∫ g ( x ) ⅆx
a a

b
If m≤ f (x)≤ M on for x ∈ [ a , b ] ,then m(b−a)≤ ∫ f ( x ) ⅆx ≤ M (b−a)
a

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If f (x) is continuous on [a , b]and F ¿ ) is an antiderivative of f (x)then,

b

∫ f ( x ) ⅆx =F ( b )−F ( a )=[ F ( x ) ]a
b

Procedure for the Fundamental Theorem of calculus

1. Prove that the function is continuous

2. Determine the antiderivative of f (x) i.e. F (x)
3. Differentiate F ( x ) such that F ’ ( x ) =f ( x )
4. Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to compute the integral i.e.
b

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=F ( b )−F ( a )=[ F ( x ) ]a

b

Indefinite integrals

The integral without bound is the indefinite integral. Let F (x)be the antiderivative of f (x)and C be
an arbitrary constant, then

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=F ( x ) +C
Indefinite integral Theorem

Let

 F (x) be the antiderivative of f (x)

 G(x ) be the antiderivative of g(x )
 r , c ϵ R and be constants
 r ≠−1 , otherwise the antiderivative will be undefined
Then

∫ cf ( x ) ⅆ x=cF ( x )+C
 r +1
r x
∫ x ⅆ x= +C
r +1

∫ c ⅆ x=cx +C
∫ sin ( x ) ⅆ x=−cos ( x ) +C
∫ cos ( x ) ⅆ x=sin ( x ) +C
∫ sec2 ( x ) ⅆ x=tan ( x ) +C
2
∫ csc ( x ) ⅆ x =−cot ( x )+C
∫ sec ( x ) tan ( x ) ⅆ x=sec ( x ) +C
∫ csc ( x ) cot ( x ) ⅆ x=−csc ( x ) +C
∫ cosh ( x ) ⅆ x=sin h ( x ) +C
∫ sin h ( x ) ⅆ x=cosh ( x ) +C
1
∫− ⅆ x =arccos ( x ) +C
√1−x 2
1
∫ 2
ⅆ x=arctan ( x ) +C
1+ x
1
∫ ⅆ x=arcsin ( x ) +C
√ 1−x 2
x x
∫ ⅇ ⅆ x=ⅇ + C

cx ⅇ cx
∫ e dx= +C
c
1
∫ ⅆ x=ln |x|+C
x
x
x a
∫ a ⅆ x= +C
ln ( a )
1
∫ ⅆ x= √ x +c
2 √x
∫ [ f ( x ) + g ( x ) ] ⅆ x=F ( x )+G ( x ) +C

Note: always try to simplify the function and use squares by

()() ( ) ()
2 2 2 2
2 b b b b
x + bx− + = x+ −
2 2 2 2
Substitution Rule

Substitution rule for indefinite integrals

If u=g (x), g ¿) is differentiable on the interval, ¿ f (x) is continuous on the interval for the
composite function f ∘ g, then

∫ f ( g ( x ) ) g' ( x ) ⅆ x=∫ f ( u ) ⅆ u
ⅆu '
u=g (x) =g ( x ) ⅆ u=g ' ( x ) ⅆ x
ⅆx

OR

du
∫ f (u) ⅆ x=∫ f ( u ) ⅆ x
dx

Substitution rule for definite integrals

If u=g (x), g ¿) is differentiable on the interval, ¿ f (x) is continuous on the interval for the
composite function f ∘ g, then
b g ( b)

∫ f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) ⅆ x= ∫ f ( u ) ⅆ u
'

a g ( a)

ⅆu '
u=g (x) =g ( x ) ⅆ u=g ' ( x ) ⅆ x
ⅆx
Procedure 1

1. Compute the definite integral

2. Use the fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Procedure 2

Use the definite integral by changing the bounds

Symmetrical Theorem

Symmetrical Even Integral theorem

A integral is symmetrical if working with the oppositive same bounds

If f (x) is even i.e. f (−x)=f (x ),then

a a

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=2∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x
−a 0

Symmetrical Odd Integral theorem

A integral is symmetrical if working with the oppositive same bounds

If f (x) is odd i.e. f (−x)=−f (x),then

a

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=0
−a
Theorem
b a

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=−∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x
a b

Theorem
c

∫ f ( x ) ⅆ x=0
c