CRS141 - Church History 1

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES
COURSE CODE:CRS141
COURSE TITLE: CHURCH HISTORY I

COURSE
GUIDE
CRS141
CHURCH HISTORY I
Course Developer/Writer Professor David .O. Babalola

Babcock University
Ogun State
Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale

Benson Idahosa University
Course Reviewer
Course Coordinator Dr Uzoma Amos Dike

National Open University of Nigeria
Head of Department: Dr Michael Enyinwa Okoronkwo
ii
© 2020 by NOUN Press
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway Jabi,
Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Email: [email protected]
URL: www.noun.edu.ng
ISBN: 978-058-
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
iii
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction....................................................................................... 1
What You will Learn in this Course................................................. 1
Course Aims..................................................................................... 1
Course Objectives............................................................................ 2
Course Requirement......................................................................... 2
Course Materials............................................................................... 3
Study Units....................................................................................... 3
Textbooks and References.............................................................. 4
Assignment File................................................................................ 4
Assessment....................................................................................... 5
Tutor-Marked Assignment............................................................... 6
Final Examination and Grading....................................................... 6
Course Marking Scheme.................................................................. 6
Course Overview............................................................................... 7
How to Get the Most of This Course................................................... 8
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials....................................................... 8
Summary.......................................................................................... 9
iv
Introduction
Welcome to CRS141: Church History I. Church History is a
two-semester course of 2 credits each, and is available for first year
students of the Christian Theology Programme. The first part, Church
History examines the Origin of the Church and its development to the
time of the Protestant Reformation. Church History I consists of 14
study units. The Course Guide introduces you to what the course is all
about; course materials you will require, and information on how you
can work your way through the material. It also highlights assignments
(tutor – marked assignments) as part of the requirements for this course.
What You will Learn in this Course

The study of Church History will enable you to have insight to the
unique heritage that belongs to the Christian faith. This uniqueness of
Christianity is rooted in history; God became man and lived in time and
space in the person of Christ.
You will also study and commit to memory, definitions of Church and
of its History. In addition, you will acquaint yourself with values,
benefits and purposes of Church History.
You will also learn the formation of Christianity, the various stages of
development, trials and persecutions and the final victory won in 380
A.D., when Christianity became the sole religion of the Roman Empire.
You will study the development of papacy, the establishment of
monasteries and that of medieval learning and worship.
Finally you will discover through your reading and assignments, factors
that led to the Protestant Reformation of the early 16th Century and also
acquaint yourself with the major Protestant Reformers.
Course Aims
This course encourages you to:
i. Study the birth of Jesus Christ, the Founder of Christianity in

Bethlehem of Judea.
ii. Study the atmosphere of the Jewish nation as charged with
religious emotionalism and political discontent.
iii. Study the life of Jesus at about thirty years of age when John the
Baptist proclaimed him the Messiah.
iv. Learn about Christ’s ministry of teaching and healing.
v. Discover the events that led to Christ crucifixion, burial and
resurrection.
vi. Know the basic tenets of Christian faith and factors that made
Christianity an accepted religion in most parts of the world.
vii. Know the developmental growth of Christianity with its attendant
chaos from the fourth century to the Reformation of the early
1500s
Course Objectives
By the end of this course, you should be able to
i. Narrate the emergence and triumph of Christianity.

ii. State the roles played by the Emperors in the development and
stability of Christianity.
iii. Describe the growth of papacy and abuses in the church that
eventually led to Protestant Reformation.
iv. Identify the role played by Church Fathers in fashioning the rules
of faith.
v. Describe the reconciliatory moves made by the Emperors and
Popes.
vi. List the motives behind crusades and their resultant effects on
Christianity.
vii. Describe the Christian Church and their activities during the Dark
Ages.
viii. Describe the invention of printing press and its effects on
Christianity.
ix. Describe the origin of some denominational churches and their
founders.
Course Requirements
To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read
suggested books and other materials that will help you achieve the
objectives. Each unit contains self-assessment for assessment purposes.
There will be final examination at the end of the course. The course
should take you a total of about 15 weeks to complete. Listed below are
the major components of the course.
Course Materials
• Course Guide
• Study Units
• Recommended Textbooks
vi
• Assignment File
Study Units
There are fourteen study units in this course. Each unit should take you
about two hours to work through. The fourteen units are divided into
three modules. Two modules contain 5 units each while the last module
contains 4 units.
These are arranged as follows:
Module 1 Ancient Church History – 30 – 100 A.D
Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church

Unit 2 The Growth and Expansion of the Early Church
Unit 3 Persecutions and Victories of the Church 100 – 313 A.D
Unit 4 Formation of New Testament Canon
Unit 5 The Church Fathers and the Growth of Liturgy
Module 2 The Imperial Church – 313 – 476 A.D
Unit 1 Reconciliatory Councils and Creedal Development

Unit 2 Rise of Monasticism and their developments
Unit 3 The Growth of Power in the Roman Church
Unit 4 The End of Western Roman Empire
Unit 5 Consolidation of Papal Power and the Rise of Islam
Module 3 The Medieval Church – 476 – 1453 A.D
Unit 1 The Holy Roman Empire

Unit 2 The Crusades
Unit 3 Invention of Printing Press and the Forerunners of the
Reformation
Unit 4 Renaissance Period to the Dawn of Reformation
Each unit includes a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives,

recommended textbooks and summaries of key issues and ideas. At
intervals in each unit, you will be provided with a number of exercises
or self – assessment questions. These are to help you test yourself on the
materials you have just covered or to apply them in some way. The
value of these self – test is to help you gauge your progress and to
reinforce your understanding of the material. At least, one tutor –
marked assignments will be provided at the end of each unit. The
exercise and the tutor-marked assignments will help you in achieving
the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course.
Textbooks and References
vii
Cairns, Earle. E. (1981). Christianity through the Century: A History of
the Christian Church. (Rev. & Enlarged Ed.) Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House.
Burns, Edward McNall Ralph, Philip Lee Lerner, Robert E. and

Meacham. (1986). Standish World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th
Edition) New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1981). The Story of the Christian Church, Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996). Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity

Singapore: Lion Publishing Plc.
Houghton, S.M. (2001). Sketches from Church History. Great Britain:

The Barth Press.
Assignment File
All the details of the assignments you must submit to your tutor for
marking will be found in this file. You must get a passing grade in these
assignments in order to pass this course. In the assignment file itself and
in the section on assessment within this Course Guide, additional
information will be found.
There are ten (10) assignments in this course. They will cover:
The Birth of the Christian Church (module1, unit 1)

The Apostolic Church and the Church among the Gentiles (module 1,
unit 2)
The causes of Imperial persecutions and their stages (module 1, unit 3)
The Council of Nicea of 325 A.D and the resolutions (module 2, unit 1)
Causes of the rise of monasteries and their developments (module 2, unit
2)
The Character of the Roman Church and the transfer of its Capital
(module 2, unit 3)
Factors that led to the down fall of Western Roman Empire (module 2,
unit 4)
The Crusades and their effects on the consolidation of the Church

(module 3, unit 2)
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The role of Printing press in the spread of the gospel (module 3, unit 3)
Forerunners of the Protestant Reformation and Renaissance (module 3,
units 3 & 4)
Assessment
The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are:
Tutor-marked assignments
Written examination
For you to do the assignments very well, it is expected of you to apply

information, knowledge and techniques obtained from the course. You
must endeavor to submit the assignments to your tutor for marking,
before the deadlines given in the assignment file. The assignments will
count for 30 % of examination, of which you will sit for at the end of the
course, and will also count for 70% of your total course work. The
examination will be of two hours duration.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
This course consists of 10 tutor-marked assignments. The best three

assignments with the highest marks will be counted for you. You are
encouraged to submit all your assignments. Each assignment counts
10% towards your total course mark.
In the Assignment file, you will find all the assignment questions for all
units. To demonstrate your understanding of the course, do not depend
only on information obtained from the units to answer the question. Go
to the library, read and research very well to obtain more information on
the course.
After completing each assignment, send it to your tutor. Try your best to
get each assignment across to your tutor on or before the dates given in
the Assignment file. However, if it becomes impossible for you to
submit any of those assignments on time, please let your tutor know
before the due date. After due consideration, you might be given an
extension.
Final Examination and Grading
ix
To prepare for this examination, revise all the areas covered in this
course. Revision of all the exercise and the tutor-marked assignments
before the examination will also be of help to you. The revision should
start after you have finished studying the last unit. This final
examination will be of three hours’ duration. It has a value of 70% of the
total course grade.
Course Marking Scheme
This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down
Assessment Marks
Assignments Four assignments, best three marks of
the four count at 30% of course marks.
Final Exam 70 % of Overall Courses marks
Total 100 % of Course marks
Course Overview
The units, the number of weeks it would take you to complete them, and
the assignments that follow them are outlined in the table below:
Duration
Unit Title of Work Assignment
(weeks)
Course Guide 1
Module 1
1 The Birth of the Christian 1 Assignment 1
Church
2 The Growth and Expansion of 1
Assignment 2
the Early Church
3 The Persecutions and Victories 1
Assignment 3
of the Church
4 Formation of New Testament 1
Assignment 4
Canon
5 The Church Fathers and the 1
Assignment 5
Growth of Liturgy
Module 2
1 Reconciliatory Councils and 2
Creedal Development
2 Rise of Monasteries and Their 1
Assignment 6
Developments
3 The Growth of Power in the 2
Roman Church
4 The end of Western Roman 1 Assignment 7
x
Church
5 Consolidation of Papal power 2
and the Rise of Islam
Module 3
1 The Holy Roman Empire 1
2 The Crusades 2 Assignment 8
3 Invention of Printing press and 1
the forerunners of the Assignment 9
Reformation
4 Renaissance 1 Assignment 10
15 Revision
16 Examination
How to Get the Most This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. Thus
one of the advantages of distance learning is that you can read the course
materials at your own pace, at anytime and anywhere. Exercises to test
your understanding of the material are provided in each unit. There is a
common format for all the units. The first item is the introduction to
what the unit will be introducing you into. The introduction also shows
you how a particular unit is related to other units and to the course as a
whole. After the introduction, you will see the objectives. The objectives
indicate what you are expected to achieve after studying the unit. So you
should keep it handy so as to constantly check or monitor yourself in
terms of achieving those objectives.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required readings
from other sources. Exercises, as was mentioned before, are provided at
intervals throughout the reading materials. Answers to those exercises
are provided at the end of each unit. Don’t try to skip any of the
exercises. Try to do them as you meet them while reading. This will help
to do your tutor marked assignments and also to prepare you for
examinations.
The following is a practical strategy for studying the reading materials.

If you encounter any problem, contact your tutor and he/she will be
available to help you out.
Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

Provide a timetable for yourself and take note of the time you are
required to spend on each unit and always stick to the timetable
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
xi
There are 8 hours of tutorials (eight hours) provided to support this
course. The dates, times, and locations of these tutorials will be made
available to you, together with the name and address of your tutor.
Your tutor will mark the assignments. Take note of the comments he
might make and remember to send your assignments before the
deadline. In case you will not meet the deadline, make sure you notify
your tutor. The tutor will return your assignments to you after he must
have marked them.
Try your best not to skip any of the tutorials. This is because that is the
only chance you have of meeting your tutor and your fellow students.
And your tutor will more easily solve problems encountered while
reading the course materials.
Summary
CRS141 intends to introduce you to the world of Church History. By

the time you complete this course, you would have known major stages
of the developments of Christianity from the Early Church or Ancient
History of Church 5 BC – AD 590, to the Medieval Church, AD 590 –
1517. Therefore, the successful completion of this course will aid you to
answer these questions without much difficulty:
What is the nature of Church History?

What are the benefits of Church History?
How did the formation of the Church come into existence?
Why did Christians become subjects of imperial attacks?
What led to the formation of Creeds and Liturgy?
What were the roles of the Church Fathers in the Canonization of the
Scriptures?
How did Christianity become the sole religion of the Roman Empire?
What led to the development of monasteries?
What led to the conduction of the Crusades?
How did the invention of the Printing Press affect the spread of
Christianity?
Who were John Wycliffe, Jerome and John Huss?

How did the Renaissance prepare the way for the Protestant
Reformation?
The questions are inexhaustible. There are more you can answer. We
wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both
helpful and interesting. In the longer term, we hope you will enjoy your
acquaintance with NOUN.
xii
xiii
Course Code CRS141
Course Title Church History I
Course Developer/Writer Professor David .O. Babalola

Babcock University
Ogun State
Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale

Benson Idahosa University
Course Reviewer
Course Coordinator Dr Uzoma Amos Dike

Head of Department Dr Michael Enyinwa Okoronkwo
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
xiv
© 2020 by NOUN Press
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway Jabi,
Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Email: [email protected]
URL: www.noun.edu.ng
ISBN: 978-058-
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
xv
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Ancient Church History - 30 – 100 A.D ……………. 1
Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church.................................. 1

Unit 2 The Growth and Expansion of the Early Church........... 12
Unit 3 Persecutions and Victories of the Church
100 – 313 A.D................................................................ 24
Unit 4 Formation of New Testament Canon ............................ 37
Unit 5 The Church Fathers and the Growth of Liturgy ............ 49
Module 2 The Imperial Church - 313 – 476 A.D ……………. 61
Unit 1 Reconciliatory Councils and Creedal Development.... 61

Unit 2 Rise of Monasticism and Their Developments............. 70
Unit 3 The Growth of Power in the Roman Church.................. 81
Unit 4 The End of Western Roman Empire............................. 88
Unit 5 Consolidation of Papal Power and the Rise of Islam.... 96
Module 3 The Medieval Church - 476 – 1453 A.D ………… 106
Unit 1 The Holy Roman Empire.......................................... 106

Unit 2 The Crusades........................................................... 117
Unit 3 Invention of Printing Press and the Forerunners
of the Reformation.................................................... 126
Unit 4 Renaissance Period to the Dawn of Reformation….. 137
xvi
MODULE 1 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY
- 30 – 100 A.D
Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church

Unit 2 The Growth and Expansion of the Early Church
Unit 3 Persecutions and Victories of the Church 100 – 313 A.D
Unit 4 Formation of New Testament Canon
Unit 5 The Church Fathers and the Growth of Liturgy
UNIT 1 THE BIRTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of Church
3.2 Definitions of History and Church History
3.3 Benefits of Church History
3.4 The Birth of Jesus Christ
3.5 The Ministry of Jesus Christ
3.6 The Death, Burial, Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus
Christ
3.7 The Tenets of Christ’s Teachings
3.8 The Church at Pentecost
3.9 The Gospel Testimony
3.10 The Spirit of Oneness in the Early Church
3.11 The Fall of Jerusalem
3.12 Doctrinal System and the Institution of the Church
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The first unit will introduce you to the definitions of ‘Church’ and that
of ‘Church History’ itself. It will discuss the birth, ministry, death, and
resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ; planting of Christianity and the
Church. This unit is very important because it sets the pace for other
subsequent units of this course. Therefore, the specific objectives and
outline below are what you should expect to learn from this unit.
1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the origin of the Christian Church

• analyse the teachings and miracles of Jesus Christ
• describe the unity that existed in the Early Church.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definitions of Church
Definition of the word ‘Church’
The word Church (ekklesia) comes from two Greek words; "ek"
meaning "out" and "kaleo" meaning "to call". This is the Greek word
that was used to translate the Hebrew word kahal in the Septuagint
(LXX). It has to be noted that kahal is used in Hebrew to denote the
assembly of the Israelites. In Christian usage, the term signifies a
gathering of people who were once in darkness of false religions or
teachings but now called out into the marvelous light of the Lord Jesus
Christ. Therefore, the Church is a body of people who believe in Jesus
as the Messiah and who joined to the organization originated by Him
(SDA Bible Dictionary, 1976)
Note that Jesus Christ Himself mentioned the word, "Church", twice in
the Bible. The first one is "Matthew 16:18 "On this rock, I will build my
Church". The second is Matthew 18:17 "Tell it to the Church".
The Apostle Paul also mentioned in his teachings that the Church of
God is one. According to him, this Church is not human organization; it
is God’s workmanship (Eph. 2:10), created in accordance with His
eternal purpose in Christ. Therefore, Pauline doctrine of the Church, is
that of the household or family of God (Eph. 2:19), consisting of those
who are adopted by God as sons and heirs in Christ (The International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia)
3.2 Definition of History
History may be defined (Earle E. Cairns, 1981) as interpreted record of

the socially significant human past, based on organized data collected by
scientific method from archaeological, literary, or living sources.
2
3.3 Definition of Church History
Church History therefore is the interpreted record of the origin, progress,

and impact of Christianity on human society based on organized data
gathered by scientific method from archeological, documentary, or
living sources. Finally, Church History is the interpreted, organized
story of the redemption of man and the earth.
3.4 Benefits of Church History
Perhaps, from the outset, you should know the benefits one will derive
from the study of Church History. Some of the primary values (Cairns
1981) are as follow:
i. It links the past factual data of the Christian gospel with the
future proclamation and application of that gospel in a present
synthesis that create understanding of our great heritage and
inspiration for its further proclamation and application.
ii. It answers the puzzling query concerning the present over three
hundred Christian religious groups in Nigeria.
iii. It offers a stabilizing influence in an age of secularism, for one
sees the power of God operating through the lives of people
transformed by the gospel.
iv. The study of Church History offers edification, inspiration, or
enthusiasm that will stimulate high spiritual life.
v. One who studies Church History will not be parochial or
denominationally myopic; rather he will sense the unity of the
true body of Christ throughout the ages.
3.5 The Birth of Jesus Christ
Christian beginnings of course go back several centuries before

Constantine to the time of Jesus. Christianity was formed primarily by
Jesus Christ. The Twelve Apostles and also Apostle Paul and gained
converts steadily thereafter into the church. But the new religion only
became widespread during the chaos of the third century and only
triumphed in the Roman Empire during the demoralization of the fourth
century. At the time of its humble beginnings nobody could have known
that Christianity would be decreed the sole religion of the Roman
Empire by the year 380 (Edward M. Burns: 1986).
The books of Matthew, Mark and Luke have clearly documented the
details about the birth of Christ. Matthew, in his own account says that
when Jesus’ mother, "Mary had been engaged to Joseph, but before they
lived together, she was found to be with a child from the Holy Spirit".
Her husband was not pleased with it; he therefore planned to divorce her
3
secretly. At that point, the Lord appeared to him in a dream not to leave
Mary, because the child in her womb was from the Holy Spirit. "She
will bear a Son and you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his
people from their sins." (Matt.1:18-21)
Jesus was born soon after that above encounter with an angel of the Lord
at Bethlehem of Judea in the time of King Herod. The wise men from
the East came to pay homage to the newborn King and that ignited the
wrath of King Herod, who became jealous and suspicious of any rival
ruler in his own domain. The angel of the Lord warned the parents of
baby Jesus to take him to Egypt. They were there until the death of
Herod. Then, the family was instructed again to leave Egypt and they
came to the district of Galilee, where they made their home in a town
called Nazareth (Matt.2: 1-23).
Luke, also in his account, agreed with Matthew as he gave his own
supportive evidence that Jesus did live with his parents at Nazareth. He
added, "The child grew and became strong, filled with wisdom, and the
favour of God was upon him". Every year his parents went to Jerusalem
for the festival of the Passover. And when he was twelve years old, he
went with his parents for the festival. At the temple, he discussed the
Scriptures freely with the teachers. It was at the temple, for the first
time, that he made his mission on earth known to his parents, even
though, they did not understand. From that age twelve, till age thirty, he
was with his parents at Nazareth and was obedient to them
(Luke 2:41-52)
As stated earlier, while Jesus was growing up, Judea was under Roman
rule. The atmosphere of the country was charged with religious
emotionalism and political discontent. Some of the people, notably the
Pharisees, concentrated on preserving the Jewish law and looked
forward to the coming of a political messiah who would rescue the
country from Rome. Most extreme of those who sought hope in politics
were the "Zealots", who wished to overthrow the Romans by the use of
arms. Some groups, on the other hand, were not interested in politics at
all. Typical of these were the Essenes, who hoped for spiritual
deliverance through asceticism, repentance, and mystical union with
God. The ministry of Jesus was clearly more allied to this pacific
orientation (Edward M. Burns: 1986).
3.6 The Ministry of Jesus Christ
In the fifteenth year of the reign of Emperor Tiberius, when Pontius

Pilate was governor of Judea, and Herod was the ruler of Galilee, and
his brother Philip the ruler of Iturae, that the word of the Lord came to
John, son of Zechariah in the wilderness. He went throughout the region
4
proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. Many
responded positively and were baptized.
And as the people were filled with expectation, and all were questioning
in their hearts concerning John, whether he might be the Messiah; John
answered all of them by saying, I baptized you with water, but one who
is more powerful than I is coming; I am not worthy to untie the thong of
his sandals, He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. Shortly
after that, Jesus appeared before John and was baptized. The Holy Spirit
descended upon him in a bodily form like a dove. And a voice came
from heaven, "You are my Son, the Beloved, with you I am well
pleased". He was about thirty years old when he began his ministry
(Luke 3:1-23). He soon gathered his twelve disciples who labored side
by side with him for the next three years. His career, according to
Edward M Burns (1986) was a continuous course of preaching and
teaching and of healing the sick, "casting out devils", restoring sight to
the blind, and raising the dead. He not only denounced shame, greed,
and licentious living, but also set the example himself by a life of
humility and self-denial. Burns said that Christ believed that he had a
mission to save humanity from error and sin. He added his preaching
and other activities eventually aroused the antagonism of some of the
Chief Priests and conservative rabbis. They disliked his caustic
references to the legalism of the Pharisees, his contempt for form and
ceremony, and his scorn for pomp and luxury. They feared also that his
active leadership would cause trouble with the Romans. Therefore they
planned for his arrest and crucifixion.
3.7 The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ and Burial
Perhaps, the crucifixion of Jesus marked a great climax in Christian

history. In one of his visits to the temple, Jesus drove away
moneychangers and temporarily restored order there. The Chief Priest
and temple officers were not pleased. They planned to eliminate him.
When the opportunity came, they went through one of his disciples,
Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him. He was arrested at the Garden of
Gethsemane and brought before the rulers for trial. Accordingly, they
brought him into the highest court in Jerusalem, where he was solemnly
condemned for blasphemy and for setting himself up as "king of the
Jews" and turned over to Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, for
execution of the sentence. They had to do this because they had no
legal powers to execute anybody.
It was nine o’clock in the morning on Friday when they crucified him.
When it was noon, darkness came over the whole land until three
o’clock in the afternoon. Jesus Christ committed his spirit into his
Father’s hand and breathed his last and the curtain of the temple was
5
torn into two, from top to bottom. He died on the cross between two
thieves on the hill of Golgotha outside Jerusalem.
His body was later laid at the tomb made by Joseph of Arimathea. In the
third day, early in the morning, Jesus resurrected. He appeared, first to
Mary, then to the eleven disciples. Their hope that was previously
shattered, now rekindled. The rest of his followers were quickly
convinced that he had risen from the dead and that he was truly a divine
being. With their courage restored, they organized their little band and
began preaching and testifying in the name of their Risen Lord. Thus
one of the world’s great religions was launched on a course that would
ultimately convert an empire no less mighty than Rome, a divine being
(Edward M. Burns: 1986).
3.8 The Core of Christ’s Teachings
There has never been a complete agreement among Christians as to the

precise teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. The only dependable records are
the four Gospels, but the earliest of these was not written until at least a
generation after Jesus’ death. According to the beliefs of his orthodox
followers, Jesus, the founder of Christianity revealed himself as the
Christ, the divine Son of God, who was sent on this earth to suffer and
die for the sins of humanity. They were convinced that after three days
in the tomb, he had risen from the dead and ascended into heaven,
whence he would come again to judge the world. The Gospels at least
make it clear that he included the following among his basic teachings:-
• the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of humanity;

• the Golden Rule;
• forgiveness and love of one’s enemies;
• repayment of evil with good;
• self-denial;
• condemnation of hypocrisy and greed;
• opposition to ceremonialism as the essence of religion;
• the imminent approach of the end of the world; and
• the resurrection of the dead and the establishment of the kingdom
of heaven.
Recent research tends to emphasize the last two of these points as being
at the center of Jesus’ mission (Edward M. Burns: 1986).
3.9 The Church at Pentecost

It will interest you to note that the official day for the establishment of
the Christian Church came after the death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, the
Christian Church began its history as a world movement on the Day of
6
Pentecost, in the late spring of the year 31 A.D., fifty days after the
Resurrection of Jesus Christ, and ten days after his Ascension. During
the ministry of Jesus, his disciples believed that he was the long-looked-
for Messiah of Israel, the Christ. According to Hurlbut, these two words
are the same, "Messiah" being Hebrew, and "Christ" being Greek; and
both meaning, "The Anointed One," the Prince of the Heavenly
Kingdom. The Church began in the city of Jerusalem, and apparently
was limited to that city and its immediate surroundings during the
earliest years of its history.
A reading of the first six chapters in the Book of Acts will show you that
during this early period the apostle Simon Peter acted as the leader of
the Church. Though he was not officially appointed, on every occasion
Peter comes to the front as the planner, the preacher, the wonder-worker
and the defender of the infant church. Hurlburt also confirms that this
was not because Peter was the divinely-appointed pope or ruler; but as
the result of his promptness in decision, his readiness of speech and his
spirit of leadership. By the side of Peter, the practical, we see John, the
contemplative and the spiritual, rarely speaking yet ever held in high
honor by the believers.
In a church of comparatively small numbers, all in one city, all of one

race, all absolutely obedient to the will of their ascended Lord, and all in
fellowship with the Spirit of God, little government was needed; but that
little was given by the twelve apostles as a body, Peter being their
spokesman. A sentence in Acts 5:13, intimates the reverence in which
the apostles were held, both by the believers and the people
(Jesse Lyman Hurlbut: 1981).
3.10 The Gospel Testimony
You need to know that the Church at Pentecost was bestowed with the
gift of tongues in order to quickly disseminate the gospel to many
nations, tribes and tongues. The new Church was also endowed with the
apostolic miracles to confirm their divine approval. Therefore, there was
a need of testimonies to the goodness of the Lord being manifested
amongst the new sets of believers. Hurlbut adds that the weapon of the
church through which the world was to be won, was the testimony of its
members. According to him, Peter and all the apostles, and all the
church gave their testimony to the gospel. When the church had one
hundred and twenty members, and the spirit descended upon them, all
became preachers of the Word. Hurlbut further states that as the
numbers were multiplied, the witnesses multiplied, for every member
spoke as a messenger of Christ, there being no distinction between
clergy and laity. According to this topic, you realize by now that toward
the close of this period, Stephen has risen to such eminence as a
7
preacher. This universal testimony was a potent influence in the rapid
increase of the church.
Hurlbut further confirms the necessity of the miraculous in the apostolic

Church. He says that in the beginning of this mighty effort, a handful of
plain people, without arms or social prestige, and with all the powers of
the national church and state arrayed against them, undertaking to
transform a nation, - some super-natural help was needed; and it came in
the form of "mighty works". The apostolic miracles have been named
"bells to call the people to worship". You will do well to have your
Bible with you and read the third chapter of Acts of the Apostles. There
you will read of a work of healing wrought at the Beautiful Gate of the
Temple, immediately followed by a multitude of people listening to
Peter and submitting to Christ. Also in the fifth chapter, there is the
record of a miracle of judgment: the sudden deaths of Ananias and
Sapphira at Peter’s rebuke, as a warning against selfishness and
falsehood. Read the first eight chapters of the Acts of the Apostles and
you will be amazed to see an efflorescence of divine power, in the cure
of many diseased people. This power was not limited alone to Peter,
Stephen or other apostles, rather the Lord wrought "wonders and signs"
through all of them. These mighty works attracted attention, awakened
inquiry, and opened the hearts of multitudes of faith in Christ.
3.11 The Spirit of Oneness in the Early Church
Perhaps, you may want to refer to the Spirit of oneness in the early
Church as a "modern day communism," where every property is held in
trust for the betterment of the immediate community. There was a very
strong cord of unity that bounded the community together in love. May
be, you can also acquaint yourself with the views of Hurlbut (1981) as
presented below. He says that the love of Christ glowing in the hearts of
these people called forth also a love for their fellow-disciples, a unity of
spirit, a joy in fellowship, and especially a self-denying interest in the
needy members of the church. You may read for more details from the
Acts of the Apostles Chapter five, of how rich disciples surrendered
their properties to the less privileged ones without compulsion. Hurlbut
says that, it was tested in a small community, all-dwelling within one
city; and in a highly-selected people, all filled with the Holy Spirit, in
character aiming to reproduce the principles of the Sermon on the
Mount. He said that, that practice arose in the expectation of a speedy
return of Christ, at whose coming earthly possessions might be no
longer needed. However, the system developed its own moral evils, as
the selfishness of Ananias and Sapphira. The spirit of this liberal giving
is to be commended, though, with its own weaknesses, as every system
operated by human organization.
8
3.12 The Fall of Jerusalem
Without any question in one’s mind, you are following the trends in the
Early Church. By now you should be able to understand how the Early
Church cared for its poor and needy without any decrees. The
membership of the early church soon included non-Jews outside
Jerusalem. Interestingly, before the death of the Apostle Paul, the
Gentiles were more in number among Christians. It was not long when a
sharp distinction between Christian Jews and non-Jews arose. The
Jewish nation saw herself as the custodian of the oracles of God and that
she was duty bound to tutor other nations. Therefore, it was difficult for
her to comprehend the idea of being under the domination of another
nation, particularly, a Gentile nation as Rome. Maybe, you need to be
reminded that when Christ was born, the Jewish nation was under the
Roman Empire along with other nations. Hurlbut (1981) says that,
among the many provinces under the rule of Rome, the only land
discontented and disloyal was Judea. He says that, the Jews, by putting
their own interpretation upon their prophetic writings, believed that they
were destined to conquer and govern the world, and having that
confident expectation submitted unwillingly to the yoke of the Roman
emperors. It must be admitted also that many of the Roman procurators
or governors utterly failed to comprehend the Jewish character, and were
needlessly harsh in their dealings. About 66 A.D. the Jews broke out
into open rebellion, hopeless from its very beginning, for what could one
of the smallest provinces, whose people were untrained in war,
accomplish against an empire of a hundred and twenty millions of
people, with a quarter of million disciplined and seasoned soldiers?
Moreover, the Jews themselves were broken into factions, which fought
and slaughtered each other as fiercely as their common enemy Rome.
Vespasian, the leading Roman general, led a great army into Palestine,
but was called to Rome to take the imperial throne, and left the conduct
of the war to his son Titus. After a terrible siege, made more terrible by
starvation and civil strife within the walls, the city was taken and
destroyed.
3.13 Doctrinal System and Institution of the Church
The following could be considered as the doctrine and practice of the

early Church. Hurlbut says that
i). Baptism was everywhere the rite of initiation into the church,
mainly by immersion; although there is definite mention, 120
A.D., of baptism by pouring water upon the head, indicating that
it was already a custom.
9
ii) The Lord’s Day was generally observed, though not with
strictness as a day absolutely set apart. As long as the church was
mainly Jewish, the Hebrew Sabbath was kept; but as it became
increasingly Gentile the first day gradually took the place of the
seventh day. We find before the end of St. Paul’s ministry, the
churches meeting on the first day of the week, and in the
Revelation that day is called "The Lord’s day".
iii) The Lord’s Supper was universally observed. This began as a

service in the home, like the Jewish Passover, out of which it was
an outgrowth. But among Gentile churches the custom arose of
celebrating it at a meeting of the church, as a supper to which
each member brought some share of provision. St. Paul rebuked
the church at Corinth for abuses that had crept into this method of
observance. By the end of the century the Lord’s Supper was
everywhere a service held at the meeting-place of the Christians,
but (probably on account of the persecutions) not in public. All,
except members of the church were excluded from this
celebration, which was held as a "mystery".
iv) The recognition of Easter Sunday, as the anniversary of our

Lord’s resurrection was sanctioned and growing, but was not by
this time universal.
Also the following is the simple order of service of the early Church.
i) The Old Testament Scriptures were read, and portions of the

apostolic letters, also of the gospels.
ii) The psalms of the Bible and Christian hymns were chanted
iii) Prayers, unlike those in the synagogues, were spontaneous
iv) Addresses were freely given by the member and visiting brethren.
v) At the close of the service frequently the Lord’s Supper was
partaken.
In almost every aspect, the church of the first days was faultless. It was
strong in faith and testimony, pure in character and abundant in love.
But its one defect was lack of missionary zeal. It needed the stimulus of
sharp persecution to send it forth on its world-wide mission; and that
stimulus it soon received.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt the definitions of Church History and the
benefits one could derive by studying the subject. You have also learnt
the facts about the birth, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The last point was the formation of Christian Church that began on the
10
day of Pentecost. Without mincing words, this Unit has aroused your
interest in studying Church History.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following is a summary of the major points in the unit:

Church History began with its founder, Jesus Christ, the Rock, upon
whom the church is built. The outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day
of Pentecost was a clear manifestation of the approval of the Trinity that
Church of God is the agent of salvation. The Spirit of Unity in the Early
Church made its witness effective.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the four major benefits one can derive from the study of
Church History?
2. When did Church of Christ begin its history as a world
movement?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS


Meacham, Standish (1986). World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman, (1981).The Story of the Christian Church. Grand

Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996).Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity


The Barth Press.
11
UNIT 2 THE GROWTH AND EXPANSION OF THE
EARLY CHURCH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Stephen’s Death and Saul’s Involvement
3.2 The Ministry of Philip in Samaria
3.3 Peter’s Invitation to Joppa and Caesarea
3.4 Saul’s Conversion
3.5 The Church at Antioch
3.6 The First Missionary Journey of Barnabas and Paul
3.7 The Council at Jerusalem
3.8 The Second Missionary Journey of Paul
3.9 Paul’s Third Missionary Journey
3.10 Paul’s Fourth Missionary Journey
3.11 Emperor Nero’s Persecution
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
From the first unit, you have acquired the knowledge of the birth of the
Christian Church and her leaders who worked hard to nurture the infant
Church. In this unit, you will study the growth and expansion of the
early Church. One of the major points is the establishment of Churches
through the ministries of the Apostles in Samaria and Antioch. This unit
also has an exciting account of Paul’s missionary journeys and their
joyous ends. Therefore, we need to encourage you to take notice of the
successive stages of the expansion of the Early Church.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
• narrate the story of Stephen

• identify the contribution of Philip to the growth of the Christian
Church
• narrate the invitation of Peter to Joppa and Caesarea
• narrate the first Council of the Apostolic Church at Jerusalem
• describe the supportive ministry of Barnabas to Saul
• analyze the four journeys made by Paul
• describe the persecution of Emperor Nero.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Stephen’s Preaching, his Death and Involvement of Saul
You will notice that the Christian Church that began in a small way, and
then later became enlarged on the day of Pentecost harvested peoples of
various backgrounds with diverse cultural heritage. As you read the
sixth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, you will easily discover that
the infant Church had a problem in her hands to resolve. The immediate
problem was that of neglect or marginalization. Hurlburt said that there
was a complaint in the church at Jerusalem, that in the distribution of the
funds for the poor, the families of the Grecian Jews or Hellenists were
neglected. The apostles called the church together, and proposed that a
board of seven men be chosen for this service. This plan was adopted,
and of the seven men appointed, the first named was Stephen, "a man
full of faith and of the Holy Spirit." Others were Philip, Prochorus,
Nicanor, Timon Parmenas, and Nickolaus. They had these men stand
before the apostles, who prayed and laid their hands on them.
(Acts 6:5-6) Hurlbut said that, although chosen for the church’s social
ministry, Stephen soon attracted notice as a preacher. From the
accusation against him when the Jewish rulers arrested him, and from
the tenor of his address at the trial, it is evident that Stephen proclaimed
Jesus as a Saviour not only for Jews, but also for Gentiles of every
nation. Stephen was the first in the church to have the vision of a
world-wide gospel; and it was that which caused him to become the first
Christian martyr.
Among those who heard Stephen, and were aroused to anger by his
utterances, thoroughly repugnant to the Jewish mind, was a young man
from Tarsus, on the coast of Asia Minor, named Saul. He had been
educated in Jerusalem under the great Gamaliel and was an accredited
rabbi or teacher of the Jewish law. Saul approved of their stoning of
Stephen and planned for more ruthless measures against the Christian
Church. He therefore instigated others to join him in persecuting the
young believers. The account of the havocs against the Church is
described in Acts 8:1-3.
That day, a severe persecution began against the Church in Jerusalem,

and all except the apostles were scattered throughout the countryside of
Judea and Samaria. But Saul was ravaging the church by entering house
after house; dragging off both men and women, and committed them to
prison. (Acts 8:1-3). Hurlbut said that, the Jerusalem Church was broken
up for the time, and its members scattered abroad. But wherever they
went, to Samaria, to Damascus, or even as far as Antioch in Syria, they
became preachers of the gospel, and established churches. Thus did the
fiery hate of Saul prove an aid to the expansion of the Church (Hurlbut:
1981).
13
3.2 The Ministry of Philip in Samaria
You will recall that, during the persecution at Jerusalem that was
co-headed by Paul, the believers ran for their dear lives into every
direction. As they scattered them throughout the region they preached
the gospel and more souls were added into the fold. One of the displaced
people was Philip. You should recall that he was one of the deacons
elected to care for the poor in the church. He escaped to Samaria where
he found refuge. Philip immediately proclaiming the Messiah to them as
the Saviour and the Way, his ministry was blessed and approved by the
Lord. The crowd with one accord listened eagerly to what was said by
Philip. They heard and saw the signs that the Lord God performed
through him. Unclean spirits crying with loud shrieks came out of many
who were possessed, and many others who were paralyzed or lame were
cursed. There was great joy in the city of Samaria and environ
(Acts 8:5-8). Hurlbut described the Samaritans as a mixed people, who
were neither Jews nor Gentiles but held in contempt by the Jews. That
Philip should begin preaching to Samaritans showed his freedom from
the narrow Jewish spirit. Interestingly, Philip established a church at
Samaria, which was duly recognized by the Apostles Peter and John.
Therefore, Samaria became the first church outside the pale of Judaism,
yet not quite church of Gentile members. Philip after this preached and
founded churches in the coast cities of Gaza, Joppa, and Caesarea. These
were Gentiles cities, but all having a large Jewish population. Here the
gospel would of necessity come into contact with the heathen world.
3.3 Peter’s Invitation to Joppa and Caesarea

As the Christian Church began to grow and expand, there came a need
for co-ordination and supervision. Therefore, Apostle Peter went from
one new group to another encouraging the new believers to be steadfast
and have total commitment to their new found faith. In one of his visits,
the apostle Peter came to "the saints living in Lydda", there, he found
Aeneas, a man who had been bedridden for eight years, for he was
paralyzed. Peter then called on Jesus Christ for an immediate release
from the sickness. His prayer was answered as Aeneas got up to his feet.
The news of that miracle spread around like wild fire throughout Lydda
and Sharon and nearby villages, even to Joppa. Many souls joined the
Church as a result of the sign.
Now in Joppa, there was a disciple called Tabitha, which in Greek was
Dorcas. She became ill and died. Peter was in the same vicinity; he was
called upon to minister to the church at Joppa. You should understand
that the apostolic miracles were not to be displayed or showcased by the
disciples. Signs and miracles whenever they occur are to strengthen the
faith of members and to confirm the strength and power of the Almighty
God.
14
Peter promptly responded to the call and prayed for the restoration of the
life of Tabitha. The Lord answered and Dorcas was brought back to life
and many believed in the Lord (Acts 9:32-43). Interestingly, Peter
continued preaching at Joppa for some days and he resided with one
Simon, a tanner. Hurlbut said that for Peter to stay with a tanner would
show that Peter was already emancipated to set free from the strict rules
of Jewish custom; for men of that trade were ceremonially "unclean". As
Peter resided with Simon at Joppa, at about three o’clock in the
afternoon, the Lord showed him a vision in which he clearly saw an
angel.
As stated above, Peter resided with Simon at Joppa where he continued

with his itinerary. One day, he felt into a trance at noon and he saw the
heaven opened and something like a large sheet coming down, being
lowered to the ground by its four corners. In it were all kinds of
four-footed creatures and reptiles and birds of the air. Then he heard a
voice saying, "Get up, Peter; kill and eat". Peter refused bluntly. The
voice said to Peter again, what God has made clean you must not call
profane.
As Peter was pondering upon the vision, the Lord told him to go with
the delegation from Cornelius. Hurlbut, quoting from the Scriptures said
that, immediately afterward messengers arrived from Caesarea, thirty
miles to the north, asking for Peter to come and instruct Cornelius, a
devout Roman officer. Under direction of the Spirit, Peter went to
Caesarea, preached the gospel to Cornelius and his friends, and received
them into the church by baptism: the spirit of God testifying divine
approval by an outpouring, similar to that on the Day of Pentecost. Thus
a divine sanction was given to preaching the gospel to Gentiles and their
acceptance in the church.
3.4 Saul’s Conversion
May be you need to take your Bible now and read the ninth chapter of
Acts of the Apostles, to acquaint yourself with the life of Saul who
persecuted the Christian church at her infancy. Paul obtained a letter
from the High Priest to punish Jews who were at Damascus, who still
belong to the Way, and bring them bound to Jerusalem. Paul’s
opposition, according to Hurlbut, had been especially bitter against a
doctrine, which made all men equal before God, where there is no more
difference between Jews and Gentiles in His sight.
As Saul went for the onslaught of the believers, the Lord met with him
on the road and he was arrested, as it were, by a vision of the ascended
Jesus Christ. That was the moment of his conversion. About this time,
possibly just before Peter’s visit to Caesarea, Saul, the persecutor, was
15
accepted into the fellowship of the church. Immediately, he began
preaching the crucified and risen Lord whom he met and spoke with on
his way to Damascus. Saul at once adopted Stephen’s views, and was a
greater than Stephen in carrying onward the movement for a church
open to all men, whether Jews or Gentiles. In all the history of
Christianity no single conversion to Christ carried with it such
momentous results to the whole world, as that of Saul the persecutor,
afterward Paul the Apostle.
3.5 The Church at Antioch
Following the trends of events closely, you will soon understand the
stages of the spread of the Early Church. As stated earlier, the initial
persecution of the church during the stoning of Stephen had aided the
spread of the Gospel throughout Palestine. It was said that some of the
members of the young church at Jerusalem escaped to Damascus, other
fled three hundred miles to Antioch, the capital of Syria, of which great
province Palestine was a part. At Antioch these faithful members went
into the Jewish synagogue, and there, gave their testimony to Jesus as
the Messiah. It was also said that in every synagogue a place was set
apart for Gentile worshippers. Many of these heard the gospel at
Antioch and embraced the faith of Christ; so that in that city a church
grew up wherein Jews and Gentiles worshiped together as equals in
privilege. Acts 11:22 said that when news of this condition, reached
Jerusalem, the mother church was alarmed and sent a representative to
examine this relation with the Gentiles. Fortunately, the choice of a
delegate fell upon Barnabas, the broad-minded, open-hearted, and
generous.
He went to Antioch, and instead of condemning the church for its

liberality he rejoiced in it, endorsed the movement, and stayed at
Antioch to participate in it. Barnabas had shown his confidence in Saul
before. The Bible says that Barnabas went to Saul’s home in Tarsus,
about a hundred miles from Antioch, mostly by water, brought Saul with
him to Antioch, and made him an associate in the work of the gospel. It
will be said also that the church at Antioch arose to such prominence
that there for the first time the followers of Christ became known as
"Christians" – a name applied not by Jews, but by Greeks, and found
only three times in the New Testament.
Interestingly, at that time, prophets came down from Jerusalem to

Antioch. One of them named Agabus stood up and predicted by the
spirit that there would be a severe famine over the entire world and this
took place during the reign of Claudius. Therefore, the disciples at
Antioch sent relief to the poorer saints in Judea at the time of famine;
16
and its leaders and teachers were eminent men in the early church
(Hurlbut 1981).
3.6 The First Missionary Journey of Barnabas and Paul
The ministrations of Barnabas and Paul among the Gentiles encouraged

the Christian Church to grow in leaps and bounds. Certainly, the journey
of Barnabas and Paul was richly blessed with a bumper harvest of souls.
The Gentiles were glad and praised the Lord for knowing Him, the only
true God. Therefore, as many as have been called in to the light of the
Son of God became believers, and the Word of God spread throughout
the region (Acts 13:48-49). Prior to the above experience in the Church,
Hurlbut said that the Gentile members of the church were only those
who had themselves sought admission. But now, under the guidance of
the Holy Spirit and by the appointment of the elders, the two greatest
leaders in the church at Antioch went forth on an evangelistic mission to
other lands, seeking both Jews and Gentiles with the gospel. As you read
the story of this first missionary journey you will notice certain features
in the effort, which became typical of all the later enterprises of Apostle
Paul. It was undertaken by two workers in unison, at first "Barnabas and
Saul," but soon changed to "Paul and Barnabas," or "Paul and his
company," showing Saul or Paul as the leading figure. Because of the
socio-political structure of Palestine at that time, it was customary
for a Jew to have two names: one would be Jewish and the other
would be Roman or Greek. So for the Apostle, Saul was his Jewish
name and Paul his Roman name. The two missionaries took with them
as helper a younger man, John Mark, although he forsook them in the
middle of their journey. It was also said that Barnabas and Paul chose as
their principal fields of labor the large cities, visiting Salamis and
Paphos in the island of Cyprus, Antioch and Iconium in Pisidia, Lystra
and Derbe in Lycaonia. Wherever it was possible, they began their work
by preaching in the synagogue, for therein every Jew had a right to
speak, and especially an accredited rabbi, as Paul, coming from the
famous school of Gamaliel, would be welcome. Moreover, through the
synagogue they would reach not only the devout Jews, but with them the
serious, God-fearing Gentiles. At Derbe, the last city visited, they were
quite near Antioch, from which they had set forth. But instead of passing
through the Caecilian Gates and returning home, they turned westward,
retraced their steps, revisited the churches which they had founded on
their outward journey, and appointed over them elders according to the
plan of the synagogue. You shall find these methods of work followed
in all the after-journeys of Apostle Paul (Hurlbut 1981).
17
3.7 The Council at Jerusalem
The Council at Jerusalem could be considered as the first Council of the

Christian Church where resolutions were arrived at in favour of the
expansion of the Gospel among the Gentiles.
You would agree with me that in every society or organized group of

people two types are always represented: the conservative, looking to
the past, and the progressive, looking toward the future. It was said that
the ultra Jewish element in the church held that there could be no
salvation outside of Isreal; hence, that all the Gentiles disciples must
receive circumcision and observe Jewish regulations (Acts 15:5). The
progressive teachers led by Paul and Barnabas declared that the gospel
was for Jews and Gentiles upon the same terms of faith in Christ without
regard to the Jewish law. It was written that between these two parties a
great controversy arose, threatening a division in the church. Finally a
council was held in Jerusalem to consider the question of Gentile
membership, and frame a ruling for the church. It is noteworthy that in
this council not only the Apostles, but the elders, and "the whole
church," were represented. Paul and Barnabas, with Peter and James, the
Lord’s brother, took part in the debate (Acts 15:16-18). With this
decision the period of transition from a Jewish Christian Church to a
church for people of every race and land, was completed, and the gospel
could now go forward on its ever-widening way.
The outcome of that debate is as follow:
(i) The Jewish ceremonial law was binding upon Jews only, and not
upon Gentile believers in Christ.
(ii) The Jews should not trouble the Gentiles who are turning to the
Lord.
(iii) The Gentiles should only abstain from things polluted by idols.
(iv) They should also abstain from fornication, and
(v) From whatever has been strangled and from blood (Acts 15:20)
Therefore, it will be said that by the decision of the Council at
Jerusalem, the church was free to enter upon a larger work for the
bringing of all people, of every race, and in every land under the
realm of Jesus Christ. Jewish members of the church were
expected to continue in their obedience to the Jewish law, though
such leaders interpreted the regulations broadly as St. Paul. But
Gentiles could enter the Christian fold by simple faith in Christ
and a righteous life, without submission to legal requirements
(Hurlbut 1981).
18
3.8 The Second Missionary Journey of Paul
(Acts 15:36 to 18:22)
It was said that after the Council at Jerusalem Paul set out on a second
missionary journey. With Silas or Silvanus as his companion, he went
forth from Syrian Antioch, visited again for the third time the churches
on the mainland founded on his first journey, reached the coast of the
Aegean Sea at Troas, the site of ancient Troy, and crossed over into
Europe, bringing the gospel to that continent. They established churches
at Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea in the province of Macedonia; a
small one in the cultured city of Athens, and a strong one at Corinth, the
commercial metropolis of Greece. From Corinth Paul wrote two letters
to the church at Thessalonica, his earliest extant epistles. Then he sailed
eastward across the Aegean Sea for a brief visit to Ephesus in Asia
Minor; then over the Mediterranean to Caesarea; went up to salute the
mother church at Jerusalem; and returned to his starting point at Syrian
Antioch. It may surprise you that Paul in his journey of three years by
land and sea had covered more than two thousand miles, and had planted
the church in at least seven important cities – probably in many more –
and had opened the imperial continent of Europe to the gospel. Without
missing words, you would have seen God in action in the life of Paul.
Therefore God can use anyone who will surrender himself or herself to
the infilling of the Holy Spirit.
3.9 Paul’s Third Missionary Journey (Acts 18:23-21:17)
According to Hurlbut, Paul rested for a brief period and then began his
third missionary journey again from Antioch, but destined to end in
Jerusalem, with himself a prisoner in the hands of the Roman
government. His only companion in the beginning was Timothy, who
had joined him on his second journey, and remained to the end his
faithful helper and "son in the gospel"; but quite a number of
fellow-traveler were with him before the close of this journey. He began
by visiting the churches in Syria and Cilicia, doubtless including his
birthplace, Tarsus; then passed over his old route, calling for the fourth
time upon the churches of his first journey. But after crossing the
province of Phrygia, instead of turning northward to Troas, he went
southward to Ephesus, the metropolis of Asia Minor. Here he stayed
more than two years, (Acts 19:9-10), the longest at any place in all his
journeys. God did extraordinary miracles through Paul so that when the
handkerchiefs or aprons that had touched his body were brought to the
sick, their diseases left them and the evil spirit came out of them. In
addition, many of those who became believers confessed and disclosed
their practices. A number of those who practiced magic gathered their
books and burnt them completely. The price of those was fifty thousand
silver coins. The word of the Lord grew mightily and prevailed. His
19
ministry won great success, resulting, not only in the church at Ephesus,
but also in planting the gospel throughout the province. The seven
churches of Asia were formed either directly or indirectly by Paul.
Following his method of revisiting his churches, from Ephesus he sailed
to Macedonia, called upon the disciples in Philippi, Thessalonica, and
Berea, also those in Greece. He was led to return by the same route for a
final visit to those churches; sailed to Troas, and thence along the coast
of Asia Minor. At Miletus, the seaport of Ephesus, he sent for the elders
of that Church and gave to them a touching farewell address then went
on his voyage again to Caesarea, and climbed up the mountains to
Jerusalem. It was also recorded that Paul’s third missionary journey
ended at Jerusalem while worshiping in the Temple. He was attacked by
a Jewish mob and subsequently rescued by Roman soldiers, and, for his
own safety, placed in the castle named after Mark Anthony. It should be
noted that the third missionary journey was as long as the second, except
for the three hundred miles between Jerusalem and Antioch. Its greatest
outstanding results were the commanding church at Ephesus, and two of
the most important epistles of St. Paul; one to the church at Rome
setting forth the principles of the gospel as preached by himself; and the
other, the Epistle to the Galatians, addressed to the churches of his first
journey, wherein Judaizing teachers had perverted many of the disciples
(Hurlbut 1981).
3.10 Paul’s Fourth Journey (Acts 27, 28)
Perhaps it will interest you that, for more than five years after his arrest;
Paul was a prisoner, for a short time in Jerusalem, then for three years in
Caesarea, and for at least two years at Rome. You may look upon that
perilous voyage from Caesarea to Rome. And again, you may look upon
that perilous voyage from Caesarea to Rome as St. Paul’s fourth
journey, for even in his bonds Paul was still a missionary, employing
every opportunity to preach the gospel of Christ. The immediate cause
of the voyage was his appeal as a Roman citizen from the trial by the
Procurator of Judea to the Emperor’s Court at Rome. His companions
were Luke and Aristarchus, who may have sailed as his companions.
There was also on board a group of convicted criminals taken to Rome
for slaughter in the gladiatorial games, soldiers to guard them, and
sailors to work the ship. The biblical accounts said that on that long and
perilous voyage, all these fellow-travellers with the apostle heard the
gospel; also that at Sidon, and Myra, and Crete, where the vessel paused,
Paul was able to proclaim Christ. Happily, Paul won to the faith many in
the island of Melita (Malta), where after the storm, they tarried three
months. (Acts 28:1-11)
20
At last Paul arrived at Rome, the goal of his hopes for many years. A
prisoner awaiting trial, he yet had his own hired house, wherein he lived,
chained to a soldier. His first effort was, as always, to reach the Jews,
and he held an all day meeting with them. On discovering that only a
few of the Jews were willing to accept the gospel, he turned to the
Gentiles. For two years his house was a church wherein many found
Christ, especially among the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard. But his
greatest work in Rome was the writing of four epistles, which are among
the treasures of the church – Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and
Philemon. There is good reason to believe that after two years in prison,
Paul was acquitted and set at liberty.
You might look upon Paul’s three or four years of liberty as continuing
his fourth missionary journey. You might have hints or expectations of
visits to Colosse and Miletus. If he was so near to Ephesus, as were
these two places, we might be almost certain that he visited that city. He
visited also the island of Crete, where he left Titus in charge of the
churches; and Nicopolis on the Adriatic Sea, north of Greece. Tradition
states that at this place he was arrested, and sent again to Rome, where
he was martyred 68 A.D. Three epistles may belong to this period: First
Timothy, Titus, and Second Timothy, his last letter, written from his
prison at Rome (Hurlbut 1981).
3.11 Emperor Nero’s Persecution
It was said that, in the year 64 A.D. a large part of the city of Rome was
destroyed in a great conflagration. It was generally believed that Nero,
who could be described as the worst of all the Roman emperors was
responsible for it. When Emperor Nero was charged with the crime by
common report, he denied. And in order to clear himself, Nero declared
that the Christians have set fire to the city in order to realize their belief
that God is going to destroy the earth by fire.
Therefore the Emperor began a terrible persecution, where thousands of

faithful were tortured and put to death, among them was Apostle Peter
by crucifixion, in the year 67 A.D. and Apostle Paul by being beheaded,
in the year 68 A.D. Hurlbut said that it is one of the "the revenges of
history," that the gardens of Nero, where multitudes of Christians were
burned as "living torches," while the emperor drove his chariot among
them are now the seat of the Vatican palace, the home of the Roman
Catholic pontiff, and of St. Peter’s Church, the largest edifice of the
Christian faith.
21
4.0 CONCLUSION
You are now concluding the study of an important period in the history
of the Christian Church, which, although brief – only fifteen years, from
about 35 to 50 A.D. – is of paramount importance. At that time was
settled the great question, whether Christianity should remain an obscure
Jewish sect, or should become a church wide open, to the entire world.
When this brief period began, the gospel was limited to the city of
Jerusalem and the villages around it, and every member was an Israelite
either by birth or adoption. But by 50 A. D when it ended, the church
was deeply planted in Syria and Asia Minor, and was reaching out
toward Europe. Also, its membership was no longer exclusively Jewish,
but was predominantly Gentile. The language spoken in its assemblies
in Palestine was Hebrew or Aramaic, but in a far wider area Greek was
the tongue of its people. You have noticed the successive stages in this
expanding movement. The constant struggles between the Jews and the
Christian Gentiles are adequately mentioned. Finally, the voyage of Paul
to Rome is well discussed and the great persecution of Emperor Nero
was also treated.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have understood the following facts from this unit:
• The event that led to the selection of the first seven deacons.
• The contents of the sermon preached by Stephen.
• Paul of Tarsus and his involvement in the death of Stephen.
• The resultant effects of the preaching of Philip at Samaria.
• The resurrection of Dorcas by Peter at Joppa
• The conversion of Saul on the road to Damascus
• The significance of Antioch to the spread of Christians
• Barnabas and Paul visited Gentiles
• Missionary journeys of Paul and his final voyage to Rome
• The first imperial persecution of Nero
1. What was the nature of the complaint in the Early Church at

Jerusalem that led to the appointment of the first seven deacons?
2. How did Paul "get arrested" on the way to Damascus?
3. What was the Council at Jerusalem all about?
4. Who was the Emperor Nero?
22


Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman, (1981). The Story of the Christian Church. Grand


The Barth Press.
23
UNIT 3 PERSECUTION AND VICTORIES OF THE
CHURCH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Causes of Persecutions
3.1.1 Exclusiveness of the Nature of Christianity
3.1.2 Business Interest
3.1.3 Emperor Worship
3.1.4 Equality in the Christian Church
3.1.5 Idol Worship
3.1.6 Judaism Recognized
3.2 Persecution of Emperor Trayan 98-161 A.D.
3.3 Persecution of Emperor Marcus Aurelous 161-180 A.D.
3.4 The Edict of Emperor Constantine 313 A.D.
3.5 The Joyous End of Imperial Persecutions
3.6 The Freedom and its Abuses
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The most prominent fact in the history of the church through the second
and third centuries is the persecution of Christianity by the Roman
emperors. While this condition was not continuous, it was often repeated
for years at a time, and liable to break forth at any moment in terrible
forms. It lasted in the fourth century until 313 A.D., when the Edict of
Constantine, the first Christian emperor, ended all attempts to destroy
the Church of Christ. The fact is remarkable that during this period some
of the wisest and best of the emperors were the most active in the
persecution of Christianity, while some of the worst emperors were lax
in their opposition or remitted it altogether. Before narrating the history,
let us investigate some of the motives that impelled a government, in the
main just and seeking the welfare of its citizens, to attempt, and continue
for two hundred years, the extirpation of a body as upright, as
law-abiding, and as desirable as the Christians. A number of causes may
be named for the antagonism of the emperors of the emperors to
Christianity.
24
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the causes of imperial persecutions

• list the stages of persecutions
• state the importance of the Edict of Emperor Constantine
• describe the joyous end of the persecution
• list the resultant abuses of the freedom.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Causes of Imperial Persecution
3.1.1 Exclusiveness of the Nature of Christianity
Perhaps, one of the most important reasons for the imperial persecution
of the Christian Church was the nature of its exclusiveness. For instance,
Christianity opposes all worship except to his own God. On the
contrary, however, animism was hospitable to new forms and objects of
worship. You could imagine, where the hundred, even by the thousand,
already counted gods one more god would make no difference. It was
said that, one Emperor wished to place a statue of Christ in the
Pantheon, a building at Rome, still standing, where all the important
gods were worshiped. But the Christians rejected the offer with scorn.
They would not have their Christ recognized merely as one of many
deities. Hurlbut said that, when the people of a city or a province desired
to promote trade or immigration, they would build temples to the deities
worshiped in other lands, in order that their citizens could have a place
of worship. Thus in Pompeii we find a temple to Isis, an Egyptian
goddess, erected to increase the commerce of Pompeii with Egypt, and
make Egyptian traders at home.
3.1.2 Business Interest
Another factor that led to the persecution of the Christian Church was
that of business interest. You will certainly understand that the love of
money is the root of all evils. Incidentally, business interests often
promoted or excited the persecuting spirit. Could you remember the
experience of Paul at Ephesus when he was thrown into danger of death
through the riot incited by Demetrius the silversmith? Unfortunately,
very often the rulers were influenced to persecute the Christians by
people whose financial interest were effected by the progress of the
church; such as the priests and lay-servants of the idol temples, image
makers, sculptors, architects of the temples, and others whose living
25
depended upon the heathen worship. Therefore, in those days, it was not
difficult to raise the cry, "The Christians to the lions!" when men found
their craft in danger, or covetous officials longed for the property of
wealthy Christians.
3.1.3 Emperor Worship
The refusal of Christians to involve themselves in Emperor Worship was

another reason that led to their persecution. They held unto, "Thou shall
have no other god beside me" You should not make any graven image
and you should not worship them. These were the commandments
written and observed by the early Christians. Therefore, they could not
subscribe to statute worship. It was said that, in some prominent place of
every city stood a statue of the reigning emperor; and before this image
incense was offered as to a god. It may be that in one of St. Paul’s
earliest epistles there is a guarded reference to this form of idolatry. This
worship the Christians refused to render, simple as it was to drop a
handful of incense upon the altar; and because they sang hymns of
praise and gave worship to "another King, one Jesus," they were looked
upon by the multitude as disloyal and plotters of a revolution.
3.1.4 Equality in the Christian Church
The practice of equality among the Church members also invited

persecution to the Church. Christians believed that they were made by
God and also equally redeemed by the same blood, and that at the foot
of the cross, all ground is level. Therefore, Christianity looked upon all
men as equal. It made no distinction in its membership and its services.
Interestingly, a slave might be chosen as bishop in the Church. This was
abhorrent to the minds of the nobles, to the philosophic, and to the
ruling classes. For that reason deduced above, the Christians were
regarded as "levelers" anarchists, and subverters of the social order;
hence as enemies of the state.
3.1.5 Idol Worship
Christians had conflicts with heathens who prided themselves in idol

worship. True believers abhorred all forms of idols and rejected their
worship. They could not accommodate that practice, rather declared the
act of idol worship as a crime against their maker. It was said that at
Rome, by then, idol worship was interwoven with life in every
department. Images stood in every house to receive adoration; libations
were poured out to the gods at every festival. In addition with every
civic or provincial ceremony the images were worshiped. The Christians
found it difficult to take part in such forms of worship. Hence the
heathens regarded them as unsocial, morose, atheists, having no gods,
26
and haters of their fellow men. Without question, such an unfavorable
perception by people in general, was but a step to persecution.
3.1.6 Judaism Recognized
You need to understand that Christianity was not a recognized religion

until about 313 A.D. Therefore, in the first generation of the Christians,
they were regarded as somehow connected with the Jews, and the
government as a permitted region recognized Judaism. It was said that,
this supposed relationship for a time preserved the Christians from
persecution. But after the destruction of Jerusalem, in 70 A.D.,
Christianity stood alone with no laws to protect its followers from the
hatred of their enemies, as the church has completely severed its
relationship with Judaism. It thus became an illegal underground
sect. Consequently:
i) They met either before sunrise or at night, often in caves or

catacombs underground.
ii) The secret meetings of Christians aroused suspicion.
iii) False reports went abroad of lascivious or murderous rites
performed among them.
iv) Moreover, the autocratic government of the empire was jealous
of all secret cults or societies, fearing disloyal aims.
v) The celebration of the Lord’s Supper, from which outsiders were
excluded, was often made a ground for accusation and
persecution.
3.2 Persecution of Emperor Trajan
Now that you have known some reasons for the persecution of the
Christian church, it will then be appropriate for you to study a few major
imperial persecutions of the Christian Church from the reign of Nero to
the time of Constantine in 313 A.D. Hurlbut said that during all the
second and third century, and especially in the opening years of the
fourth century, to the year 313 A.D., the Christian religion was
forbidden and its votaries were outlawed. Yet most of the time the sword
of persecution was sheathed, and the disciples were scarcely interrupted
in their religious observances. He added that even during those periods
of comparative rest they were at any time liable to sudden danger,
whenever a provincial governor saw fit to execute the edicts, or when
some prominent Christian was open and bold in his testimony. He
further stressed that there were several periods, of shorter or longer
duration, when throughout the empire, the church was exposed to the
fiercest persecution. We have noticed the persecutions in the first
century, by Nero (66 – 68) and Domitian (90 – 05). He further
contended that these were simply outbreaks of frenzy and hate, with no
27
reason except the rage of a tyrant, spasmodic, occasional and not long
continued. But from 250 to 313 A.D. the church was subjected to a
systematic, relentless, empire-wide series of attempts by the government
to crush the ever-growing faith.
It was also said that from the reign of Trajan to that of Antoninus Pius
(98 – 161 A.D.) Christianity was not recognized, yet was not severely
persecuted. Under the four emperors, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian and
Antoninus Pius (who with the next in succession, Marcus Aurelius, were
known as "the five good emperors"), no Christian could be arrested
without a definite and proven complaint, and the spirit of the age was to
ignore the Christian religion. Yet when charges were made and
Christians refused to recant, the rulers were compelled, even
unwillingly, to enforce the law and put them to death.
Perhaps, one of the most prominent among the martyrs to the faith
during those reigns was Simeon or Simon. According to Mark 6: 3, he
was the successor of James as the head of bishop of the church in
Jerusalem. He was said to have attained the age of one hundred and
twenty years. However, during the reign of the Emperor Trajan, He was
crucified by order of the Roman governor of Palestine in 107 A. D. The
second prominent matter to consider is that of Ignatius, bishop of
Antioch in Syria. He was said to be more than willing to be killed for the
sake of Jesus Christ and that of the gospel. Therefore, on his way to
Rome, Ignatius wrote letters to the churches, hoping that he might not
lose the honor of dying for his Lord. He was thrown to wild beasts in the
Roman amphitheatre, around 106 or 110 A. D. Although the persecution
during these reigns was less severe than that falling upon the church
soon afterward, you should however, be aware that there were many
martyrs beside these two distinguished men of the Cross.
3.3 Persecution of Emperor Marcus Aurelius
Having gone through the above painted pictures of horror mentally, you
may now study second stage of persecution with less shock. It was also
said that the very best of the Roman emperors, and one of the highest
type of ethical writers, was Marcus Aurelius, who reigned 161 to 180 A.
D. His equestrian statue still stands before the site of the ancient Capitol
in Rome. Yet stands good man and just ruler was a bitter persecutor of
the Christians. It was confirmed that Marcus Aurelius sought to restore
the old simplicity of Roman life, with the ancient religion. He thereafter
opposes the Christians as innovators. Therefore for those reasons, many
thousands of the believers in Christ were beheaded or devoured by wild
beasts in the arena. You, however, should acquaint yourself with only
prominent matters among the multitude of the martyrs during those
years. The first one to consider was Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna in Asia
28
Minor, who was killed in 155 A. D. we have the following testimony in
favor of his courageous stand that when Polycarp was brought before the
governor and commanded to curse the name of Jesus Christ, he
answered, "Eighty and six years have I served him and He has done, me
nothing but good; and how could I curse him, my Lord and Saviour!"
The record said that few minutes after that heroic act, Polycarp was
burnt to death.
Perhaps the second martyr you should know was Justin Martyr. It was
said of him that he had been a philosopher, and continued teaching after
his acceptance of Christianity. He was considered to be one of the ablest
men of his time, and a foremost defender of the faith. Accordingly, his
books, still extant, give much valuable information concerning the
church in the middle of the second century. Perhaps, his martyrdom took
place at Rome in 166 A. D.
You know that God works in wondrous ways and no one can understand
his wisdom. It may interest you to note that after the death of Marcus
Aurelius, 180 A. D., a period of confusion followed, with weak and
worthless emperors, who were too busy with civil wars on their own
pleasures to pay much attention to the Christians. But after the relative
peace of twenty-two years, there reigned one of the wicked Emperors. It
was said that Septimius Severus began in the year 202 a fierce
persecution, which lasted until his death in 211 A. D. Severus was
described as morbid and melancholy in nature. He was a strong
disciplinarian, striving vainly to restore the decaying religions of other
days. It was also said of his reign that everywhere persecution raged
against the church, but it was the most severe in Egypt and North Africa.
One of martyrs was Leonidas, the father of the great theologian Origen
who was beheaded in Alexandria. Also, in Carthage, Perpetua, a notable
lady with her faithful slave Felicitas, was torn in pieces by wild beasts
203 A. D. It was said that Emperor Septimius Severus, earned for
himself the title Anti-Christ because of his bitterness against the Church.
Happily, for the next forty years, after the death of Septimus Severus the
Church was left unnoticed under the numerous emperors who followed
in rapid succession. For instance, Emperor Caracalla (211 – 217 A. D.)
conferred citizenship upon every person who is not a slave throughout
the empire. Incidentally this was a benefit to the Christians, as they
could no longer be crucified or thrown to wild beasts, unless they were
slaves. But very sad to note that with the reign of Decius that lasted for
only three years (249 – 251) fierce persecution broke out anew.
Fortunately, shortly after his death, the slaughter of Christians ended for
a time. Interestingly, more than fifty years of comparative rest followed
the death of Decius, although there came at times, brief periods of
persecution. It was recorded that under Valerian, in 257 A. D., one of
29
the Church Fathers, celebrated Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage and Roman
Bishop Sextus, who was one of the great writers and church leaders of
the period, were put to death.
However, the last, most systematic and most terrible persecution of all
the series took place in the reign of Diocletian and his successors, from
303 to 310 A. D. Hurlbut confirmed that in the series of edicts it was
ordered that every copy of the Bible should be burnt, that all churches –
which had arisen, throughout the empire during the half-century of
comparative rest from persecution – should be torn down, that all who
would not renounce the Christian religion should lose their citizenship
and be outside the protection of law. He added that in some places the
Christians assemble in their churches, which were set on fire and burned
with all the worshipers within their walls. It is said that the emperor,
Diocletian, erected a pillar inscribed, "In honor of the extirpation of the
Christian superstition" – yet within seventy years Christianity became
the official religion of the emperor, the court, and the empire. Hurlbut
said that with the forced labor of enslaved Christians the immense Baths
of Diocletian were erected at Rome. Happily soon, after the above
atrocities, Diocletian abdicated the throne in 305 A.D. Even, though,
Diocletian’s subordinates and successors, Galerius and Constantius,
continued the persecution for six years though less in its intensity.
Finally Constantine, the son of Constantius, as con-emperor, who was
not at that time a professing Christian, issued his memorable Edict of
Toleration 313 A. D. By this law Christianity was sanctioned, its
worship was made lawful, and all persecution ceased, not to be renewed
while the Roman Empire endured.
3.4 The Edict of Emperor Constantine
Perhaps, you should understand the historical background to the Edict of

Milan of 313 A.D. Church historians believed that shortly after the
abdication of Diocletian, in 305 A.D., four aspirants after the imperial
crown were at war. The two most powerful rivals were Maxentius and
Constantine whose armies met in battle at the Milvan Bridge over the
Tiber, ten miles from Rome, 312 A.D. Maxentius represented the old
heathen persecuting element; Constantine was friendly to the Christians
although at that time not a professed believer. It was said that
Constantine claimed to have seen in the sky a shining cross bearing the
motto, "Hoc Signo Vinces" – "By this sign thou shalt conquer," and
afterward adopted it as the insignia of his army. The victory was with
Constantine, and Maxentius was drowned in the river. Soon afterward,
313 A.D., Constantine promulgated his famous Edict of Toleration,
which officially put an end to the persecutions. However, not until 323
A.D. did Constantine became sole emperor and then Christianity was
favored. Interestingly, the Emperor Constantine’s personal character was
30
not perfect. As another human being with defects, it was ascribed to him
that though generally just, he was occasionally cruel and tyrannical. It
has been said that, "the reality of his Christianity was better than its
quality." It was said that he delayed his baptism until just before his
death, in the prevalent opinion of his time that baptism washed away all
sins previously committed. Without any dispute, Emperor Constantine
was certainly a wise politician, if not a great Christian; for he had the
insight to ally himself with the movement, which held the future of his
empire.
3.5 The Joyous End of Imperial Persecutions
In the period upon which you are now studying, the most striking fact,
and the most potent for good and also for evil, was the victory of
Christianity. You will recall that during the course of your study, in the
year 305 A.D. when Diocletian abdicated the imperial throne, the
Christian religion was sternly prohibited-its profession was punished
with torture and death, and against it all the power of the state was called
into exercise. However, in, less than eighty years afterward, in 380 A.D.,
the Emperor Theodosius made Christianity to be recognized as the
official religion of the Roman Empire, and a Christian emperor held
supreme authority over the Empire.
Therefore it should be stated that from this sudden change of relations

between the empire and the Church, world-wide and far-reaching results
followed. As stated above, some of them are good and evil, both to the
church and the state. Now you can readily see herein the new attitude of
the government brought benefits to the cause of Christianity.
i) The first thing to notice was that all persecutions of the Christians
ceased at once and forever. For more than two hundred years, at
no time had Christians been safe from accusation and death, and
at many periods, as we have seen, all had been in imminent
danger. But from the publication of Constantine’s Edict, in 313
A.D., until the Roman Empire ended, the sword of persecution
was not merely sheathed; it was buried.
ii) Secondly, things that will catch your attention were the church
buildings that were restored and re-opened everywhere. In the
apostolic period, meetings had been held in private houses or in
hired halls. Afterward, during times of cessation in the
persecutions, church buildings began to arise. As mentioned
previously, that in the last persecution under Diocletian, many of
these building were destroyed and the authorities seized others.
All left standing was now restored, and the cities reimbursed the
societies for those, which had been demolished. It is said that
31
from this time the Christians were free to build churches; and
edifices began to arise everywhere. In their plan, they followed
the form and took the name of the Roman basilica or court-room:
a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of pillars, having at one
end a semi-circular platform with seats for the clergy.
Constantine set the example of building large churches in
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and his new capital, Constantinople. It
was two in the churches; the early Christian having a horror of all
that might lead to idolatry.
iii) The third benefit of the Imperial Edict of 313 A.D. was the
cessation of the official sacrifices. The record has it that, although
the worship was still tolerated, the officials’ sacrifices ceased.
The fact that so radical a change from universal customs,
interwoven with every social and civic celebration, could be so
speedily accomplished shows that the heathen observance had
long been mere formalities, and no longer expressed the belief of
intelligent people.
iv) The fourth gain was the consecration of temples as Churches. It

was noticed that in many places the temple were consecrated as
churches. This was especially the case in cities. While in remote
country places heathen beliefs and worship lingered for
generations. The word "pagan" originally meant "country
dweller," but it came to mean, and still means "heathen."
v) The other benefit from the edict was that the Church started
receiving financial support from the State. You will remember
that throughout the empire the temple of gods had been supported
mainly from the public treasury. These endowments were now
bestowed upon the churches and the clergy. At first gradually, but
soon more generally and more liberally, the public funds were
enriching the church, and the bishops, priests, and other officials
in the Christian worship were receiving their support from the
State. That however, could be considered a welcome endowment
to the church, but eventually of questionable benefit.
vi) Perhaps, one of the most important benefits was the new status
that was accorded clergymen. By the virtue of their sacred office,
clergymen were soon exempted from public duties obligatory
upon all citizens. They were set free from taxes; all accusations
against clergy were tried before ecclesiastical courts. Soon the
ministers of the church became a privileged class above the law
of the land.
32
vii) The last gain to consider is the observance of Sunday the first day
of the week was proclaimed as the day of rest and of worship;
and its observance soon became general throughout the empire.
For instance in 321 A.D., Constantine forbade the courts to be
held on Sunday, except for the purpose of giving freedom to
slaves; and on that day soldiers were commanded to omit their
daily military exercise. But the public games were continued on
Sunday, tending to make it more a holiday than holy day.
From the recognition of Christianity as a favored religion many gains

came to people as well as to the church. One of them was the spirit of
the new religion that was infused into many of the ordinances enacted
by Constantine and his immediate successors. However, in spite of the
successes above, the period of the religious toleration also ushered in a
lot of excesses that eventually resulted into abuses.
3.6 The Freedom and its Abuses
Perhaps as stated above, while the triumph of Christianity resulted in

much that was good, inevitably the unification of the State and the
Church also brought in its train, many evils. The ceasing of persecution
was a blessing.
(i) The first thing to consider was the establishment of Christianity,

as the state religion since the Emperor became a Christian.
(ii) Everybody sought membership in the church and nearly

everybody was received. Both good and bad, sincere seekers after
God and hypocritical seekers after gain, rushed into the
communion.
(iii) Coupled with that mad rush was that ambitious and worldly,
unscrupulous men sought office in the church for social and
political influence.
(iv) Therefore without mincing words, the moral tone of Christianity

in power was far below that which had marked the same people
under persecution.
(v) The other evil effect was that the services of worship increased in
splendor but were less spiritual and hearty than those of former
time.
(vi) The forms and ceremonies of paganism gradually crept into the
worship.
(vii) In addition, some of the old heathen feasts became church

festivals with change of name and of worship.
33
(viii) The abuses reached the alarming stage that by about 405 A.D.
images of saints and martyrs began to appear in the churches,
adored, and worshiped.
(ix) The adoration of the Virgin May was substituted for the worship
of Venus and Diana.
(x) The Lord’s Supper became a sacrifice in place of a memorial.
(xi) Thus the elder evolved from a preacher into a priest.
(xii) Because of the Church sitting in power, it was not possible to see
Christian transforming the world to its own ideal, but the world
dominating the church.
(xiii) The humility and saintliness of an earlier age was succeeded by

ambition, pride, and arrogance, among churchmen.
With the above picture, you could see that the tide of worldliness swept
uncontrolled over many professed disciples of their lowly Lord. They
joined the world and lost their savor. However, not withstanding we
have those of pure spirit like Monica the mother of Augustine and the
faithful ministers such as Jerome and John Chrysostom.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Having gone through this unit, you would have noticed that persecution
of the Church aided the spread of Christianity. You might have also
observed that Christians made it a part of their life style to suffer
martyrdom. It was becoming a fashion for one to lay down his life for
the sake of the gospel. You have also studied the circumstances that led
to the freedom granted the Christian Church in 313 A.D., 321 A.D. and
380 A.D. You have also noticed that series of abuses crept into the
church. Hurlbut said that, if Christianity could have been allowed to
develop normally without state-control, and the State could have
continued free from the dictation of the Church, both State and Church
would have been the better by dwelling apart. But the Church and the
State became one when Christianity was adopted as the religion of the
empire, and out of the unnatural union arose two evils, one in the
eastern, and the other in the western provinces. In the east, the State
dominated the Church until it lost all energy and uplifting life. In the
west, as we shall see, the Church gradually usurped power over the
State, and the result was not Christianity but a more or less corrupt
hierarchy controlling the nations of Europe, making the Church mainly
a political machine.
34
5.0 SUMMARY
Without any shade of doubt, you are now better informed of the
following points from your study of this unit:-
1) Major causes of the imperial persecution
(a) Exclusiveness of the nature of Christianity

(b) Business interest
(c) Emperor worship
(d) Idol worship
(e) Recognition of Judaism
2) Persecution of Emperor Trajan 98-161

3) Persecution of Emperor Marcus Aurelius 161-180 A.D.
4) The edict of Emperor Constantine 313 A.D.
5) The benefits of the freedom granted the Church:
(a) Persecution came to an end

(b) Church buildings were restored back to Christians and new ones
were opened
(c) The official sacrifice ceased
(d) The Church began receiving grants from the State Government
(e) The observance of Sunday: it was made an official day of rest
6) The abuses of the freedom
(a) The establishment of Christianity as the State religion.

(b) People flocked into the church for public recognition, but not for
salvation.
(c) Christians soon clamour for church positions.
(d) Worship services became worldly and less spiritual.
(e) The worship of Mary and other Saints crept into the church.
(f) The Church gradually became polluted and almost lost its savour.
1. What were the major causes of the Imperial Persecution of the

Christian Church?
2. Discuss the joys and abuses the Edict of Emperor Constantine
313 A.D brought to the Christian Church.
35

Zondervan Publishing House, pp.87-95.

Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 40-54.


The Barth Press, pp.10-19.
36
UNIT 4 THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON, HERESIES,
AND DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 New Testament Defined
3.2 The Origin of the New Testament
3.3 Contents of the New Testament
3.4 The Division of the Bible into Chapters and Verses
3.5 Canonization of the Books of the New Testament
3.6 Muratorian Fragment
3.7 Sects or Heresies
3.7.1 The Gnostics
3.7.2 The Ebionites
3.7.3 Maniches
3.7.4 The Montanists
3.8 Beliefs of the Early Christian Church
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the 27 books of the New Testament, how they were
written, handed over to the Christian Church, and became tools for
instructions. You will also learn about how the Church Fathers arrived at
the collection of books currently in New Testament. Also in this unit,
you will be introduced to the simple form of the Christian worship of the
first three centuries.
The issue of false teachers in the early church who, went about with
their strange doctrines will also be discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify most of the authors of the books of the New Testament.

• describe the circumstances surrounding their production
• identify the factors that led to Canonization of the New
Testament books and its stages
37
• describe the stages of canonization
• describe the Gnostic heresy
• describe the Ebionite heresy
• describe the Manichean heresy
• describe the Montanist heresy
• state the simple doctrine or belief of the Early Church.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 New Testament Defined
Perhaps, when one talks of the New Testament Canon he is referring to

a list of the 27 books that are general accepted as the genuine works of
the Apostles Paul, John, Peter, Jude, and James. It also contains the
gospels of Mathew, Mark, Luke and John, as well as the book of the
Acts of the Apostles and the letter to the Hebrews. Perhaps, you should
know the origin of the word "Testament". The Bible Encyclopedia says
that the name Testamentum which was erroneously adopted in the Old
Latin version as a translation for the Greek "diatheke" which was used
in the Septuagint (LXX) as a rendering for the Hebrew "berith" which
means "covenant". Therefore, the germ of the idea of an old and new
covenant seems to have been found in Paul’s reference to the reading of
the old covenant in 2 Corinthians 3:14, RSV. So far as is known, the
first Christian writer to use the designation "Novum Testamentum",
"New Testament", was Tertullian (60-230 A.D.) Afterwards, the usage
was adopted and generally accepted by other Christian writers (The
SDA Bible Dictionary Vol. 8, 1979).
3.2 The Origin of the New Testament
After the definition of the New Testament, the next thing for you to
know is the origin of the 27 books and their authors. Hence, the need for
the following detailed study about their production needs to be
considered. The earliest documents in the NT, however, in the
judgments of today’s scholars, are some of Paul’s letters. In them there
is no reference to any written Gospel, and it is believed that most of
them were written before the gospels. The Biblical evidence suggests
that the bulk of these letters were dictated rather than actually penned by
the apostle Paul. He would, however, at the end write a personal
greeting and gives his own authenticating signature, as suggested by the
conclusion of 2 Thess: "I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand.
This is the mark in every letter of mine; it is way I write" (Ch. 3:17,
RSV; cf. 1 Cor 16:21). Unfortunately, the original autographs of all
these letters, as of all the other books of the Bible, have been lost.
However, the first letter written to the Thessalonians (1 Thess.) is
usually regarded as the earliest of Paul’s letters. It is said that the book
38
was written from Corinth about A.D. 51. Second Thessalonians (2
Thess.) followed a few months later. The two great Corinthian letters
were produced about A.D. 57, and Galatians and Romans between A.D.
57 and 58. The so-called prison epistles, Colossians, Philemon,
Ephesians, and Philippians were written while Paul was a prisoner of
Rome, between A.D. 61 and 63. Therefore, on the basis of the theory of
a second imprisonment in Rome, the Pastoral letters (1 Timothy, Titus
and 2 Timothy) would be dated still later, between A.D. 64 and 66.
These letters reveal Paul’s sense of authority. He writes the Corinthians,
"If anyone thinks that he is a prophets or spiritual, he should
acknowledge that what I am writing to you is a command of the Lord"
(1 Cor 14: 37, RSV). Whoever disregards the instructions he gives, he
writes the Thessalonians, "disregards not man but God" (1 Th. 4:8,
RSV). He believes that he has the Spirit of God (1 Cor 7:40). He was
not only an apostle chosen and commissioned by the risen Christ (Acts
9:1,2) but a prophet, as well, who had received many visions and
revelations of the Lord (Acts 9:15, 22:15; 26:16-18; Rom 1:1;
1 Cor 9:1,2). In addition, these letters constitute a new and distinctive
type of religious literature. They have the outward form of an ordinary
Greek letter. In the hands of the great apostle the usual epistolary form
became a powerful means of religious inspiration and instruction. Even
Paul’s enemies admitted: "He letters are weighty and strong"
(2 Cor 10:10, RSV). They were, and still are, a forceful and powerful
means of spreading the Christian faith.
Although the exact date of the production of the Gospels is not known, it
apparently was not before about the sixties of the 1st century. Most
scholars today believe that Mark (Mk.) was the earliest and John (Jn.) is
the latest of the four Gospels. While Mark was not one of the 12
apostles, he was, according to early Christian writers, a companion and
interpreter of Simon Peter. In addition, we were told that John Mark was
also closely associated with the Early Church in Jerusalem, because his
mother’s home was a gathering place for Christian (Acts 12:12).
According to early Christian tradition, Mark got much of the
information for his Gospel from the keen-eyed observations and
recollections of Simon Peter. This Gospel was written in Rome to
preserve the deeds and the words of Jesus, in part, at least, as Peter
proclaimed them.
The Gospel according to Mathew was probably written in Antioch in

Syria. It was based largely upon a collection of the sayings of Jesus,
probably written down by Apostle Mathew himself, plus the material
found in Mark. Interestingly, the Gospel according to Luke was written
particularly for Greek readers by Luke, the beloved physician and travel
companion of Paul. It is the first volume of a narrative on the beginnings
of Christianity from the birth of John the Baptist to the 2-years’
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imprisonment of Paul in Rome (A.D. 61-63). Scholars refer to this
2-volume work as Luke-Acts of the Apostles (Lk. – Acts). Luke was not
an eyewitness (Lk 1:1-4).
Toward the end of the 1st century, John, the last surviving apostle of
Jesus in the days of His flesh, recorded his remembrances of Jesus’ life
and sayings, together with his meditations on them, in such a way as to
supplement the earlier Gospels. This Gospel has appropriately been
called "Love’s Memory of Love Incarnate." (S.D.A. Bible Encyclopedia
Vol. 8).
3.3 Contents of the New Testament
You need to know that the Gospels are books of faith containing the
good news of God’s provision for man’s salvation through Jesus Christ,
while the Acts of the Apostles presents an account of the beginnings of
the Christian Church. Also Paul’s letters were originally written to
specific churches and individuals to meet particular religious needs, but
under the inspiration of God they have had abiding value for all
Christians in all ages. And without any doubt, the same is true of the
general epistles of Peter, James, John, and Jude. The book of Revelation,
with its symbolism, presents the final victory of Christ and His kingdom
over the forces of evil. These books though written in the 1st century,
have had a message for Christians in every age, and speak with special
force today to you.
It is said that the majority of New Testament scholars throughout

Christian history have agreed that the original language of the NT was
Greek. However, to many of the writers of the New Testament, Greek
was a secondary language, hence a few scholars have advocated that the
4 Gospels and part of Acts were originally written in Aramaic, the native
tongue of Jesus and the Apostles.
Unfortunately, it is said that the autographs, that is, the original

documents in the authors’ own handwritings, have all disappeared.
These were written probably on papyrus, a fragile substance (see
Writing Materials) that could not survive long in damp climates. Of the
copies of these autographs only a few from the first 3 centuries, have
survived. Before the age of printing, copies were laboriously written out,
such copies being called manuscripts (Latin manuscriptum, "written by
hand"). But since there are no perfect copyists, there are no two
manuscripts of the NT exactly alike. Gradually, through repeated
copying, various mistakes crept into the text of the NT; however, there
was none of so serious a nature as to affect any major doctrine. Where
variant readings exist it is the task of the modern scholar to determine if
40
possible the original authentic reading. This is the science of textual
criticism, and you may join hands to authenticate – original manuscript.
3.4 The Division of the Bible into Chapters and Verses
Other Bible Encyclopedia has furnished the following information about

the division of the Bible into chapters and verses. It is said that,
originally the books of the Bible were not divided into chapters and
verse. Divisions of the book of the NT into various sections were made
as early as the 4th cent. Our modern chapter divisions were made in the
early 13th century by Stephen Langton, of the University of Paris and
afterward, Archbishop of Canterbury. Verse divisions were not made
until the age of printing. It is also confirmed that no Greek manuscript
has them. However, in 1551, Robert Estienne, while making a horseback
journey from Paris to Lyons, divided his Latin New Testament into
7,959 verses. It is said that his object in making the verses was
apparently twofold. Firstly, he was preparing a concordance to the NT
which his son Henry finally published in 1594, and hence desired small
divisions for ready reference. Secondly, he was preparing to publish a
NT with the Greek in the center, and Erasmus’ Latin translation on one
side Jerome’s on the other, the verse divisions of which would afford a
ready comparison of the exact words. Henry Estienne says that his father
did the work inter equitandam, while riding", which probably means
during intervals on the journey. If the verses were actually made while
he was on horseback some of the unfortunate divisions may be due to
the jogging of the horse at the wrong place. Estienne’s 4th edition of the
Greek NT, which appeared in 1551 in 2 small volumes at Geneva, was
the first to contain the verse divisions. The earliest English NT to have
them was William Whittingham’s translation of 1557, published at
Geneva.
3.5 Canonization of the Books of the New Testament
The Greek word "kanon" means "measuring rod". Its technical usage in
the church was to describe the books read publicly in the
congregations and regarded as having special authority. The early
Christians accepted as reliable, only these books written by an apostle or
a companion of an apostle. To be recognized as canonical a document
had to have a wide acceptance among Christians throughout the
Mediterranean world. They judged a work on the basis of content, its
inner consistency, its harmony with the rest of Scripture, and its general
harmony with Christian experience.
Hurlbut said that the establishment of these books, as the canon or rule
of faith, possessing divine authority, was not immediate. He added that
not all these books were accepted everywhere as inspired Scripture.
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Some of them, notably Hebrews, James, II Peter and Revelation, were
accepted in the East, but rejected for many years in the West. He
explained that, on the other hand some books not now considered as
belonging to the Bible were also accepted and read in the East, such as
the Shepherd of Hemas, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles, and the Apocalypse of Peter. By slow degree the New
Testament books as we now have them gradually took the rank of
Scripture, and the other books dropped out of use in the churches.
Hurlbut argued that the Councils that were held from time to time did
not choose the books to form the canon; they ratified the choice already
made among the churches. No precise date can be given for the full
recognition of the New Testament as it is at present, but it cannot be
placed earlier than 300 A.D. (Hurlbut, 1981).
The Bible Encyclopedia also gives further insight to the development of

the New Testament Canon. It is said that by the beginning of the second
century, at any rate, a collection of Paul’s writings, bearing the name
Apostolos, "The Apostle," began to circulate. The letter from the church
at Rome to the church at Corinth, most probably written by Clement
toward the end of the last decade of the first century, contains the
admonition, "Take up the epistle of the blessed apostle Paul…”.
It is clear, then, that by the middle of the second century, two great
collections of Christian documents had been formed: the Gospel and
letters of Paul. When the 4 (four) Gospels became a single corpus, Acts
was separated from Luke’s 2-volume work and left by itself. But it
shared the same authority and prestige as Like’s Gospel. Besides, it
provided the sequel to the Gospels, as well as gave an appropriate
introduction to Paul’s letters. Hence it became the connecting link
between the 2 collections. These 2 collections, with Acts as the vital link
between them, constitute the solid core of the NT canon.
It is also said that, the letters of Paul evidently formed the literary
pattern for the 7 other epistles: Jas, 1 and 2 Pet, 1, 2 and 3 Jn, and Jude.
These so-called catholic, or general, epistles apparently made their
canonicity individually and were recognized. There is no evidence that
they were formed into another collection. Rather they seem to have been
individually added to the Apostle as their canonicity was recognized.
Revelation is in a category by itself, though after presenting the
introductory vision of the transcendent Christ, it contains seven (7)
letters addressed to churches in Asia Minor. The writer was conscious of
being a prophet and that his messages were a product of divine
revelation (Rev. 22:6,7). It was therefore to be read publicly in church
(ch 1:3). Nevertheless it was not at once universally accepted as
canonical.
42
Again, it is stated that the appearance of heretics and heretical books in
the church hastened the process of canonization. Marcion, about A. D.
140, sought to reform the church, which in his view had become
polluted with Judaism. He completely rejected the OT and held that
even the teachings of the 12 apostles were contaminated with Jewish
ideas. Therefore, according to him, the only genuine apostle, he held,
was Paul. Hence he formed a canon consisting of Luke (the Gospel),
purged of its Jewish accretions, plus 10 epistles of Paul (the
Apostolikon), excluding the pastorals and Heb. To these he added a
treatise of his own called Antitheses. Without missing words Marcion’s
limited canon forced the church to take a stand on the matter of religious
books. The church of the second century was fully persuaded that the
OT was Christian Scripture, that there were four authoritative Gospels,
not one, and that thirteen, not ten epistles of Paul were to be accepted,
and that other general epistles were to be included.
3.6 Muratorian Fragment
Interestingly as recorded, the earliest extant list of the NT books

accepted by the church is contained in the Muratorian Fragment, a
mutilated extract of a canon made at Rome about 180 A. D. It not only
consists of a list of books but also contains statements regarding the
authorship, destination, occasion, and purpose of each.
It is said that Irenaeus, who was originally from Asia Gaul, Tertullian
from the Church of North Africa and Clement of Alexandria who were
the foremost Church Fathers of the second century are in general
agreement with the Muratorian Fragment on most of the books to be
accepted as canonical: The 4 Gospels, 13 letters of Paul, Acts, 1 Pet., 1
Jn, and Rev. The inclusion of the "minor catholic epistles" – James, 2
Pet., 3 Jn, and Jude – was disputed for many years. This was true of
Hebrew in the West. While Revelation was accepted in the West, its
place in the canon was disputed in the East. There were some books that
are outside the canon today that at one time were on the fringes of the
NT, such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the
Didache.
It will interest you to note that the 4th century was marked by
authoritative pronouncements by bishops and councils regarding the
limits of the canon. For instance Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, and
the leading theologian of the Eastern church, included in his 39th festal
letter addressed to his bishops a list of the books of the Bible, the 1st to
contain the 27 books of the Bible of the NT exactly as we have them.
"These," he declared, "are springs of salvation, so that the thirsty can fill
himself… and in these alone is the good news of the teaching of true
religion proclaimed; let no one add to them or take away from them." It
43
should be noted that this letter is important, for his influence extended
over all Greek – speaking churches in the East, among whom there were
doubts concerning the canonicity of Revelation and several other
epistles.
May be you should know that there was no general Council of the
Church before the 16th cent. Council of Trent made a pronouncement on
the canon. Decisions by local councils, however, were made, which
were binding in the provinces represented, and would be regarded as
more or less normative in other areas where they were sent. For
example, a small Council was held at Laodicea in 363, but there is
considerable doubt regarding the genuineness of the final canon giving
the list of NT books. Also in 382 a Council of Rome declared the
acceptance of several epistles including Hebrews, formerly doubted
(Revelation was not doubted in the West). In North Africa the Council
of Hippo, in 393, and the third Council of Carthage, in 397, ratified this
canon and placed all other books to a place in the canon. The canon was
now regarded as fixed and inviolable.
Finally, you should note that the Church did not create the canon or
confer canonicity upon its books. The initiative in the production and
collection of the sacred books rested with God. The Church could only
recognize and receive in faith the documents produced by divine
inspiration. The development of the canon was a gradual process,
presided over by the Spirit of God. True, regional Church Councils
passed upon the canon of scripture, but the reasons for accepting the
present canon lie deeper than the authority of these Councils; they are
based upon conviction that the hand of God led in the formation of the
canon.
3.7 Sects or Heresies
Hurlbut said that, the Christians of the second and third centuries battled
not only against a persecuting heathen world, but also against heresies
and corrupt doctrines within their own fold. We can notice only a few of
the most important among the sects of that period. The first to be
considered is Gnostics.
3.7.1 The Gnostics
Hurlbut said that The Gnostics (derived from the Greek word gnosis,
"knowledge") are not easy to define, because they are so varied in their
doctrines in different localities and at different periods. According to
him, most of them arose in Asia Minor- that hot-bed of wild
imaginations- and were a grafting of Christianity upon paganism.
Gnostics believed that out of the supreme God emanated a large number
44
of inferior deities, some beneficent, others malignant; and through these,
the world with its mingled good and evil, was created; that in Christ as
one of these "emanations," the divine nature was for a time indwelling.
The worse still, they interpreted the Scriptures in an allegorical manner,
making every statement mean whatever the interpreter saw fit. Even
though they flourished throughout the second century, they also
disappeared with it.
3.7.2 The Ebionites
The second sect to consider is the Ebionites: The Ebionites (from a

Hebrew word meaning "poor") were Jewish Christians who insisted that
the Jewish laws and customs should be observed. As stated earlier in
this paper, the Ebionites rejected the writings of Apostle Paul, because
these recognized Gentiles as Christians. They were despised by the Jews
as apostates, and found little sympathy from the Gentile Christians, who,
after 70 A.D., were dominant in the church. The Ebionites gradually
dwindled away in the second century.
3.7.3 Maniches
The thirds sect for our consideration is the Maniches or Manicheans,

who were of Persian origin. They were named from their founder Mani,
who was put to death 276 A.D. by the Persian government His teachings
were that the universe is two kingdoms, one of light and one of
darkness, each striving for mastery in nature and in man. They rejected
Jesus, but believed in a "celestial Christ". They were severe in
asceticism, and adjured marriages; were persecuted by both the heathen
and the Christian emperors. Augustine, the greatest theologian of the
church, was a Manichean before his conversion.
3.7.4 The Montanists
The fourth group is the Montanists, named after founder, Montanus.

Perhaps, they should scarcely be classed among the heretical sects,
though the church condemned their teachings. The following are their
characteristics:
(i) It is said that they were Puritans, claming to return to the

simplicity of the primitive Christians.
(ii) It is said that they believed in the priesthood of all true believers,
and not in orders of the ministry
(iii) They also sought for strict disciplines in the church
(iv) They held to prophetic gifts as the privilege of disciples, and had
many prophets and prophetesses in their membership.
45
Interestingly, Tertullian, one of the greatest among the early
fathers, embraced their views, and wrote in their defense.
3.8 Beliefs of the Early Christian Church
Perhaps, it is safe to state that the doctrines of the Early Christian

Church were very simple and practical. They often summarized what
they believed. Tim Dowley says that, these summaries varied according
to the contexts in which they were used, the writers or churches, which
produced them, and the errors or attacks they had to resist. In addition to
statements made at baptism (for example, Acts 8:37) and solemn
commands (for example, Acts 3:6 and 2 Timothy 4:1), scholars have
discovered summaries of the teaching of the apostles (for example, 1
Corinthians 15:3 and 4), as well as statements of belief in hymn form:
(Christ) appeared in human form,

Was shown to be right by the Spirit,
And was seen by angels
He was preached among the nations
Was believed in the world
And was taken up to heaven.
For instance, some formulas mention Christ alone, for example: ‘Jesus is
the Christ’ (for a Jewish setting) or, more widely: ‘Jesus is Lord’
(1 Corinthians 12:3). Persecutors often demanded that Christians should
curse Christ and say: ‘Caesar is Lord’. Other formulas include God the
Father too (1 Corinthians 8:6; 1 Timothy 2:5), while forms naming
Father, Son and Spirit appear in baptism (Matthew 28:19), worship
(2 Corinthians 13:14) and summaries of doctrine (Ephesians 4:4-6).
Tim Dowley says that, one important outline of basic Christian beliefs in
the late second and early third centuries were the ‘Rule of Faith’. Origen
described it as: ‘the teaching of the church preserved unaltered and
handed down in unbroken succession from the apostles’. In reality it
indicated what particular writers or churches taught, especially against
heretics, but also to new converts, as the central message of the Bible.
The Rule was also known by several other names: ‘the faith’, ‘the
tradition’, ‘the preaching’ and the ‘Rule of Truth’. It claimed to
represent an apostolic tradition of teaching, and was even appealed to in
the dispute over the Christian Pascha.
However, later writers, such as Ignatius, Aristides, Justin Martyr and

Irenaes recorded more elaborate declarations of faith. It is said that
Irenaeus’ own was the first clearly identifiable Rule. Its main content
was as follows: …this faith: in one God, the Father Almighty, who made
the heaven and the earth and the seas and all things that are in them; in
46
one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was made flesh for our salvation;
and in the Holy Spirit, who made known through the prophets the plan
of salvation, and the coming, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion
and the resurrection from the dead, and the bodily ascension into heaven
of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and his future appearing from
heaven in the glory of the Father to sum up all things and to raise up
anew all flesh of the whole human race ….
That was the beginning of the doctrinal development of the Christian

Church, and as stated earlier, meant to defend the faith and instruct new
believers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has helped you to know the background to the production of
your New Testament. The 27 books that are finally selected are
considered as the inspired words from the Lord. They are good for
instructions, edification and teaching. Now that you have the basic
understanding of the origin of your New Testament Bible, you will do
well to move to the unit where you shall study the life of the Church
Fathers and their involvement in the Formation of Liturgy and Creeds.
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, you would have understood the
following points:
(i) The composition of the books of the New Testament and their
authors.
(ii) The New Testament Canon was of gradual process.
(iii) Christian Local Provinces with their Church Fathers, made their
decision as to which books to be accepted into the New
Testament into the New Testament Canon.
(iv) Some of the heretical groups were the Gnostics who were
followers of a variety of religious movements in the early
Christian centuries, the Ebonites, the Maniches and the
Montanists.
(vi) The simple teachings of the Early Christian Church as presented.
47
Discuss the following:
1. The origin of the New Testament

2. The canonization of the books of the New Testament as a gradual
process
3. The early Christian Church and heresies
4. The development of the beliefs of the early Christian Church.


Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman, (1981). The Story of the Christian Church, Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 35-40
Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996). Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity.

Singapore: Lion Publishing Plc. pp. 130-136.

The Barth Press.
48
UNIT 5 THE CHURCH FATHERS AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF LITHURGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Church Fathers Defined
3.2 John Chrysostom
3.3 Theodore
3.4 Eusebius
3.6 Western Post Nicene Fathers:
3.7 Ambrose
3.8 Jerome
3.9 Augustine
3.10 Development of Liturgy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses the lives and contributions of the Church Fathers to
the growth and stability of the Early Church. In the previous unit, you
have studied that the early Christian Church faced both internal and
external foes.
For instance, the Imperial Persecutions came from outside the Church
and were beyond the Christians’ control. Perhaps, the most damaging
battle against the Church was the internal one, manifested in false
teachings, or spurious philosophies that went contrary to the Gospel.
These fathers, through their preaching and writings, fought gallantly to
preserve the purity of the Early Christian Church. Therefore, in this unit
you will appreciate more, the unique role played by the Church Fathers
to handover the Christian Church to generations after them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• narrate the life and time of John Chrysostom

• identify the achievements of Theodore in the area of exegetics
• narrate the story of Eusebius of Caesarea, the father of Church
History
• list the contributions of Ambrose to Christian growth
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• narrate the story of Augustine, the prince of all Church Fathers
• identify Jerome and his contributions to the Church
• describe the growth of liturgy in the Church.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Church Fathers Defined
The term Church Fathers designates the orthodox theologians of the

church during the first several centuries after Christ. Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia describes the term as the “name given by the
Christian church to the writers who established Christian doctrine
before the 8th Century”.
They defended the truth of God’s Word against heretical teachings.

They were leaders raised up by God to preach true doctrine and practice.
In their writings you will find the history, teachings, and traditions of the
Early Church. Therefore, the Church Fathers whose work came before
the Council of Nicaea were known as Ante-Nicene fathers, whether they
were apostolic fathers, apologists or polemicists. These Apostolic
Fathers had to fight against an enemy that destroyed limb and life, an
enemy threatening the body of Christ, his Church, from without.
After them came the earlier and later Church Fathers who lived between
the Council’s of Nicaea 325 A.D. and Chalcedon 451 A.D. The
outstanding ones lived in the era of external quiet, during the reign of
Constantine the Great and his successors. But despite its quietness, it
was also an era in which destructive and heretical doctrines were taught,
for the enemy from within tried to destroy the Church by leading it into
gross error. One of these enemies was Arius, who denied the Godhead
of the Lord Jesus; he taught that Christ was created and that he was not
the eternal Son of the Father. Therefore, in this unit, you will also study
Post-Nicene Fathers. The first to consider is John, who was later known
as Chrysostom.
3.2 Chrysostom (ca. 347-407) – Expositor and Orator
John was called Chrysostom shortly after his death because of his
eloquence. He literally deserved the name which means "golden-
mouthed." John was born about 347 A.D. into a wealthy aristocratic
family of Antioch. His mother was Authusa, who became a widow at the
age of twenty, but refused to remarry in order that she might devote all
her time to her son’s education.
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It is said that Chrysostom lived a pure, simple life that was a rebuke to
his highly placed wealthy parishioners in Constantinople. Extremely
ascetic in his insistence on simplicity of life and inclined to mysticism,
he did not always possess tact; but he did have a courteous, affectionate,
kindly nature. Though he was a giant in moral and spiritual stature, he
was short and thin. His emaciated, baldhead, and piercing bright eyes
made a lasting impression on his hearers (Cairns: 1981).
Chrysostom was said to be a student of the friend of Emperor Julian.

This man gave him a good training in the Greek classic and the rhetoric
that laid the foundation for his excellent speaking ability. For a time he
practiced law, but after his baptism in 368 A.D. he became a monk.
After his mother’s death in 374 A.D, he practiced a severely ascetic life
until 380 A.D. During this time he lived in a cave on a mountain near
Antioch. Ill health stopped this severe regime (Cairns: 1981).
Perhaps some years of study under Diodorus of Tarsus had something to

do with his ability as an expositor. About 640 of his sermons are still
extant, and even a reading of the cold print gives one some idea of his
sermons are expositions of Paul’s Epistles.
He taught that there must be no divorce of morals and religion; the Cross
and ethics must go hand in hand. It is little wonder that he was and still
is hailed as the greatest pulpit orator the Eastern Church ever had. John
was ordained in 386 A.D., and preached some of his best sermons in
Antioch until 398 A.D. In that year he was made the patriarch of
Constantinople. He held this position until Empress Eudoxia finally
banished him in 404 A.D. because he had denounced her extravagant
dress and her placing a silver statue of herself near Saint Sophia, where
he preached. He died in exile in 407.
3.3 Theodore (ca. 350-428) – Exegete
Another noted church father you will now study is Theodore of

Mopsuestia. Theodore has been rightly called "the prince of ancient
exegetes". In Cairns (1981), Theodore is said to have studied the
Scriptures- for about ten years- under Diodorus of Tarsus. This good
education was made possible by his birth into a wealthy family. He was
ordained a presbyter in Antioch in 383 and became the bishop of
Mopsuestia in Cilicia about 392 A.D.
He opposed the allegorical system on a thorough understanding of the

grammar of the text and the historical background of the text in order to
discover the meaning of the writer. He also gave careful attention to the
text in its immediate and its more remote contexts. This type of study
made him an able commentator and theologian. Some of his major
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contributions are commentaries on such books of the Bible as
Colossians and the letters to the Thessalonians. Perhaps it should be
stated that both he and Chrysostom had a healthy influence on the
interpretation of the Bible in their day. Therefore, without dispute, their
work was a marked contrast to the strained interpretations of Scripture
that resulted from the use of the allegorical method of interpretation.
3.4 Eusebius (ca 265-ca.339) - Church Historian
The third Church Father you will study is Eusebius. Cairns (1981) states
that Eusebius of Caesarea was one of the most widely studied of the
Church Fathers. Eusebius of Caesarea has as much right to the title of
“Father of Church History” as Herodotus has to the title “Father of
History”. It is said that after having a good education under Pamphilus at
Caesarea, Eusebius helped his friend Pamphilus to build up his library in
that city. According to Cairn, Eusebius was an assiduous student and
read everything he could obtain that might help him in his research. He
excerpted widely from both profane and sacred literature. Much
literature of his day that might otherwise have been lost has been
preserved because these excerpts were quoted in his works.
Eusebius’ personality was one that fitted him for such scholarly pursuits.
He was of a gentle and agreeable disposition and disliked the quarrels
engendered by the Arian heresy. He was given a place of honor at the
right hand of Constantine at the Council of Nicaea and, like him,
preferred a compromise between the parties of Athanasius and Arius. It
was the Caesarean Creed, put forth by Eusebius of Caesarea that the
Council of Nicaea modified and accepted. The following is considered
as his achievements to the history of the Christian Church;
(a) His greatest work is Ecclesiastical History, a survey of the

history of the Church from apostolic times until 324. His purpose
was to make a record of the past trials of the church at the end of
its long period of struggle and the beginning of its era of
prosperity this work is especially valuable to day because
Eusebius had access to the fine library at Caesarea and the
imperial archives.
(b) Eusebius also wrote the Chronicle, a universal history from the
time of Abraham until 323 A.D. The "Chronological Canons,"
which is a part of the Chronicle, provided the conventional
chronological framework for medieval history. His Life of
Constantine was written somewhat as an appendix to this History
and is an excellent, though somewhat laudatory, source of
information concerning the doings of Constantine as they were
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related to the church. He also wrote a laudatory biography of
Constantine.
(c) The historical work of Eusebius was continued by two successors

Socrates and Sozomen who did not always measure up to the
high standard of reliability set by him. Together with Eusebius,
these men are the chief ecclesiastical authorities for the history of
the ancient church (Earle E. Cairns; 1981).
Now that you have studied the lives in achievements of the above
Church Fathers, who were of the Eastern origin, or who served there,
you will also do well to study briefly lives of the following Church
Fathers from the West. These are, Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine.
3.5 Ambrose (339-397 A.D.)
Perhaps, firstly, you should study the life, time and achievements of
Ambrose. In S.M Houghton (2001) Ambrose is said to be the son of a
Roman governor in Gaul (France). Educated in the law in Rome he
entered the Emperor’s service and was stationed in the province in
which the city of Milan stands. It is also said that, while he was there the
bishop of the city died and a division arose among the people over the
choice of a successor. Probably certain of the people wanted a bishop
who held the heresy of Arius, while others wanted a bishop who held to
the doctrine formulated by the Council of Nicea. As there was the
probability that a riot might ensue, Ambrose, as governor, attended the
gathering and spoke to the people, urging them to conduct themselves in
an orderly and Christian manner. Suddenly the voice of a child (as was
supposed) was heard, saying ‘Let Ambrose be our bishop’.
It is said that from all sides the cry was heard, ‘Ambrose is our bishop,
Ambrose is our bishop’. The startled governor responded to the call,
even though he had not yet submitted to Christian baptism. He felt that it
came from God; he was baptized, taken into the Christian ministry, and
confirmed in the office of bishop in little more than a week.
Ambrose was a true gentle man. He was a man of courage who stood
firm for the right. He was an eloquent preacher full of grace and pleasant
words. He will however, forever be remembered for one event in
particular. It concerned the Emperor Theodosius who made Christianity
the sole religion of Romans in his EDICT of 380 A.D. Though a
professed Christian and a member of the church had massacred 7,000 of
the city of Thessalonica, as punishment for a rebellion in which Roman
officers had been killed. It is said that after that ugly incidence, Ambrose
wrote a letter condemning the act. Afterwards the Emperor came to
worship at Milan and intended to present himself at the Lord’s Table.
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But Bishop Ambrose, had earlier made up his mind not to receive the
Emperor at the Lord’s Table, he therefore quickly met him at the
entrance to the church building, and said: ‘How will you lift up in prayer
the hands still dripping with the blood of the murdered? How will you,
with such hands, receive and bring to your mouth the body and blood of
the Lord? Get out of here, and do not dare to add another crime to the
one you have already committed’.
And because Ambrose stood his ground, the Roman Emperor made
public confession of his sin and sought forgiveness. It is said that, eight
months passed before he was received at the Lord’s Table. Therefore, in
token of his submission he also issued a law that henceforth the death
sentence against a man should never be carried into effect until thirty
days after it was pronounced.
3.6 Jerome
The second Western Church Father for your study in this unit is Jerome.
He was born in Dalmatia and later settled in Bethlehem in
386A.D.Jerome lived during the same period as Augustine. It is said that
as a youth he spent time in the Catacombs around Rome translating the
many inscriptions. Besides Latin, he acquired an excellent knowledge of
Greek, and was one of the few western scholars who gave attention to
the Hebrew language. In fact he became one of the chief scholars in the
early Church. His greatest work was to translate the Bible from Hebrew
and Greek into Latin. Much of this work was accomplished at
Bethlehem. The title of the translation is known as the Vulgate (that is,
the Bible ‘in common use’) and was the version used throughout the
Middle Ages in the Roman Catholic Church. It was the first book to be
printed when movable type was invented in the middle of the 15th
century. In the 16th century the famous Council of Trent termed it
‘authentic’. Jerome also opposed the Pelagius heresy with much vigour.
He died in or about the year 420 A.D. (S.M. Houghton; 2001).
3.7 Augustine
The last Church Father you will study for now is Augustine of Hippo
Regis. S.M Houghton (2001) rated him as the greatest of all the Church
Fathers. According to him, Augustine shines forth as a bright star in the
firmament of Early Church history. He was born in 354 in the province
of Numidia, North Africa, not very far from ancient Carthage. It is said
that, Patricius, his father, was a pagan, but his mother, Monica, was a
woman in whom all the virtues of a Christian mother were found in
abundance; she excelled in the fervour of her faith, the tenderness of her
affection, and the constancy of her love.
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On the contrary, Augustine’s fathers only concern for his son was that
he should excel in matters intellectual. He knew that his son was highly
gifted. He arranged for him to complete his studies in the city of
Carthage, but there Augustine found the temptations of life too much for
his ardent, sensual nature. He became completely ensnared by the
vanities of the world. It is said that at that point in time, Monica,
however, prayed ceaselessly for her erring son. For long it seemed as if
her prayers were not heard, and that all her entreaties, admonitions and
instructions were lost upon him. In addition it is said that Monica had
specially prayed that her son might not be allowed to leave Africa for
Italy, for she feared that temptations to sin might be even greater there
than in Carthage. Yet in spite of her prayers her son went to Italy. She
feared the worst, but God meant it for the best. After a time spent in
Rome, Augustine went to Milan, and in the providence of God he
became acquainted with Ambrose who took much interest in him. The
sermons of the bishop impressed him greatly. He began to study
Scripture and, by the light of the Holy Spirit, to understand the nature of
sin and grace. The struggle within his heart became painful in the
extreme.
It is reported that, at the age of thirty-one, Augustine was in a garden in

Milan, weeping and calling to God for deliverance from sin. He
despaired of himself. Suddenly he heard the vice of a boy or girl from a
neigbouring house repeating in a kind of chant, ‘Take and read; take and
read’. Without delay he took up the New Testament, and read Romans
13, verses 13-14, the first words on which his eyes fell: ‘Let us walk
honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not in
chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying. But put ye on the
Lord Jesus Christ and make not provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts
thereof’. It is said that almost at once every shadow of doubt melted
away. As it were, there and then Augustine passed from death to life.
We were told that immediately, he went to tell his mother what had
happened. She was close at hand, for she had followed him to Italy.
Finally, her mourning was not turned into joy, and she blessed the Lord
who was able to do exceeding abundantly above all that she had asked
or thought (S.M. Houghton; 2001).
Afterwards Augustine wrote his Confessions, one of the most famous

books of all time, in which he describes the way the Lord led him out of
sin and doubt into grace and truth. In Italy he had become a teacher of
rhetoric, but now he returned to Africa, intending to live in seclusion.
This, however, was not the will of God for him. Instead, he was led to
become bishop of a town called Hippo Regis, in Numidia, and his
splendid talents were devoted to the building of the Church of God in
the West. He died at Hippo in the year 430 A.D.
55
Perhaps, one of his major roles in the Christian Church was his
involvement in Pelagius controversy. It is said that, Pelagius a British
monk, was a dangerous man, for he taught false doctrines. He denied
original sin and asserted that Adam’s sin did not affect the entire human
race. Man he claimed, is not born sinful, but is able to do that God
requires of him, if he only wills to do so. In addition, it is said that
Pelagius taught that the ability to be saved is found in the lost sinner’s
heart if he will but use it. He really denied the necessity for a ‘birth from
above’, for the inward work of the Holy Spirit, and for the intervention
of the unmerited grace of God. Salvation is ‘not of works lest any man
should boast’ (Eph. 2:9) but Pelagius’ teachings were virtually a denial
of this great truth. Augustine was his most powerful opponent and his
writings on these themes have been influential in nearly every period of
Church history since that time. Augustine will be remembered as a man
of who had deeper spiritual insight into the scriptures that any other of
the Church Fathers. It is said of him, that never was a man more
determined and fearless in the defense of the truth he rendered immense
service to the kingdom of God. Perhaps, it should be stated here that
Martin Luther and John Calvin, and indeed the whole Church, under
God stand deeply in his depth (S.M. Houghton; 2001).
3.8 Development of the Liturgy
In this last part of unit five, you will now study liturgy, which is a fixed
form of public worship used in Church. Perhaps, you need to remind
yourself of the Edict of Constantine of 313 A.D. that granted freedom to
Christians. Unfortunately, that freedom led to the practical union of the
Church and the State under Constantine and his successors. This
eventually led to the secularization of the Church. According to E.
Cairns (1981) the Patriarch of Constantinople came under the control of
the emperor, and the Eastern Church became a department of the State.
He further states that, the influx of pagans into the church through the
mass conversion movements of the era contributed to the paganisation
of worship as the Church tried to make these barbarian converts feel at
home within its fold. He also said that this influx of pagans, many of
whom did not become more than nominal Christians, caused the Church
to call upon the state to help enforce discipline by the use of its temporal
power to punish ecclesiastical offenses. Cairns expressed that in 529
A.D., Emperor Justinian, of the Eastern segment of the empire ordered
the closing of the Academy at Athens. Up until that time, pagan Greek
philosophy had been taught there. In addition, discipline became lax
within the church because its resources were overtaxed in handling the
many converts who had been only partially converted from paganism.
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Cairns further contend that the influx of new converts and the growth of
Episcopal power also brought changes in the worship of the church. If
the barbarians who had been used to worshiping images were to find any
real help in the church, many church leaders believed that it would be
necessary to materialize the liturgy to make God seem more accessible
to these worshipers. Therefore, the following is the development of
liturgy in the Christian Church as presented by Cairns (1981):
(i). The veneration of angels, saints, relics, pictures, and statues was
a logical outcome of this attitude. Cairns therefore concludes that
connection with the monarchical state also led to a change from a
simple democratic worship to a more aristocratic, colorful form
of liturgy with a sharply drawn distinction between the clergy and
the laity.
(ii) Sunday became one of the major days in the Church calendar
after Constantine decided that it was to be a day of civic as well
as religious worship.
(iii) The festival of Christmas became a regular practice in the West

about the middle of the fourth century, with the adoption of the
December date that had been previously used by the pagans.
(iv) The Feast of Epiphany, which in the West celebrated the coming
of the Magi to see Christ and in the East Christ’s baptism, was
also brought into the Church calendar.
(v) Accretions from the Jewish sacred year, the gospel history, and
the lives of saints and martyrs led to a steady expansion of the
number of holy days in the church calendar.
(vi) There was also an increase in the number of ceremonies that

could be ranked as sacraments:
(a) Augustine was inclined to believe that marriage should be

regarded as a sacrament.
(b) Cyprian held that penance was vital to the Christian life.
(c) With the increased gap between the clergy and the laity, it was
almost necessary to consider ordination in the light of a
sacrament.
(d) Confirmation
(e) Extreme unction came to be looked on as having sacramental
value about 400 A.D.
(vii) The early theological development of the doctrine of original sin

contributed to the importance of infant baptism. By the beginning
of the third century, Tertullian and Cyprian considered infant
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baptism an accepted fact. Augustine especially emphasized the
importance of baptism.
(viii) The Lord’s Supper occupied the central place in the thinking of
the worshipper and the order of the liturgy. In fact, it was in
process of becoming a sacrifice as well as a sacrament. Cyprian
thought that the priest acted in Christ’s place at Communion and
that he offered "a true and full sacrifice to God the Father". The
Canon of the Mass, which Gregory I altered slightly, emphasized
the sacrificial nature of the Communion service. By the end of
the sixth century all the seven acts that the Roman Catholic
Church regards as sacraments were in use and had an exalted
position in worship. Sacerdotalism, the belief that the substance
of the ordinance is efficacious through the priestly celebrant,
steadily gained ground. This led to an increasing emphasis on the
separation of the clergy and the laity.
(ix) The veneration of Mary
(a) The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus, developed rapidly

in 590 A.D.
(b) This led to the adoption of the doctrines of her immaculate
conception in 1854 A. D.
(c) It also gave birth to the doctrine of her miraculous assumption to
heaven in 1950 A.D.
(d) The false interpretation of Scripture and the mass of miracles
associated with Mary in the apocryphal gospels created great
reverence for her.
(e) The Nestorian and other Christological controversies of the
fourth century resulted in the acceptance of Mary as the "Mother
of God" and entitled her to special honors in the liturgy.
(f) Clement, Jerome, and Tertullian had ascribed perpetual virginity
to Mary.
(g) Augustine believed that the mother of the sinless Christ had never
committed actual sin.
(h) Monasticism, with its emphasis on the virtue of virginity,
strengthened the idea of the veneration of Mary.
(i) These and other considerations led the Roman Church to give
special honor to Mary.
(j) What at first was merely acknowledgment of her exalted position
as Christ’s mother soon became belief in her intercessory powers
because it was thought that the Son would be glad to listen to the
requests of His mother.
(k) The prayer of Ephraim Cyrus before 400 is an early instance of a
formal invocation to Mary.
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(l) By the middle of the fifth century she was placed at the head of
all the saints. Festivals associated with her also sprang up in the
fifth century. The Feast of the Annunciation on March 25, which
celebrated the angelic announcement of the birth of a son to her;
Candlemas on February 2, the celebration of her purification after
the birth of Christ; and the Assumption on August 15, which
celebrates her supposed ascension to heaven, were principal
festivals.
(m) In the sixth century Justinian asked her intercession on behalf of
his empire. By 590 A.D. she had a unique position in the worship
of the Roman church.
(x) The veneration of saints
(a) The veneration of saints grew out of the natural desire of the
church to honor those who had been martyrs in the days when the
church had been severely persecuted by the state.
(b) Furthermore the pagans had been accustomed to the veneration of
their heroes; and when so many pagans came into the church; it
was almost natural for them to substitute the saints for their
heroes and to give them semi divine honors.
(c) Up to the year 300, celebrations at the grave involved only
prayers for the repose of the soul of the saint.
(d) By 590 A.D prayer for them had become prayer to God through
them.
(e) This was accepted at the Second Council of Nicaea. Churches
and chapels were built over their graves.
(f) Festivals associated with their death gained a place in the church
calendar.
(g) Legends of miracles associated with them develop rapidly.
(h) The traffic in relics, such as bodies, teeth, hair, or bones, became
so great a problem that it was ordered to stop in 381 A.D.
(xi) The use of images and pictures in worship expanded rapidly as

more and more untutored converts came into the church. Both
images and pictures materialized the invisible reality of deity.
(xii) Thanksgiving or penitential processions became a part of worship

after 313 A.D.
(xiii) Pilgrimages, at first to Palestine and later to the tombs of notable

saints, became customary. Constantine’s mother, Helena, visited
Palestine in her old age and was supposed to have found the true
cross.
59
(xiv) Government aid and freedom of worship under Constantine led to
extensive building of churches.
(xv) The earliest singing in the church had been conducted by a leader
to whom the people gave responses in some antiphonal singing,
in which two separated choirs sing alternately, developed at
Antioch. Ambrose introduced the practice of antiphonal singing
at Milan, from whence it spread through the Western church.
(xvi) Special vestments for the priests came as the people gave up the
Roman type of dress, while the clergy retained it in the church
services.
(xvii) During this era there arose a special sacerdotal hierarchy under a
dominant Roman bishop, the tendency to increase the number of
sacraments and to make them the main avenues of grace, and the
movement to elaborate the liturgy. These things helped to lay the
foundation for the medieval Roman Catholic Church.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Now that you have gone through the wealth of the experiences of the
Church Fathers, you should be motivated to make your own positive
influence felt in the lives of others within your immediate community
and by extension, the Church of God.
The Church Fathers through their selfless and sacrificed living,

bequeathed to your generation, the history of the Christian Church,
which is of an inestimable value. Therefore, your life must have positive
impact that will lead many to God and worship both in spirit and truth.
5.0 SUMMARY
The main points in this Unit are as follows:
1. The Church Fathers fought both enemies of the Christian Church

within and outside the fold.
2. The Post Nicene Church Fathers that were of the Eastern origin
are: i. Chrysostom ii. Theodore iii. Eusebius Caesarea.
3. Western Post Nicene Church Fathers were:
i. Ambrose ii. Jerome iii. Augustine
4. Some of the services or liturgical practices of Christian Church:
i. Sunday became one of the major days in the Church Calendar

ii. The festival of Christmas became a regular practice in the West
about the middle of the fourth century.
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iii. The feast of Epiphany was brought into the Church Calendar
iv. An increase in the numbers of ceremonies that could be ranked as
sacrament (a) marriage (b) penance (c) ordination (d)
confirmation (e) extreme unction
v. Doctrine of infant baptism
vi. The Lord’s Supper occupied the central place in the thinking of
worshipper and the order of liturgy.
vii. The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus
viii. The veneration of saints grew out of the natural desire.
ix. The use of images and pictures in worship expanded rapidly.
x. Government and the freedom of worship under Constantine led to
extensive building of Churches
Kindly discuss the life and achievement of Augustine of Hippo.Discuss

the development of liturgy in the Church.

the Christian Church., (Rev. & Enlarged Ed.) Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 105-115, 141-149.



The Barth Press.
61
MODULE 2
THE IMPERIAL CHURCH – 313 – 476 A.D
Unit 1 Reconciliatory Councils and Creedal Development

Unit 2 Rise of Monasticism and their developments
Unit 3 The Growth of Power in the Roman Church
Unit 4 The End of Western Roman Empire
Unit 5 Consolidation of Papal Power and the Rise of Islam
UNIT 1 RECONCILIATORY COUNCILS AND

CREEDAL DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Arian Controversy
3.2 The Nature of the Holy Spirit
3.3 The Apollinarian Controversy
3.4 The Pelagian Controversy
3.5 The Development of Creeds
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The first unit of the second module of your course begins with the
Imperial Church. The word imperial connotes some elements of royalty.
It tells of a Church that was fully or partially controlled by Kings,
Queens or Emperors. The period you are now studying was the period,
soon after the cessation of the severe persecution of the Church, that is,
shortly after Emperor Constantine embraced Christianity as his own
religion. Therefore, in this unit, you will study the three prolonged
controversies that occurred between 325 and 451 AD., which were
fundamental to the very existence of the Church. The result of those
disputes led to the numerous Councils of Bishops that were held to find
solutions to the doctrinal issues that shook the Church to its foundation.
Therefore, the following objectives present a clear picture of topics you
are to study.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is expected that by the time you finish studying this unit, you should
be able to:
• define the Arian controversy that arose over the doctrine of the
Trinity
• define the Appollinarian controversy over the nature of Christ
• define the Pelegian controversy over questions relating to sin and
salvation
• identify the role of the Church Councils in the resolution of these
controversies
• state the resolutions of those Councils and their pronouncements
• identify those who participated in the Councils
• describe the development of Creeds in the Church.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Arian Controversy
The problem of the Trinity was one of the bitterest pills ever tasted by
the Church. The problem bothered on the relationships between God the
Father and Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. There were speculative
thinking as to the equality in status and powers of the Godhead.
Therefore the nature and functions of the Trinity led to the dispute.
Earle Cairns shed light on the controversy in the following paragraphs.

According to him, Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, preached to his
presbyters on The Great Mystery of the Trinity in Unity about 318 or
319 A.D. One of the presbyters, Arius, an ascetic scholar and popular
preacher, attacked the sermon because he believed that it failed to
uphold a distinction among the persons in the Godhead. In his desire to
avoid a polytheistic conception of God, Arius took a position that did
injustice to the true deity of Christ.
Cairns said that the issue was soteriological in nature. Therefore the
following questions are to be addressed; Could Christ save man if He
were a demigod, less than true God, and of a similar or different essence
from the Father as Eusebius and Arius respectively asserted? Just what
was His relationship to the Father? Without mincing words, the
controversy became so bitter that Alexander had Arius condemned by a
synod. Arius then fled to the friendly palace of Eusebius, the bishop of
Nicomedia, who had been his schoolmate. Since the dispute centered in
Asia Minor, it threatened the unity of the empire as well as that of the
church. Cairns said that Emperor Constantine made a concerted effort to
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settle the dispute by letters to the bishop of Alexandria and Arius, but
the dispute had gone beyond the power even of a letter from the
emperor. Constantine then called a council of the bishops of the church
to work out a solution to the dispute. This council met at Nicaea in the
early summer of 325 AD. Between two and three hundred bishops of the
church whom were from the Western section of the empire attended the
Council. The emperor presided over the first session and paid all costs.
For the first time the church found itself dominated by the political
leadership of the head of the state. The perennial problem of the
relationship between church and state emerged clearly here, but the
bishops were too busy dealing with theological heresy to think of that
particular problem.
Three views were put forth at the council. Arius, who was backed by
Eusebius of Nicomedia (to be distinguished from Eusebius of Caesarea
and a minority of those present insisted that Christ had not existed from
all eternity but had a beginning by the creative act of God. Arius
believed that Christ was of a different (heteros) essence or substance
from the Father. Because of the virtue of His life and His obedience to
God’s will, Christ was to be considered divine. But Arius believed that
Christ was a being created out of nothing, subordinate to the Father, and
of a different essence from the Father. He was not coequal, coeternal, or
consubstantial with the Father. To Arius He was divine but not Deity
(E. Cairns: 134).
It was said that Athanasius (ca. 295-373) became the chief exponent of
what became the orthodox view. His wealthy parents had provided for
his theological education in the famous catechetical school of
Alexandria. At the council, Athanasius insisted that Christ had existed
from all eternity with the Father and was of the same essence
(homousios) as the Father, although He was a distinct personality. He
insisted on these things because he believed that if Christ were less than
he had stated Him to be, He could not be the Saviour of men. The
question of man’s eternal salvation was involved in the relationship of
the Father and the Son according to Athanasius. He held that Christ was
coequal, coeternal, and consubstantial with the Father; and for these
views he suffered exile five times.
Cairns explain further that the largest party was led by the gentle scholar
and church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, whose dislike of controversy
led him to propose a view that he hoped would be an acceptable
compromise. He proposed a moderate view that would combine the best
ideas of Arius and Athanasius. Over two hundred of those present
followed his views at first. He taught that Christ was not created out of
nothing as Arius had insisted but that he was begotten of the Father
before time in eternity. Christ was of a like (homoi) or similar essence to
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the Father. His creed became the basis of the creed that was finally
drawn at Nicaea, but that one differed from his in its insistence on the
unity of essence of substance of the Father and the Son
Thus Athanasius was made to convince majority of the Council to

condemn the teaching of Arius, in the Nicene Creed of 325 AD.
Athanasius spent his last seven years at Alexandria where he died in 373
AD. His view finally became supreme throughout the Church both East
and West long after his death.
3.2 The Nature of the Holy Spirit
The next controversy was on the relationships of the Holy Spirit to the
Father. The nature of the Holy Spirit came to the focus. How did he
come into an existence? Where is the place of his abode? What are his
responsibilities and how is it functioning? According to Earle Cairns,
Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople between 341 and 360, most
likely taught that the Holy Spirit was "a minister and a servant" on a
level with the angels and that the Holy Spirit was a creature subordinate
to the Father and Son. This was a denial of the true deity of the Holy
Spirit and would be as harmful to the conception of the Holy Spirit as
the views of Arius were to the conception of Christ. The Ecumenical
Council of Constantinople condemned these views in 381. Cairns added
that when the creed of Constantinople, our Nicene Creed, was recited at
the third Council of Toledo in 589, the words "and the Son" (filioque)
were added to the statement "that proceedeth from the Father," which is
concerned with the relationship between the Holy Spirit and the Father
and the Son. Accordingly, the Western churches since then have insisted
on the true deity and the personality of the Holy Spirit as coequal,
coeternal and consubstantial with the Father and the Son (Earle Cairns:
135).
3.3 The Apollinarian Controversy
The next controversy was on Christology which is the relationship

between the natures of Christ. The dispute centered on whether Jesus
Christ was fully man or fully God. According to Jesse L. Hurlbut,
Apollinaris was the Bishop of Laodicea about 360 A. D. He asserted that
the divine nature of Christ on earth was not of men, but God alone in
human form. His view was sharply in contrast to the accepted doctrine
of the Church, that the personality of Jesus Christ was a union of God
and man, deity and humanity in one nature. Although Apollinaris
stressed the deity of Christ, he minimized His true manhood. Therefore
his view was considered heretic and condemned by the council of
Constantinople, 381 A.D. (Jesse L. Hurlbut, p. 68).
65
3.4 The Pelagian Controversy: Anthropology – The Manner
of Man’s Salvation
The heresies and controversy you have studied so far in this unit existed
mainly in the Eastern part of Christendom where speculative
metaphysical theology was more or less a preoccupation of the
rationalistic Greek thinkers. But this controversy that we are now
examining arose from the Western part of the Christendom and was over
questions relating to sin and salvation. For example, Augustine and
Pelagius were concerned with the problem of the nature of how man is
saved. Was man to be saved by divine power only, or was there a place
in the process of salvation for the human will?
Cairn said that Pelagius (ca. 360-ca. 420), was a British monk and
theologian whom Jerome described as "weighed down with the porridge
of the Scots," came to Rome about 400 where, with the help of
Celestius, he formulated his idea of how man is saved. Accordingly, he
soon found that Augustine would have no part of his ideas. Therefore,
he left Rome in 409 A. D. Pelagius was described as a cool, calm
individual, who had known nothing of the struggle of soul through
which Augustine had gone before he was saved. Hence, Pelagius was
more willing to give the human will a place in the process of salvation.
But Augustine had found his world helpless to extricate him from the
morals of sin in which he found himself because of his sinful nature.
Contrary to the view of Augustine, Pelagius believed that each man is

created free as Adam was and that each man has the power to choose
good or evil. Each soul is a separate creation of God and, therefore,
uncontaminated by the sin of Adam. He contended further that the
universality of sin in the world is explained by the weakness of human
flesh rather than by the corruption of human will by original sin.
Therefore, according too him, Man does not inherit original sin from his
first ancestor, although the sins of individuals of the past generation do
weaken the flesh of the present generation so that sins are committed
unless the individual wills to cooperate with God in the process of
salvation. Pelagius stressed further that the human will is free to
cooperate with God in the attainment of holiness and can make use of
such aids to grace as the Bible, reason, and the example of Christ.
Because there is no original sin, infant baptism is not an essential
element in salvation (Earle Cairns, p. 137).
The above view was greatly opposed and rejected by Augustine, the
great bishop of Hippo, who believed in the denial of the grace of God by
insisting that regeneration is exclusively the work of the Holy Spirit.
According to Augustine, Man was originally made in the image of God
and free to choose between good and evil, but Adam’s sin bound all men
66
because Adam was the head of the race. Man’s will is entirely corrupted
by the fall so that he must be considered totally depraved and unable to
exercise his will in regard to the matter of salvation. Augustine believed
that all inherit sin through Adam and that no one, therefore, can escape
original sin. Man’s will is so bound that he can do nothing to bring
about his salvation. Salvation can come only to the elect through the
grace of God in Christ. God must energize the human will to accept His
proffered grace, which is only for those whom He has elected to
salvation (Cairns, p. 138).
Pelagius’s views were condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431, but

neither the Eastern nor the Western church ever fully accepted
Augustine’s views. However, Hurlbut stated that the Council of
Carthage of 418 A. D. condemned the Pelagian view, and the theology
of Augustine became the standard of orthodoxy in the Church (Hurlbut,
p. 68).
3.5 Development of Creeds

Perhaps, the development of Creeds started as reactions against the
heresies that were creeping into the Church. For instance, after the
Council of Nicaea condemned the erroneous teachings of Arius, the
Church in Council immediately produced its own creed so as to exclude
Arian error. Although, orthodoxy gained a temporary victory at Nicaea
by the assertion of the eternity of Christ and the identity of His
substance with that of the Father, the creed formulated here must not be
confused with the Nicene Creed used by the Church today, although that
creed is similar to the one formulated at Nicaea. The creed of 325 A. D.
stops with the phrase "and in the Holy Spirit" and is followed by a
section condemning Arius views (E. Cairns, p. 134).
Tim Dowley has presented the following as the Nicene Creed:
‘We believe in one God, the Father, Almighty, maker of all things
visible and invisible; And in one Lord, Jesus Christ the Son of God,
begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the substance (ousia)
of the Father; God from God, Light from Light, Very God from Very
God, begotten not made, of one substance (homoousios, consubstantial)
with the Father through whom all things were made; both in heaven and
on earth; who for us men and for our salvation came down and was
incarnate, was made man, suffered, and rose again on the third day,
ascended into heaven, and is coming to judge the living and the dead;
‘And in the Holy Spirit.
And those who say: "There was a time when he was not", and: "Before
he was begotten he was not", or those who pretend that the Son of God
is "of another substance (hypotasis) or essence (ousia)" (than the Father)
67
or "created" or "alterable" or "mutable", the catholic and apostolic
church places under a curse.’
In addition to the Council of Nicaea of 325 A. D. there were other

Councils that were held where doctrinal issues were treated. For
instance, Tim Dowley said that Emperor Theodosius, in 381 A. D.,
summoned the Council of Constantinople to reaffirm the faith of Nicaea.
No doctrinal statement put out by the Council has survived, but at the
council of Chalcedon in 451 the Nicene cro9eed regarded as the creed of
Nicaea was appropriately modified.
The Council of Constantinople, republishing the teaching of Nicaea

rather than repeating his wordings, probably independently produced the
Nicene Creed. The following is the Nicene Creed:
‘We believe in one God, the Father, the almighty, maker of heaven and
earth, of all that is seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only Son of God, eternally
Begotten of the Father God from God, Light from the true God,
begotten, not made of one being with the Father. Through him, all things
were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from
heaven; by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate of the
Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under
Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he
rose again in accordance with the scriptures; he ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father, He will come again in glory
to judge the living and the dead and his kingdom will have no end. We
believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from
the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken
through the Prophets.
We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge

one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of
the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. (Tim Dowley, 177).
4.0 CONCLUSION
Throughout this unit you have noticed that the Christian Church went
through stormy voyages, as it were. However, in spite of the
controversies the Church of God landed safely. It should be stated, that
at the dawn of the Reformation some of these doctrines were attacked
and questioned by the Reformers. Christianity got fragmented doctrinal
wise and the resultant effects were untold hardship, suffering,
persecution and gruesome death. In the course of your further studies
you will know more about the episodes.
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5.0 SUMMARY
It is expected that from the study of this unit, you have learnt the
following points:
1. Several reconciliatory councils met on doctrinal issues such as

the Trinity, championed by Arius and Athanasius.
2. The Nature of the Son was also contested by Apollinaria
3. The Nature of the Holy Spirit was also discussed.
4. The questions relating to sin and salvation were bitterly debated.
Pelagasius was one of the leaders of the debate.
5. The role played by the participants in the controversies,
particularly the Bishops was highly commendable.
6. The unique role of the Emperor Constantine as the head of the
Imperial Church was noted.
7. The outcome of those Councils resulted into the formulation of
Creeds that became one of the Christian rules of faith for many
centuries.
8. The resultant effects of the creeds united the Christian Church
throughout the Dark Ages.

1. What will you consider as the reason for the controversies on the
Trinity?
2. Discuss the role of the ‘creed’ in the Christian Church.
3. Discuss the role of Emperor Constantine at Council of
Nicaea of 325 A. D.

the Christian Church, (Rev. & Enlarged Ed.) Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 131-139.

Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman. The Story of the Christian Church, Grand

Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House 1981, pp. 67-68.

Singapore: Lion Publishing Plc., pp. 164-184.
Houghton, S.M. (2001). Sketches from Church History, Great Britain:

The Barth Press.
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UNIT 2 THE RISE OF MONASTICISM AND THEIR
DEVELOPMENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Monasticism Defined
3.2 Asceticism and the Bible
3.3 Factors that led to the Establishment of Monasteries
(Cairns p.151-2)
3.4 The Origin of Monasticism
3.5 The Founders of Monasteries
3.6 Life in Monasteries
3.7 Benefits of Monasticism (p.154-5)
3.8 Negative Effects of Monasticism (P.155)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Monasticism began as a reaction to the worldliness that crept into the

church shortly after the cessation of imperial persecution. You will
recall that Emperor Constantine became the first Christian Emperor who
gave recognition to Christianity. His acceptance of the Christian faith
also encouraged most of his subjects to embrace Christianity. Most of
them joined the church not because they were converted, rather, to give
moral support to the Emperor.
In addition, the Roman society became prosperous as a result of the

conquests of other nations, particularly, Carthage. There were many
slaves in Rome that were purchased and made domestic servants. The
influx of many people from other nations to Rome also added to the
affluent society. The pleasures and comforts were visible to an extent of
lowering the moral standards of the Roman society. With an abundance
of wealth and comfort, there developed a serious laxity regarding the
orderliness and security of the Empire. The Church of God lost her
spirituality and almost became a social gathering. That unfortunate
development in the church became very appalling and was abhorred by
few Christians who longed for spirituality. They therefore, decided to
live a life of more rigorous practice of the faith than normal for the
average Christian. They thereby withdrew from society and sought
solitude. They tried to achieve a pure Christianity and a deep
70
communion with God, which they considered unattainable in the
existing churches. Perhaps, this brief introduction to this interesting
subject will spur you into an action to study more details about
monasticism as expressed in the following objectives.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the study of this unit, you should be able to:
• trace the origin of Monasteries

• narrate the story of the founders of monasteries
• identify what the Bible says about asceticism
• describe Christian ascetics and monks
• identify the first monks
• define the monastic order
• enumerate the benefits of monasticism
• describe the negative effects of monasteries.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Monasticism Defined
S.M. Houghton defines Monasticism as a life apart from the world, a life
almost exclusively devoted to meditation and prayer in accordance with
certain rules and regulations prescribed by the founders of the various
‘Orders’ of monks. According to Houghton, Monasticism in its origin,
however, can be traced to the hermit’s life, a hermit being a person who
desires to lead a solitary life in some secluded place, without any contact
with other human beings.
3.2 Asceticism and the Bible
Perhaps, it is appropriate to find out what the Scriptures have to say

about the topic in question. Tim Dowley said that parts of the New
Testament have been held to encourage asceticism; but there it is
advocated for practical reasons, with no suggestion that it is especially
praise worthy. Jesus said that ‘there are some who are eunuchs for the
sake of the kingdom of God’, but this was specifically ‘for those who
can receive it’. Similarly, Paul’s preference for the single life was based
on his feeling that Christ’s return might come very soon and that
marriage ties might impede evangelism.
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Tim Dowley states that, on the other hand, the New Testament strongly
condemns some types of asceticism. Jesus rejected the Pharisees’
scruples over clean and unclean food, and Paul attacked the teaching
that it was wrong to marry or to eat certain foods.
Dowley agrees that, the Jews had traditions of asceticism, both

individual and communal, reaching back into the Old Testament. The
Nazarite vow involved temporary abstinence from wine and other
restrictions. Later in Israelite history, prophets gathered into special
groups for teaching and prayer, under the leadership of notable holy men
such as Elisha.
Regular puritanical groups, such as the Rechabites, came into being

later; they kept apart from normal Israelite life and aimed at a purer and
more faithful devotion to God.
Accordingly, Dowley explains further that in New Testament times

there were both individual and communal ascetics in Palestine.
Josephus, the Jewish historian, mentions that he received some of his
teaching from a hermit called Banus. John the Baptist, living a solitary
ascetic life in the Judean desert, also represents this tradition. On the
communal side, the best knowns are the Essenes, of whom the group at
Qumran who produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was the most prominent.
But some Essenes lived ascetic lives in the community, as did some of
the Pharisees.
He asserted that, none of the earliest Christians appear to have lived as

hermits or in an ascetic community. Individuals, however, were noted
for their rigour of life and devotion to God. Many non-Christian Jews
for his constant fasting and prayer, for example, admired James the
Lord’s brother. Also, in the early period, any consistent Christian life
was likely to be viewed as extremely ascetic by a morally lax society.
Some noble Roman ladies, who may have been Christian, are reported
by pagan sources to have lived in mourning and seclusion presumably
because they had no time for the pagan social life surrounding them.
The earnestness of these people may have been genuine, and their
intentions sincere, but the whole practice of monasticism is contrary to
the words of Jesus, for he said to his disciples: ‘Let your light so shine
before men, that they may see your good works and glorify your Father
which is in heaven’ (Matt.5:16). Scripture certainly tells Christians that
they are not ‘of the world’ (John 17:14), and are to keep themselves
from worldliness (2 Corth.6:17), but to do this by means of a physical
separation from unbelievers is not possible.
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3.3 Factors that led to the Establishment of Monasteries
May be from the onset, you should acquaint yourself with some of the
factors that led to the establishment of monasteries. Earl Cairns lists
some as follows:
(a) The dualistic view of flesh and spirit, with its tendency to
consider flesh evil and spirit good – so characteristic of the Orient
– influenced Christianity through the Gnostic and Neo-platonic
movements. Retirement from the world would, it was thought,
help the individual to crucify the flesh and to develop the spiritual
life by meditation and ascetic acts.
(b) One should also remember that some Scriptures seem to support
the idea of separation from the world. Paul’s apparent advocacy
of the celibate life in 1 Corinthians 7 is a case in point. The Early
Church Fathers such as Origen, Cyprian, Tertullian, and Jerome
urged celibacy as the correct interpretation of such Scriptures.
(c) Certain psychological tendencies strengthened the desire for a

monastic life. In periods of crisis there is always a tendency to
retreat from the harsh realities about one. The late second and
third centuries saw the beginning of civil disorder that was to
become so prevalent in the later history of the empire. Many left
society for the monastery as a means of escape from harsh reality
and the moral contamination of the times.
(d) With the union of Church and State the possibility of martyrdom
as a pledge of their faith could find a psychological substitute in
the ascetic practices of monasticism. Monasticism also offered a
more individualistic approach to God and salvation than the
formal corporate worship of the times.
(e) History also played a part in the decision of many to accept the
life of the cloister. The increasing number of barbarians crowding
into the church brought many semi-pagan practices into the
church, and puritanical souls revolted against them. The
increasing moral deterioration, especially of the upper classes in
Roman society, caused many to despair of social reform.
Monasticism became a haven for those in revolt against the
growing decadence of the times. It was a living criticism of the
society of the day.
(f) Geography merits some consideration as a factor responsible for

the rise of monasticism. It would have been much more difficult
to carry on the monastic life in areas where the climate was more
73
severe than in Egypt, where the monastic life has its beginnings.
The warm, dry climate and the multitude of caves in the hills
along the banks of the Nile were conducive to separation of the
individual from society. Small gardens, along with the resources
of food provided by the nearby Nile, made securing of food by
the individual fairly easy. Nearness to the desolate, forbidding
scenery of the desert stimulated meditation.
3.4 The Origin of Monasticism
In the previous unit, you studied about doctrinal controversies in the

church that shook the church to its foundation and how the church
finally came up with a set of creeds. Interestingly, while these fiery great
controversies were ranging, another movement began, which in the
Middle Ages grew to immense proportions. This was the rise of the
monastic spirit. Hurlbut said that in the early church there were neither
monks nor nuns. He contends further that the Christians lived in
families, and though keeping apart from idolatrous associations, were
still members of society in general. But in the period now under
consideration we note the beginnings and early progress of a movement
toward the monastic life.
During the days of persecution many Christians tried to find safety in

seclusion, and to grow in holiness and godliness by living a life of
consecration and self-denial. Later, during the reign of Constantine the
Great, when the days of persecution had passed, and the Church and the
world drew together, many more Christians thought they could please
God by separating themselves as far as possible from the world and
living in seclusion; not as hermits, however, for the most part, but in
small companies.
As stated earlier, after Christianity became dominant in the empire,

worldliness crept into the church and became prevalent. Many who
sought a higher life were dissatisfied with their surroundings, and retired
from the world. Either alone or in groups they dwelt in seclusion,
seeking to cultivate the spiritual life by meditation, prayer, and ascetic
habits. This monastic spirit began in Egypt, where it was fostered by the
warm climate and the few necessities for living.
3.5 The Founders of Monasteries
As stated above, Egypt was the birthplace of Monasticism, for it was

there, in the middle of the third century, that a certain Antonius secluded
himself from the world for religious purposes. Houghton said that while
Antonius was a young man he was so deeply impressed by the story of
the rich young ruler (Mark 10:17-27) that he decided to apply the words
74
of Jesus to himself – ‘If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast
and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come,
take up the cross, and follow me’. Houghton further explains that
Antonius sold all his valuable property and distributed the money among
the poor. He then said farewell to the world, to relations and friends, and
lived alone – first near his home, then in a tomb, later in a disused fort,
and finally on a mountain. S. M. Houghton added that, twice a year his
friends brought him food, which he ate with a little salt. He drank
nothing but water. He decided not to comb or cut his hair, except once a
year, at Easter. He never took a bath. Men of his type are often called
anchorites (those who ‘take to the bush’). They believe that thereby they
are able to reach to higher degrees of holiness than others. Antonius, we
are told, lived until he was 106 years of age.
One peculiar form of asceticism was adopted by the pillar-saints, of

whom the first was a Syrian monk, Simeon, called Stylites, "of the
pillar". ‘Stylos’ is the Greek word for a pillar. Simeon imagined that by
living on the top of a pillar, his soul would benefit. Therefore, he left the
monastery in 423 A.D and built in succession several pillars, each higher
than its predecessor, the last one sixty feet high and four feet broad. On
these pillars in turn he lived for thirty-seven years. Thousands emulated
his life, and Syria held many pillar-saints between the fifth and twelfth
centuries. But this form of life never obtained followers in Europe.
The monastic movement in Europe spread more slowly than in Asia and
Africa. The individual, solitary life of the ascetic soon gave place in
Europe to the establishment of monasteries, where work was united with
prayer. Benedict’s Rule, by which the Western monasteries were
generally organized and directed, was promulgated in 529 A.D. The
monastic spirit grew through the Middle Ages (Hurlbut p.69).
Also, Houghton submits that in the West of Europe, monasticism

originated in the work of a monk named Benedict who, having lived for
a time in a cave as a hermit, established a monastery near Naples in the
year 529. Its members were called Benedictines. He further stressed that
the three essential requirements or vows for these monks, as prescribed
by Abbot Benedict, were poverty, chastity, and obedience. By obedience
was meant strict adherence to the laws of the Church and the rules of the
monastic Order. Houghton explains further that the Benedictine Order
became immensely popular and widespread. To it belonged a monk
named Augustine who brought forty monks to Canterbury in Angle-land
(England) in the year 597. Of course, this Augustine and the Augustine
previously mentioned as Bishop of Hippo Regis in North Africa, were
totally different persons, living in different period, but sometimes they
are confused. The Augustine who came to Canterbury established a
Benedictine monastery there.
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In the British Isles, one of the earliest and best-known of monks was
The Venerable Bede who lived at Jarrow-on-Tyne, and is known as ‘the
father of English history’. So far as is known he never traveled outside
the Kingdom of Northumbria. He lived from about the year 673 to the
year 735, and was probably the most learned man of his age in England.
He knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and was familiar with the classical
literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and also with the writings of
Ambrose, Augustine and Jerome. He himself wrote The Ecclesiastical
History of the English Nation which tells us most of the things we know
about the church in England from Roman days until Bede’s death.
3.6 Life in Monasteries
We have already noted the origin of the monastic life in the caves of
Upper Egypt, during the fourth century. In Europe the movement was at
first of slow growth, but the Middle Ages showed a great development
of the monastic spirit, both among men and women. The number of
monks and nuns increased enormously, with results both good and evil.
In the East the early ascetics lived apart, each in his own cave or hut, or
upon his pillar, but in Western Europe they formed communities,
dwelling together. As these settlements grew in size and in number,
some form of organization and government became necessary, and in
process of time four great orders arose.
The Rule of Benedict is based on two activities, prayer and work. The
individual monk, had to show high moral character, and Benedict
insisted that a monk should remain in the same monastery where he had
taken his vows. The abbot was the spiritual head of the monastery and
exercised all the normal discipline.
In every aspect all shall follow the Rule as their guide; and let no one
depart from it without good reason. Let his own inclinations, or brazenly
argue with his abbot... The abbot, for his part, should do everything in
the fear of the Lord and in obedience to the Rule, knowing that he will
have to account to God for all his decisions.
If a brother is insubordinate or disobedient, proud or a grumbler, or in

any way acting contrary to the holy Rule and despising the orders of his
seniors, let him, according to the Lord’s commandment, be privately
warned twice by his seniors. If he does not improve, let him be publicly
rebuked before them all. But if even then he does not correct himself, he
should be excommunicated, if he understands how severe this penalty is.
If however, he is beyond conviction, he should be physically punished.
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The brothers shall take turns to wait on each other so that no one is
excused from kitchen work, unless prevented by sickness or taken up
with some vital business... An hour before each meal the week’s servers
are to receive a cup of drink and a piece of bread over and above their
ration, so that they can wait on their brothers without grumbling or
under fatigue.
At the brother’s meal times there should always be a reading... There

shall be complete silence at table and no whispering or any voice except
the reader’s should be heard. The brethren should pass to each other in
turn whatever food is needed so that no one needs to ask for anything. If
anything should be wanted, ask for it by sign language rather than
speech.
Above all, care must be taken of the sick... Baths should be available to
the sick as often as necessary: to the healthy, and especially the young,
less often. The eating of meat shall also be allowed to the sick and the
delicate to aid recovery. But when they have got better, they shall all
abstain from flesh, as normal.
In winter that is from 1 November until Easter as far as possible they

must get up at the eighth hour of the night, so that they rest for a little
over half the night and rise when they have had a good sleep. But the
time that remains after ‘vigils’ shall be spent in study...
As the prophet says, ‘seven times in the day do I praise thee.’ We will
complete this sacred number seven if, at lauds, at the first, third, sixth,
ninth hours, at vesper time and at compline we carry out duties of our
service.
Idleness is the enemy of the soul. Therefore, at fixed times, brothers

should be in holy reading. We believe these ought to be arranged in this
way: from Easter until 1 October, on coming out of Prime they shall do
the work needing attention until the fourth hour. From the fourth hour
until about sixth hour, they should concentrate on reading. After the
meal on the sixth hour, they shall rest on their beds in complete silence;
anyone who wishes may read to himself as long as he does not disturb
anyone else. None shall be said a little early, about the middle of the
eight-hour; after that they shall work at their tasks until evening.
3.7 Benefits of Monasticism
Without gain saying, monasticism offered a lot of comfort and solace to

the society they lived. The following could be considered as some of the
good results of monasticism:
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Through ages of war, almost of anarchy, there were centers of peace and
quiet in the monasteries, where many in trouble found refuge.
The monasteries gave hospitality to travelers, the sick, and the poor.
Both the hotel and the modern hospital grew out of the hospice or
monastery.
Often the monastery or the convent was a refuge and protection to the
helpless, especially to women and children.
The early monasteries both in Great Britain and on the Continent

promoted agriculture by the example of the monks in the drainage,
control of watercourses, the building of roads, and instruction in
cultivating the soil.
In the libraries of the monasteries were preserved many of the ancient

works in literature, both classical and Christian.
The monks copied books, wrote lives of distinguished men, chronicles

of their own time, and histories of the past. Many of the most precious
religious works, such as the songs of St Bernard and The Imitation of
Christ by a Kempis, have been given to the world by the monasteries.
Without their historical writings, the Middle Ages would be a blank
indeed.
In the education of youth, the monks were the principal teachers, almost
the only teachers; nearly all the universities and schools of the Middle
Ages arose in the abbeys and monasteries.
In the diffusion of the gospel the monks were the early missionaries.
They met the incoming barbarians and converted them to Christianity.
Of these St. Augustine (not the great theologian) who came from Rome
to England (597 A.D.) and St. Patrick, who began the evangelization of
Ireland about 431 A.D. were examples among many monastic
missionaries.
3.8 Negative Effects of Monasticism
It was also observed that there were evil results in the monastic system.
According to Hurlbut, some of these evils were apparent even when the
institution was at its best, but they grew more manifest in the later
periods, when monasticism degenerated, lost its early fervor, its lofty
aims, and its strict discipline. Among these evils were the following:
Monasticism set forth the celibate life as the higher life, which is
unnatural and unscriptural.
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It enforced the monastic life upon untold thousands of the noblest men
and women of their age. Homes were established and families reared,
not by the best men and women, but by those of lower ideals.
It secluded multitudes not only from family life, but also from social,
civic, and national life. Alike in peace and in war, good men who were
needed in the state, were idle in the monasteries.
The growing wealth of the monasteries led to lax discipline, to luxury, to

idleness, to open immortality. Many of the converts became sinks of
iniquity.
Originally the monasteries were supported by the labor of their

occupants; but in the later ages their work almost entirely ceased, and
the monks and nuns were maintained by the revenues of their constantly
increasing property, and by contributions extorted from families, rich
and poor.
All real estate owned by the monastic houses was exempt from taxation.
Thus an increasing and finally insupportable burden was laid upon
society outside the converts. Their rapacity led to their extinction.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Monasticism developed as the Christian Church grew cold on the

spiritual realm. Christians who wanted to worship God in Spirit and in
Truth did not enjoy their fellowship with the influx of the recent
converts whom they described as ‘babies in faith’. They left their
immediate community and hid themselves in caves in wilderness. They
were able to meditate and gave their lives to God. The abuses that
eventually developed in the monasteries became strong warnings to
heaven bound Christians that the only safe ground for any Christian to
dwell is in the presence of the Almighty Father. As one of the gospel
writers says, "All other ground is sinking sand"
5.0 SUMMARY
Perhaps, you have noted during the course of your studies the following
points as major parts of monasticism. These are;
The origin and founders of monasteries.

Factors that influenced their establishments
The Benedictines founded by St. Benedict in 529 A.D.
The benefits of monasticism includes the following:
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a. The monasteries gave hospitality to travelers, the sick and the
poor.
b. Monks promoted agriculture and gave instruction in cultivating
the soil.
c. The monks helped in construction of roads and bridges.
d. Monks became copyists before the invention of the Printing
Press.
e. The monks were principal teachers in the education of the youth.
f. The beginning of nearly all the Universities and Schools in the
Middle Ages could be traced to the abbeys and monasteries.
g. The monks were the early missionaries.
Some of the evil effects of monasticism were considered:
a. It enforced the monastic life upon many people.

b. It secluded thousands from civic, national and social life, because
some of them were idle in the monasteries.
c. The growing wealth of the monasteries led lax discipline and to
open immorality.
1. Discuss the factors that influenced the establishment of

monasteries.
2. Discuss the failures and successes of Monasticism.
3. Discuss the life in Monasteries.

Cairns, Earle. E. (1981). Christianity Through the Century: A History of
Zondervan Publishing House, pp.151-156.

Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 68-69; 105-110.

The Barth Press.
80
UNIT 3 THE GROWTH OF POWER IN THE ROMAN
CHURCH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Founding of Constantinople
3.2 The Organizational Structures of the Roman Church
Fashioned after Imperial Rule
3.3 Assertion of Apostolic Sanction
3.4 Character of Roman Church and Bishops
3.5 Orthodoxy of the Roman Church
3.6 Practical Christianity of Roman Church
3.7 The Relocation of the Capital
3.8 The Missionary Efforts
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You are now studying the third unit of the second module of your
course. This unit will address how the Roman Church came to the
prominent position amongst its equals. It will interest you to note that
there were about six major cities where Christianity had had major
impacts on the lives of their citizens. Some of these were Jerusalem,
Antioch, Alexandria Constantinople and Rome. Most of these Churches
except Rome were situated in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire
with their Patriarchs in charge. Therefore, we shall study in this unit
how the Church in Rome took the prominent place among its equals.
The following objectives will also help you to understand the dynamics
in the growth of the Roman Church.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• list the reasons why Emperor Constantine relocated his

headquarters from Rome to Constantinople
• describe the vacuum of imperial authority at Rome was filled by
Church power
• describe how Rome asserted apostolic authority for its claim
• describe the effect of social ministry in the growth of the Roman
Church.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Founding of Constantinople
As you studied earlier in the previous units, Christianity became the
religion of the Emperor and the Church came directly under the control
of Emperor Constantine. He was the one who chaired the Council of
Nicaea in 325 A. D. where issues on Christian doctrines were resolved.
And as long as Emperors made Rome the seat of their Empire, the
Roman Church was under imperial control. At that time in history,
Patriarchs in other major cities were not under the control of the Bishop
of Rome.
However, Constantine decided to look for a new capital, a better city

where the Roman Empire will be well coordinated. He succeeded in
locating one. He selected the Greek city of Byzantium, situated at the
meeting of the two continents, Europe and Asia. We were told that the
site of the city is so fortified by nature, that in all its history of more than
twenty five centuries it has rarely been taken by enemies while its rival
Rome has been overcome and ravaged many times. The Emperor moved
his capital to the Eastern part of the Roman Empire in 330 A. D. and
named his new capital after himself Constantinople "the city of
Constantine". Interestingly, soon after the Emperor vacated Rome, the
Bishop of Rome made Rome the head of Christendom, although, it was
a gradual process.
Hurlbut said that Rome asserted its right to be the capital. The Roman
Church was therefore gaining power and prestige, and the Bishop of
Rome, now entitled "Papa, father" later modified into Pope, was
claiming the throne of authority over the entire Christian world and
recognized as the head of the Europe west of the Adriatic Sea.
3.2 The Organizational Structures of the Roman Church

Fashioned after Imperial Rule
You will recall that the Roman Empire as an extended empire includes
the Northern part of Africa, Palestine, Jewish nation, some parts of
Middle East and nearly all the nations in the modern day Europe.
Mostly, an Emperor who sometimes ruled arbitrarily governed that vast
Empire. By lifestyle, Emperors were autocratic and absolutely
controlled the affairs of their Empire since there was only one head in
charge of the Roman Empire; the Roman Church also decided to make
the Bishop of Rome the head of the Christian Church. You will
remember that there were other cities that longed to have the spiritual
head resided in their domains, as well. Hurlbut shed more light in this
issue. He said that between the Patriarchs at Jerusalem, Antioch in Syria,
Alexandria, in Egypt. Constantinople, the new Capital of the Roman
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Empire and Rome, there were frequent contests for precedence and
supremacy. Hurlbut added that the struggle was eventually narrowed
down to two, before long. The choice was to be made between the
Patriarchs of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome. Already, the Pope
had followed organizational structures of the Imperial Rome. Since
Rome was the seat of the Imperial authority similarly without any
question, the Bishop of Rome must be the head of Christian Dom. In
addition to that assertion, the Bishop of Rome made use of the scriptures
to lay claim on the Superiority of Rome above other canters. You will
learn this in the next section, which is known as the Apostolic
Succession (Hurlbut P. 71).
3.3 The Assertion of Apostolic Sanction

Perhaps, one is safe to state that not all the History of the Christian
Church is fully made known to us. Some records are authentic to an
extent while some are pseudo in nature. There are many claims although
carefully documented and preserved but lack merits since you and I
were not around at that time in history. Those claims and writings are
subjects of verification or at worse we take them by faith. One of these
claims was the assertion of the Apostolic Sanction.
Hurlbut said that Rome asserted apostolic authority for its claims. He
adds that Rome was the only Church, which could name as its founder
two Apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul. According to Hurlbut, Rome
claimed that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, which is now part of the
tradition. If, accordingly, St. Peter was the first bishop of Rome, and the
meaning of the Greek word bishop means a ruler, then St. Peter might
have ruled with authority over clergyman and the Church, in general.
The bishop of Rome made use of the following two scriptural passages:
Mathew 16:18 and John 21:16&17 "And I tell you, you are Peter, on this
rock I will build my Church" The Bishop of Rome held on to this
quotation to prove that the great Apostle was in the business before
other centers. Additional text is that of John 21:15&17 where Jesus
Christ appeared to his disciples the third time, after resurrection. "Simon
Peter, Simon son of John, do you love me more than these? He said to
him, yes Lord; you know that I love you. Jesus said to him, "feed my
lambs".... "Tend my Sheep".... "Feed my Sheep". It was then argued that
if Peter was the first head of the Church, then his successor, the Pope of
Rome must continue his authority (Hurlbut, 71).
Concerning the Petrine theory, Cairns said that by 590 A. D. the

teaching was generally accepted. Peter had been given “ecclesiastical
primogeniture" over his fellow apostles, and the Apostolic Succession
had passed on his superior position from him to the bishops of Rome
(Cairns, 157).
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3.4 Character of Roman Church and Bishop
Another major contributing factor, you should note, about the

consolidation of the Roman Church was the qualities of the Bishops. As
it were, the bishops were square pegs in square holes. The Bishop of
Rome was well disciplined and talented. They were equal to the task
ahead of them. They were determined to succeed and thereby
surmounted all odds militating against their consolidation. Some of
these bishops were Damascus I (366-384), Leo (440-461), Gregory and
others. Hurlbut support the above views in the following paragraph.
The character of the Roman Church and its early heads strongly
supported these claims. The bishops at Rome were in the main, and in
far greater measure than those in Constantinople, strong and wise
forceful men, who made their presence felt throughout the Church.
Much of the old imperial quality, which had made Rome the mistress of
the world, still dwelt in the Roman nature (Hurlbut, 71).
3.5 Orthodoxy of the Roman Church
Another point that made the Church of Rome ahead of others,

particularly, that of Constantinople was that of its orthodoxy. Perhaps,
you need to be reminded of one of the traits of character of Roman is
conservatism. Rome resisted all sects, unlike Constantinople, Syria and
Greece where speculative thinking were permitted in matter of
doctrines, thus, made way for inroad of heresies in the Church.
3.6 Practical Christianity of Roman Church
You have studied four major factors that brought the Church at Rome to
the position of leadership. Now you are going to study the greatest factor
that aided the Church of Rome to the state of prominence. The Roman
Church demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt the caring and concerned
spirit for the less privileged, downtrodden, poor, afflicted, orphans and
homeless. Mathew 25 was considered and put into use, on daily basis, in
the Church of Rome. Jesus Christ gave the following words of
commendation, to a caring Church; “I was hungry and you gave me
food, I was thirsty and you gave me water to drink. I was a stranger and
you welcomed me. I was naked and you clothed me. I was sick and you
took care of me, I was in prison and you visited me" (Matt. 25:35-36).
The Church in Rome lived what they professed. The Church was,
indeed, a sermon of its own without public crusades and the influx into
the Church became great. The new converts met nearly all their needs
and they sang the song of the praises of the Roman Church wherever
they went.
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3.7 The Relocation of the Capital
Maybe at this juncture, you need to refresh your memory of the previous
sections in this unit, particularly section 3.1 where you learnt about the
removal of the Roman Empire capital from Rome to Constantinople.
The Emperor was directly the over-lord of the Church in the new capital.
But at Rome, the situation changed. The Bishop of Rome was absolutely
in control of the Church. He was accorded due respect and honour. He
became the first citizen and enjoyed full support from Christian bodies.
And because the capital was moved far away to Constantinople, Europe
then looked to Rome with reverence and a feeling of loyalty toward the
Roman Pontiff replaced that of the Roman Emperor.
Hurlbut said that it was not long when nations of Western Europe gave
recognition to the Roman bishop or Pope as the leading authority in the
general Church. Thus, at the Council of Constantinople of 381 A. D.
under the auspices of the Emperor Theodosus, Rome was placed first in
recognition and Constantinople took the second position.
In his contribution to the primacy of the bishop of Rome, Cairns gave

the following insight into the topic. He said that of the five great
Patriarchs of the Church in Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria,
Constantinople, and Rome – only the Patriarch of Constantinople and
the bishop of Rome lived in cities of world consequence by 590 AD.
According to Cairns, the bishop of Jerusalem lost prestige after the
Jewish rebellion against Rome during the second century. He submitted
that Alexandria and Antioch rapidly declined in importance when the
Muslim hordes overran them in the seventh century. Therefore the
bishops of Rome and of Constantinople were left as the two most
prominent clerical leaders by 590 AD. Cairns also noted that Emperor
Valentinian II, in an edict in 445 AD., recognized the supremacy of the
bishop of Rome in spiritual matters. Thus both State and ecclesiastical
authorities recognized the claims of the bishops of Rome to primacy in
the Church (Cairns, 158).
3.8 The Missionary Efforts
One of the effective weapons used by bishop of Rome to propagate and

prove his primacy was the ministry of monks. Missionary monks were
commissioned to proclaim the gospel throughout most of all the
countries in Europe. According to Cairns, the monks were loyal to the
bishop of Rome, as they carried out assignments given to them with
every seriousness and in complete obedience. He said that, even Clovis,
the leaders of the Franks, was loyal supporters of the authority of the
bishop of Rome. For instance, Gregory I sent Augustine one of the
monks, to England, and that monk and his successors were able to bring
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Britain under the sway of Rome. Interestingly, wherever, the missionary
monks went, they insisted that their converts yield allegiance to the
bishop of Rome. May be one can conclude that the influence of the
Roman Catholic Church that is presently much felt around the globe,
could be traced to the conscious efforts of monks missionary of the early
time.
Without mincing words, you now understand those factors that made the
bishop of Rome the head among his equals. In the subsequent units, you
will study more in detail about the power of the Roman Catholic
Church.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Without any controversy, you have discovered for yourself, how the
Roman Church came to limelight through hard work and act of charity.
The leaders were men of great intellect who knew what to do and they
performed. Perhaps you will agree with this popular saying, there is no
royal road to success in life and that there are no substitutes to hard
work, diligence and commitment. Even, as of today, the Roman Church
has one of the best systems of operations.
5.0 SUMMARY
If you have gone through this unit conscientiously, you should be aware
of the following points:
1. The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople

2. The Church at Rome had free hand to operate while that of
Constantinople was under the surveillance of the Emperor.
3. The Church in Rome patterned its system of government after the
imperial rule, that is, only one head at a time.
4. The Apostolic Succession was also used to stabilize the Roman
Church.
5. The character of Roman Church and of its bishops played a
prominent role in her growth.
6. The Church of Rome remained conservative and all attempts of
sects to have inroad to the doctrines of the Church were quashed.
7. The Roman Church showed practical Christianity.
8. The absence of the Emperor and his authority paved way to the
popularity of the Roman Church and became the leading
authority in the Western Roman Empire.
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1. Comment on the “Apostolic Succession” theory.

2. Discuss the factors that led to the supremacy of the Roman
Church.


Meacham, Standish (1986). World Civilizations. (Vol.1, 7th
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 70-72.
Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996). Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity.


The Barth Press.
87
UNIT 4 THE END OF THE WESTERN ROMAN
EMPIRE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Causes of Downfall: Relocation of the Capital City from
Rome to Constantinople
3.2 Roman Riches Coveted
3.3 Civil Wars Weakened the Empire
3.4 Economic Decay
3.5 Inability of Romans to Fight in Wars
3.6 The Coming of the Invaders
3.7 The Invading Tribes: The Visgoths
3.8 The Vandal under Genseric
3.9 The Burgundians, 414 A.D.
3.10 The Franks 420 A.D
3.11 Saxons and Angles, 440 A.D
3.12 The Huns under Attila, 450 A.D
3.14 The Fall of Rome in 476 A.D
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is one of the most important units you will study to gain insight
into the development and fall of many nations. May be, you need to
remind yourself of the popular saying, that, absolute power corrupt
absolutely. This unit enumerates reasons for the fall of great empires,
such as the Roman Empire that survived for more than a thousand years.
The Roman Empire, which was iron-like in nature and character that
existed more than a thousand years fell flat before his attackers. If
nations will learn good lessons from the past they will not be at each
other’s throats. Perhaps, pleasures and easy life are tools in the hands of
the enemies to prey on one’s life. Therefore you need to know that the
difficult thing in life is how to manage prosperity. The history of the fall
of nations, not only of the Roman Empire tends to lead towards
indiscipline and reckless spending and unnecessary ranchos.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you finish studying this unit, you should be able to:
• narrate how the Roman frontiers were left without much

protection
• identify the effects of pleasure and luxury among the upper class
Romans
• identify the effects of violence and wanton destruction in the
Empire
• identify the effects of civil wars on the Empire
• identify the effects of the rapidity of the invading tribes.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Relocation of the Capital City from Rome
One of the reasons, firstly, for you to consider has to do with the
relocation of the seat of the Empire to Constantinople. Constantine was
not arbitrary in the choice of his new capital city. Hurlbut said that the
city of Rome was not fortified with natural barriers as that of the Greek
city of Byzantium. According to Hurlbut, Constantine felt insecure by
staying in Rome to administer his great empire. Instances were given
that in the earlier times of the Republic, the city of Rome had been more
than once besieged by foreign foes. Also, in its later history, armies from
the provinces had many times enthroned and dethroned emperors. Thus,
there is the need for a more secured place.
The division of the empire soon followed the building of the new
capital. The boundaries were so wide and the danger of invasion from
barbarians around was so imminent, that one emperor could no longer
protect his vast dominions. Diocletian had begun the division of
authority in 305 A.D. Theodosius completed the separation. Therefore,
from the time of Theodosius the Roman world was divided into Eastern
and Western, separated by the Adriatic Sea. The Eastern Empire was
known as Greek, the Western as Latin, from the prevailing language in
each section. Humanly speaking, Constantine sought for security and
continuity of the Roman Empire (Hurlbut p.72).
Unfortunately, that division of the empire and the relocation of its

capital to Constantinople did not help the matter. Rather, lives of
millions of the Romans in the West were exposed to danger. The
barbarians saw the events as an inducement for their races to perfect
their acts of destruction and vandalism. Please, note that the word
barbarians is not used as a derogatory term, rather, the Roman used the
89
word to describe other races and tribes except themselves, the Jewish
and the Greeks.
It was not long after the relocation of the capital city that the moral and
political decay continued unabated. Hurlbut says that within twenty five
years after Constantine’s death in 337 A.D., the barriers on the border of
the Western empire were broken down and hordes of barbarians were
every where pouring in upon the helpless provinces seizing territory and
establishing independent kingdoms. Therefore, lack of strong
fortification, and adequate protection, was one of the reasons for the fall
of the Western Roman Empire (Hurlbut, p.72).
3.2 Romans Riches Coveted

Another point for your consideration is the Roman’s affluent society.
The empire had many rich cities with abundance that led to the downfall
of the Western Roman Empire. They had large fields, full of harvest and
possessed almost all the necessity of life. Contrary to the above scenario
were the poor, warlike uncivilized and wandering tribes surrounding
them who were in dire need of those possessions. When however, the
opportunity came the barbarians had inroads and invaded the Western
part of the Empire that was unprotected and occupied those territories.
3.3 Civil Wars also weakened the Empire

May be you should note also that not many nations can survive many
civil wars. The damages are not usually repairable. The lost of lives and
many other valuable thing, usually impedes rapid recovery and
restoration. And that was the case of the Western Roman Empire. It was
said that civil wars were carried out through generations by claimants to
the imperial throne. Accordingly, the emperors were no longer chosen
by the senate, but when one was slain each army in a different province
set up its own candidate and the decision was not by votes but by arms.
It was later reported that in ninety years, eighty leaders were hailed as
emperor and claiming the throne. There was no definite line of
succession and that resulted into chaos. Cities were plundered, armies
were extravagantly paid and the whole empire was impoverished by the
ambition of men for power. The end result of those unpleasant memories
was that garrisons were called away from the borders, and there was no
one to protect. The land was left open and helpless against the
barbarians (Hurlbut p.74).
3.4 Economic Decay
You may recollect that, for a while, the economy of the Roman Empire
was based on slaves. Meaningful living in Rome was based on
Agriculture and its produce. Sadly, slaves were used to manually
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cultivate and till the land. As long as there were conquests to make,
Romans felt happy and secured. They were so rich in slaves that they
engaged slave in other domestic works. Even, during the breakthrough
of the Industrial, Agricultural and technological revolution, average
Roman farmers felt unconcerned. If you could recall Romans were
known for conservatism and reference. The Romans did not change with
time, and their farmers were left behind. Since there was no more influx
of slaves, agricultural activities became dwindling, thus famine took its
toll. In addition to the reduction of slaves, the plagues of the second and
third centuries in Europe sharply reduced the populations. Those
unfortunate incidents will lead you to the next point of your study
(Edward Burns, 263).
3.5 Inability of Romans to Fight in Wars
We have previously addressed the wealth of the Empire in this unity.

The Romans hired men for labour and depended mostly on them for
defense and gainful employment. Since they had more money, they
could not fight personally by themselves any more in war fronts. In
those days, armies fought face to face in physical combats. The
barbarians had upper hands in war arenas, because they had trained
themselves in the acts of warfare.
Also, to compound the issues, we were told that, the Romans had hired
many of the barbarians to man the legions, who for a time often fought
in defense of Rome against their own people. Most of the later armies,
their generals, and even many Emperors themselves came from the
barbarian races. In such arrangement, there could not be total
commitment to the Roman Empire (Hurlbut, 73).
3.6 The Coming of the Invaders
Perhaps, there are forces beyond human beings that always lead to their
displacement from their original habitations. Some of these forces could
be wars, natural disasters, famine, draught, epidemics, tsunami,
earthquake, flood and other calamities. The above catastrophes
sometimes are beyond the control of ordinary persons. However, in our
age, when a nation is threatened with disasters, neighbouring countries
come to their rescue and set her back on her feet. The role of the Red
Cross and other Voluntary agencies could not be forgotten in such cases
when the unexpected happens. We were told that the movement of the
Asiatic tribes into Europe was caused by one of the evils mentioned
above.
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As a student of Church history, you will recall that the Lord made man
and placed him in his original habitation and as men began to multiply,
they spread all over the globe. Some left their places of birth in search of
better lands and severally changed their locations. Perhaps, that was the
case of a tribe in Central Asia, the Huns, under their king Attila.
Probably, they were afflicted with draught and needed a more habitable
place for their race. Although, we may not know the whole truth about
their movement, one thing is certain, at least, they were not satisfied
with their condition on ground in the land of their nativity. They left
their home and turned to the West, towards Europe. Perhaps, the Huns
were notable warriors and thereby very ruthless and destructive.
Therefore, as they moved towards Western Europe, they came in contact
with other races, which were less sophisticated both in warfare and
cultural wise. Therefore, the Huns under Attila their king did not find
much resistance from the original settlers. In order for them to save their
lives, they gave way to the Huns and migrated into the Western part.
You will study these tribes in the next section.
3.7 The Invading Tribes: The Visgoths

Now, let us study these tribes or races as they invaded Western Europe
in search of greener pastures. As stated earlier, they were chased away
from their original place of settlement. And in order for them to survive
they migrated into a new land. They met people who were already
cultured who have settled in their lands for centuries. Some of the tribes
or races that came to Europe for protection and in search of better lands
were the Visgoths under the leadership of Alaric. You will recall that at
that point in time, the frontiers of the Western Roman Empire were
porous. There were no strong fortifications to protect the territories from
assaults of the foes. The Visgoths capitalized upon the weakness of the
Western Roman Empire, swept over Greece and Italy, captured and
spoiled Rome and set up a kingdom in Southern France (Hurlbut p.74).
3.8 The Vandals under Genseric

The next set of tribes or races that moved to Europe were the Vandals
under their leader, Genseric, in 406. The groups marched across France
to Spain and then into Northern Africa, conquering these countries. The
Vandals actually vandalized all they saw and met. They could be called
destroyers of anything good and progressive.
3.9 The Burgundians, 414 A. D

The third race that invaded the Western Roman Empire was the
Burgundians, in 414. They quickly crossed the Rhine and established a
kingdom having Strasburg as its centre. They were not violent; rather,
they adjusted quickly to their new acquired fortunes.
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3.10 The Franks 420 A. D
The next tribe to attack the Western Roman Empire was from Germany,
in 420 A.D. The Franks seized all Northern Gaul, which they named
Francia. The tribe settled well and mixed with the settlers on ground.
They set up their kingdom and had many able leaders. One of their kings
was Clovis who became a Christian and many of his people accepted
Christianity. The Franks had the desire that all should embrace
Christianity. Therefore, throughout the Northern Europe, they made
Christianity compulsory for everybody and those who were not
enthusiastic about the Christian faith were forced. Thus, the gospel was
made known to many nations in the Northern part of Europe.
3.11 Saxons and Angles, 440 A. D

The next tribes were the Saxons and Angles from Denmark and other
parts in the North in 440 AD. As you are aware from this unit, the
weakness of the Western Roman Empire made the Roman legions to
desert Britain. There were neither funds to maintain the hired armies,
nor were the Roman willing to fight to defend their frontier. Therefore,
when the invaders came, it was easy to make in roads, generation after
generation.
3.12 The Huns under Attila, 450 A. D

The last tribes you will study among the invaders were the Huns, under
their merciless King, Attila. Previously, you have noted how that tribe
displaced and subjugated other tribes they met on their way from Asia.
After the Huns destroyed their new acquired settlements, they set out
again for new fields. At that time, they came close to the frontiers of the
Western Roman Empire. There they saw the prosperous lands before
them and coveted them. Therefore, about 450 AD., the Huns invaded
Italy and threatened to destroy, along with the Roman Empire, the new
established small Kingdoms of the Goths, Vandals and Funks. Since
Attila could not be persuaded to settle the matter amicably, it resulted to
a bloody conflict in 451 A. D., at the battle of Chalons. Under the
leadership of Rome, the battle was against the Huns, as they suffered a
lot of casualties. Perhaps, one can state that, the battle of Chalons settled
matters of invasions from Asia, at least, for the next 20 years. The
settlers, who had just formed new small kingdom, developed their own
civilizations and ran their own affairs by themselves (Hurlbut, 75).
3.13 The Fall of Rome in 476 A. D

You have followed the trends of events as they unfolded in the Western
Roman Empire. At least, from your studies of this Unit, you have noted
that the Western Roman Empire had suffered series of attacks from the
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invaders. They had apportioned the large territory among themselves,
and thereby reduced the one time Great Empire to a small territory.
Even, at that point in time the Emperors who were in the East, made no
provision for adequate security to protect their frontiers. It was not
difficult for any experienced general to exploit the situation. Therefore,
in 476, the Heruli, one of the small German tribes under their king
Odoacer came to Rome, took possession of it and dethroned Augustulus,
the boy emperor. King Odoacer, thereafter, took the title "King of Italy".
From that year, 476, the Western Roman Empire came to an end. It will
interest you to note that from the time when the foundation of Rome was
laid and when it turned to state and finally to an empire was fifteen
hundred years (1500years) for everything that has a beginning will
surely have an end. The ancient empires have come and gone, but left
lessons behind for younger generations to learn. Perhaps, you should
learn lessons from history so that you may avoid all possible fall.
(Hurlbut, 75).
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the beginning of this unit, you have noticed how the mighty
kingdom had fallen. It was a gradual decay caused by a gross of
indiscipline. When a nation does not follow the path of justice and
fairness, it will soon fall flat as ancient kingdoms did. There is nothing
morally wrong for an individual or a nation to be blessed with wealth.
The only question one should strife to answer is how the wealth is
distributed or used for the benefit of masses. The Romans felt self-
sufficient until the tide changed for the worse and the Western part of
the empire was swept away in 476 A.D., although, the Eastern empire,
endured until 1453 A. D.
5.0 SUMMARY
Throughout this unit, you have learnt the following point about how:
i. the transfer of the seat of the Empire to Constantinople from

Rome, in 330 A.D. became an inducement to the foes for early
invasions of the Western Roman Empire.
ii. the downfall of the Western Roman Empire was caused by many
factors and one of them was lack of patriotic spirit.
iii. how luxury and wealth spoilt the Romans into an extent that they
were not willing to work with their own hands, rather, they hired
labour to do most of their national and domestic assignments.
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iv. the Civil Wars caused by successions to the imperial throne, also,
wrecked the Roman Empire.
v. the coming of the barbarians from the interior of Asia in search of

better land and fortune.
vi. the six major tribes that invaded Roman Empire were the Huns
under their King Attila the Visigoths under the leadership of
Alaric, and the Vandals under Geneseric. Others were the
Burgundians, the Franks and the Saxons and Angles.
vii. the Battle of Chalons, 451 A.D. which was a decisive one in
favour f the Europeans
viii. the Heruli, a small German tribe, under their king, Odoacer
conquered the city of Rome in 476 and took the title of "King of
Italy". Thus seal the western part of the Roman Empire.
1. Discuss the invasions of the barbarians.

2. Comment fully on factors that led to the downfall of the Western
Roman Empire.
Cairns, Earle. E. (1981).Christianity Through the Century: A History of




The Barth Press.
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UNIT 5 CONSOLIDATION OF PAPAL POWERS AND
THE RISE OF ISLAM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Progress of the Papal Power: Righteous Living of
Bishops of Rome
3.2 The Historical Background of Gregory I
3.4 The Claims of Gregory I
3.4 The Zenith of Papal Power
3.5 Papal Supremacy under Innocent III
3.6 The Decline in Papal Power
3.7 The Rise of Islam
3.8 The Progress of Islam
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will study two important topics, though, not closely
related. These are the Consolidation of Papal Powers and the rise of
Islam. In the Module 2, Unit 3 of your study, you studied how Bishop of
Rome came into prominent position among his equals. You also learnt
that the Roman Church cared for the poor, the needy and the less
privileged. In addition, she had capable leaders who stood for
orthodoxy. The Roman Bishop was a tower of strength during the
sacking of Rome in 410 A.D by Alaric and his Visgothic followers. You
will also recall that the Emperor was far away in his capital,
Constantinople when the imperial throne in the West fell into the hands
of King Odacer, the Heruli and his people, in 476 A.D. The Bishop of
Rome stood firm in the time of that crisis to safe the Romans from the
hands of their foes. Therefore, the people of Italy came to look to the
Roman bishop for political as well as spiritual leadership. Leo 1, who
occupied the Episcopal throne in Rome between 440 and 461, was the
ablest occupant of that chair unit Gregory I took that position in 590
A.D. Therefore, in this unit, you will study the factors that led to the
Consolidation of Papal powers as presented in the following objectives.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you finish studying this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the factors that strengthened Papal Powers

• describe the commencement of the declining stage in the power
of the papacy
• describe the life of Prophet Muhammad and beginning of Islam.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Progress of the Papal Power: Righteous Living of the

Earlier Bishops of Rome
Perhaps, one of the major causes of the development of papal powers

was rooted in transparency, honesty, ability and dynamism of the
bishops of Rome. Most of the early bishops were pure, righteous, pious
and dedicated.
Perhaps, one is safe to state that the stage of growth in the papal power
began with the pontificate of Gregory I, who was considered to be the
first medieval pope, and came to its height under Gregory VII, known as
Hildebrand.
3.2 Historical Background of Gregory I
The following is brief background of Gregory I before cataloging his

achievements toward the Consolidation of Papal power. Cairns said that
Gregory was born in 540 A.D, into one of the old, noble, and wealthy
families of Rome, and was given legal education. He also studied Latin
and literature extensively. About 570 A.D, he was made Prefect of
Rome, a position of importance and honour. Shortly after that, he gave
up the fortune that he had inherited from his father, and the proceeds of
it were used to build seven monasteries in Italy. Cairns explained further
that he was made an ambassador as he represented the Roman bishop at
Constantinople. When, however, Pope Pelagius died of the plague in
590, Gregory was chosen to replace him. Cairns added that, Gregory I
was one of the noblest of the leaders of the Roman Church. He was a
man of humility who thought of himself as "the servant of the servants
of God". He was a zealous missionary and was instrumental in winning
the English to Christianity. In addition, he was a good preacher, with a
real message for the time of crisis in which he lived. It was said that his
sermons were practical and stressed humility and piety.
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3.3 The Claims of Gregory I
Perhaps, the above historical background of Gregory will motivate you

to study his contributions to the Church as follow:-
a) He asserted the spiritual supremacy of the bishop of Rome.

b) He exercised Episcopal care over the churches of Gaul, Spain,
Britain, Africa and Italy.
c) He appointed bishops and sent the pallium, the staff of office, to
those whose appointment he had made or ratified.
d) Though, he preferred to be called the servant of God, he will not
allow anyone else to claim the title "Supreme head of the
Church". The title was reserved for the bishop of Rome, now
Pope.
e) Gregory made the bishopric of Rome one of the wealthiest in the
Church of his day – by excellent work as an administrator.
f) Gregory raised troop to protect Rome and forced the Arian
Lombard king to make peace to win them from Arianism.
g) He also organized the Gregorian chant, which came to have a
more important place in the Roman Catholic Church.
h) He emphasized the prerequisites for the bishopric, the virtues a
bishop needs for introspection.
i) Gregory laid the ground work of the theology that was held by
the Roman church throughout the Middle Ages until Thomas
Aquinas formulated his summa.
j) He widely made use of the Canon of the Mass that considers the
Communion as a sacrifice of Christ’s body and blood each time it
is performed.
k) He emphasized good works and the invocation of the Saints in
order to get their aid.
l) The Medieval theology bore the Stamp of Gregory’s thought.
m) He systematized doctrine and made the Church a power in
politics.
Perhaps, one should agree with Cairns, that, the pontificate of Gregory is
indeed a landmark in the transition from ancient to medieval church
history. The next section you will study in this unit will be the Zenith of
Papal Power.
3.4 The Zenith of Papal Power: The Pontificates of Gregory

VII and Innocent III
The word Zenith indicates topmost, a peak, upper level, the highest
point or directly above others. The period when the papal power was at
its best and highest could be considered as between 1054 and 1305.
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Perhaps, Hildebrand’s career readily divides itself into two periods. He
was the power behind the papal throne for over twenty years before he
became pope in 1073, and from 1073 until his death in 1085 he
exercised the powers that he had obtained for the popes while he was a
humble supporter of the papacy. He was able to influence the
formulation of papal policy under five popes before he finally became
pope. It will interest you to note the following claims of Gregory VII.
1. He put into practice his ideal of a theocracy in which temporal as

well as spiritual power would be exercised by the pope as the
vice-regent of God.
2. He insisted on the abolition of simony and the enforcement of

clerical celibacy as the best way to reform the Roman church.
3. He claimed that Roman church owed its foundation to "God

alone", that its pontiff was "alone to be called universal"; and that
he had power over all bishops. The assertion is in the "Dictatus
Papae"
4. He claimed that there had never been error in the Bible, there
would never be error in the Roman church and that according to
the Bible, it would never err.
5. He asserted that countries such as England, Hungary, Russia and

Spain had been put under the control of Peter and his successors.
6. In 1075, a Roman synod, under Gregory VII forbade any high

clergyman to receive investiture to a church office from a
layman.
7. He excommunicated Henry IV, the Emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire, that was a bold step as any pope had ever taken.
Accordingly, due to seemly civil unrest in his domain Henry came for a
release from the Pope at Canossa in 1077. It was said that Gregory did
not attend to Henry until he stood barefooted in the snow outside the
gates of the palace on three successive days before he would admit him
to his presence. After genuine repentance, Gregory VII then release
King Henry IV from his sentence of excommunication. Thus, Gregory
VII humiliated the greatest ruler in Christendom.
3.5 Papal Supremacy under Innocent III
Innocent III was elected Pope in 1198. He brought the medieval papacy
to the zenith of its power by the following claims, and activities.
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Innocent believed that he was the "vicar of Christ" with supreme
authority on earth.
He believed that kings and princes derived their authority from Pope and
that he could therefore excommunicate, depose them or lay an interdict,
which forbade the clergy to perform any service in the church, but the
most essential services of the church, upon the state.
He believed that God had given the successor of Peter the task of ruling
the whole world, the church as well as the State. The pope stood above
man and below God.
It was also said that Innocent III asserted that the State should be related
to the Church as the moon is to the sun, and that as the moon shines by
the reflected light of the sun; the State was to bask in the glory of the
papacy and derive its power from the Pope (Cairns, p. 214).
Innocent III placed France under an interdict that affected everyone in

the nation, closed all churches until Philip submitted to the will of the
Pope. Also, between 1205 and 1213 Innocent was able to defeat John of
England in a contest over the election of an Archbishop of the vacant
archbishopric of Canterbury.
3.6 The Decline in Papal Power
As stated earlier, the pontificate of Innocent III marked the peak of

Papal Power in Europe. However, after his death, there were other popes
after him who could not maintain the legacies. The pontificate of
Boniface suffers humiliation from the temporal power. Clement V
became Pope after the death of Boniface, and it was during his
pontificate that the papal court was transferred to Avignon in 1309.
Therefore, the removal of the papal seat from Rome in 1309 was the
beginning of the era known as the Babylonian captivity of the papacy.
Until 1377 the papacy was under the influence of the French monarches
and lost the powers she had in Europe. Cairns stated that, in 1377, the
reigning Pope, Gregory XI, returned to Rome.
Therefore, from 1378 the Popes have continued dwelling at Rome,

making claims as high as ever but unable to enforce them (Hurlbut, 88;
Cairns, 217). From the scene before you, there are reasons for you to
accept the popular axiom that everything that goes up, must come down.
The only kingdom that will last forever is that of Jesus Christ. From this
juncture, we shall turn to the rise of Islam, the third heirs of the old
Roman Empire, the first and second been those of Eastern and Western
Empires.
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3.7 The Rise of Islam
The rise of Islam could be traced to Mohammed who was born in 570 at
Mecca in Arabia. He lost his parents early in life, and was under the care
of his relations. Being an honest man, and a hardworking young man, he
obtained the favour of a widow whom he served, and eventually
married.
It was about 610 A. D. when Muhammad felt that he was called by

Allah to be his messenger. He began with reforms in the midst of people
who loved idol worship. It was also said that the people of Mecca had an
idol per day for worship throughout a whole year, except one day that
was free. With that background, the assignment of Mohammed was an
upstream task.
In 622 A. D. the inhabitants of Mecca rose against Muhammad and his

few converts. He fled to Medina (the flight is known as Hegira) where
he made more converts. In 630 A. D. Mohammad made his homeward
journey, and at that time, the people of Mecca accepted him and the
message. Just two years after that, he died in 632 AD.
According to Earle Cairns, the following are the major beliefs of

Muslims:
Belief in one God known was the central theme of Islam. Allah made his
will known through twenty-five prophets, including biblical characters
such as Abraham, Moses, and Christ, but Mohammed was the latest and
greatest of these prophets.
Islam is fatalistic with its idea of passive submission to the will of Allah.
The good Muslim prays five times daily, facing Mecca. He also recites
his creed daily.
Fasting for thirty days (one lunar month) is also expected of Muslims.
Almsgiving is important as the faithful is expected to give out at least
1/40 of his income.
The holiest Muslims are those who, at least once during their lifetime
make a pilgrimage to Mecca. (Cairns p. 175)
3.8 Progress of Islam
Perhaps one can state that at the initial stage of Islam, the progress made
was not through violence. Muhammad relied on moral influences in
preaching his gospel. However, the method changed shortly after a
peaceful take off to that of force. His converts became warriors and
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forced people to accept Islam. Hurlbut said that, the Arab warriors gave
two alternatives of Islam, tribute or death to every nation or tribe who
resisted their arms. Accordingly, Muhammad was succeeded by a series
of Caliphs who built up a vast Empire by the sword. Palestine and Syria
were conquered and the holy places of Christianity fell under the power
of Islam. Their conquest included Egypt, all Northern Africa and the
greater part of Spain. The religion tore away province after province
from Greek Emperors of Constantinople unto its final extinction.
Eastward, the Empire of the Caliphs extended beyond Persia into India.
Their capital was at the Bagdad on the Tigris (Hurlbut, 90).
Today, there are over a billion muslims around the globe. The following
are facts about Islam:-
1) Islam is very simple to understand and far too superior to

paganism
Islam opposes image worship
2) It rejects saintly meditation and cult of the saints
3) Throughout the Muslim world abstinence from strong drink is
desired.
4) Literature and science were promoted under the Caliphs.
Interestingly, the Arabians gave the world the numerals 1, 2, 3,
etc.
Without much questions, Islam has contributed immensely to the

modern day society.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Throughout this unit, you have learnt about the zenith of Papal power.
The papacy exercised great temporal power between 1054 and 1305.
Hildebrand was able to humble the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
Also, Innocent III was powerful enough to force rulers of rising nation
states to do his will. However, the power of papacy got abated as from
the time of Pope Boniface till the time of the Babylonian Captivity in
1309. The papacy was under the influence of the French monarchies
until 1377 when the seat of Pope was brought back to Rome (Cairns
p.209).
You have also studied the rise and development of Islam. Tim Dowley
said that at the very time when Gregory the Great was turning away
from the Eastern Mediterranean and seeking to extend papal influence
throughout the West, there began in Arabia the career of a remarkable
religious leader, Muhammad of Mecca. His teachings had an almost
immediate impact. The movement of Islam was born, and spread with
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dramatic speed outside Arabia after the prophet’s death under the
caliphs, literally ‘successors’.
Tim Dowley added that, the major factor that led to the rapid growth
was the extraordinary religious enthusiasm generated by Muhammad
and his immediate converts, the ‘Companions’. Within a century of the
prophet’s death, Islam had reached the Atlantic (Morocco) and the River
Indus (Pakistan).
Without mincing words, the rise of Islam directly influenced the

political and economic development of the two halves of Christendom.
Therefore, Islam became medieval Christianity’s greatest opponent (Tim
Dowley, 234). You have also studied about the contributions of the
Arabs to the world of Science and literature. Consequently, Islam
impacted the development of the modern society.
5.0 SUMMARY
Throughout the pages of this unit, you have studied the various ways
and also a stage of the consolidations of Papal powers. Some of the
following points are considered as part of the contributing factors:
1. The ability, dynamism and capability of bishops of Rome.

2. The Church was highly orthodox. The Church of Rome was very
conservative in nature.
3. The Church had respect for oral traditions of the Church Fathers.
4. The bishops of Rome were greatly involved in charity works.
5. The bishops of Rome devoted their time to political affairs when
the seat of the Empire was removed from Rome.
6. The bishop of Rome, severally, through diplomacy rescued Rome
from ruin, and the attacks of the enemies.
7. During the Pontificate of Gregory VII the following
achievements were made
(a) The Clergy Reform was instituted
(b) The church was set free from the control of the State
(c) The Church was made supreme above the State
8. During the Pontificates of Gregory VII and Innocent III the
following documents were used extensively for the consolidation
of Papal authority.
(a) Forged donation of Constantine. That was the claim of the bishop
of Rome, that the first Christian Emperor Constantine had given
to bishop of Rome, Sylvester I (314-335 A.D) Supreme authority
over all European provinces of the Empire and proclaimed the
bishop of Rome as ruler even above the emperors.
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(b) The second document was False Decretals of Isidore published in
850A.D. said that the document professed to be decisions given
out by early bishops of Rome, from the apostles downward,
setting forth the highest claims, such as the absolute supremacy
of the Pope of Rome over the universal church; the inviolability
of the clergy of every rank from any accountability to the State;
to the extent that no secular court could judge in matters
pertaining to the church.
9. Innocent III successfully humiliated king John of England by

excommunicating him in 1208. He also compelled the licentious
Philip Augustus, King of France to receive back his wife, whom
he had divorced.
10. Probably, the decline in Papal Power started with the Pontificate
of Boniface VII who was humbled by Edward I of England.
11. The period from 1305 to 1377 is known as the Babylonish

Captivity, when the French King compelled the Papal seat to be
transferred from Rome to Avignon in France
12. The rise and spread of Islam, with Muhammad as the Prophet
whom Allah used to propagate the religion.
13. Islam has simple beliefs with only five major pillars of the faith.
14. Islamic religion began its propagation through persuasion and

was supported with free will donations. Later, the mode of
conversion changed to force and violence.
15. Islam has dominated many countries of the world today.
16. The contributions of the Arabs to the advancement of science and

literature could not be over emphasized.
1. Discuss the Pontificates of Gregory I and Innocent III.

2. Discuss the rise and spread of Islam.
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Cairns, Earle. E. (1981). Christianity Through the Century: A History of

Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 165-169; 173-175; 209-217.

Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. pp. 82-93; 165-169.


The Barth Press.
105
MODULE 3 THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH – 476 – 1453
A.D
Unit 1 The Holy Roman Empire

Unit 2 The Crusades
Unit 3 Invention of Printing Press and the Forerunners of the
Reformation
Unit 4 Renaissance Period to the Dawn of Reformation
UNIT 1 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Carolingian Rulers
3.2 Biographical Sketch of Charlemagne
3.3 The Achievements of Charlemagne
3.4 The Efficient Emperors
3.5 The Emperors and the Popes
3.6 The Decline and Fall of the Holy Roman Empire
3.7 Fall of Constantinople in 1453
3.8 Causes of the Separation of Latin and Greek Churches
3.9 Scholars and Leaders of the Medieval Church
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Holy Empire
This is the first unit of module three of your study. So far, you have
been able to trace the origin of the Church and the developments
through the centuries. The claims of the bishops of Rome as the head of
the Christian Church worldwide were also noted in the previous lesson.
Earlier, it was also discussed that, the old Roman Imperial Empire
succeeded by three heirs, these were: the Early Medieval Western
World, with Rome as the seat of the government; the Byzantine Empire
with Constantinople as the headquarters and Islamic world as third heir.
You will recall that King Odoacer who took the title King of Italy
sacked the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. Since that year, the
territories in the Western Roman Empire had been directly under the
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supervision and protection of the Bishop of Rome as the head. However,
those claims and assertions of papacy were severally challenged after
590 A.D.
For instance, the emperors in Constantinople, who believed that the

Church should be subordinated to the ruler of the State, were steadily
encroaching on what the bishop of Rome thought were his prerogatives
and possessions.
In addition, the Lombards of Arian theology made attempts to invade

Rome, and possess it. Cairns said that, these difficulties forced the Pope
to look around for a powerful ally who would support his claims to
spiritual power and to temporary possessions in Italy. The Frankish
rulers seemed to be the most promising allies, and with them the Popes
made an alliance that was to influence both ecclesiastical and political
affairs during the Middle Ages. The new political empire in the West, to
which the Pope gave his assent in 800, revived the imperial idea of the
Roman Empire; but the rulers of this new empire were to be Teutons
rather than Romans. Therefore, the glory of reviving the Roman Empire
went to the Carolingian rulers (Burns, 1986: 181). With this brief
introduction, you should be in top gear by now, to study the following
objectives in this Unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the founders of the Carolingian Empire

• describe the background of Charlemagne
• enumerate the achievements of Charlemagne
• identify the Carolingian great leaders
• identify the Emperors and Popes of the Era
• discuss the decline and fall of the Holy Roman Empire
• list the reasons for the separation of Latin and Greek Churches
• in 1054 A.D
• discuss the decline and fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in
1453 A.D.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Founders of the Carolingian Empire

As stated earlier, the Holy Roman Empire was one of the three heirs of
the Imperial Roman Empire, once headed by Constantine the Great.
When Constantinople replaced Rome as the new Capital, the frontiers of
the Roman Empire in the West became porous and that paved way for
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foes, which brought the Western Roman Empire to an end in 476A.D.
After the fall, the bishops of Rome fairly managed the affairs of the
realm till the 10th Century. However, Hurlbut said that from the tenth
century until the nineteenth there existed in Europe a peculiar political
organism, showing different phases during different generations, of
which the official name was the Holy Roman Empire, commonly but
inaccurately called the German Empire. He said that until the Holy
Empire appeared, Europe west of the Adriatic Sea was in disorder, ruled
by warring tribes rather than by states. He added that, through all the
confusion, the old Roman conception of unity and order remained; an
aspiration after one empire to take the place of that which, though fallen,
was still held in traditional veneration (Hurlbut, 1981: 94).
Cairns said that the confusion referred to and its attendant difficulties
forced Pope to look around for a powerful ally who would support his
claims to spiritual power and to temporal possessions in Italy.
Accordingly, the Frankish rulers seemed to be the most promising allies,
and the Pope made an alliance with them in 800A.D. Therefore, the
glory of reviving the Roman Empire went to the Carolingian rulers.
Clovis was the first leader.
According to Cairns, Clovis’ sons did not have the ability of their father;
and control of the affairs of state passed into the hands of an official,
known as the mayor of the palace, who held the reins of government,
while the weak successors of Clovis enjoyed life in the palace. These
mayors of the palace made up what is known as the Carolingian dynasty,
which was to reach the zenith of its power under Charlemagne.
(1) Interestingly, Pepin of Heristal was the first of these mayors of

the palace to unite the divided possessions of Clovis, and from
687 to 714 he controlled the Franks for the palace - a hereditary
position to be filled by his descendants.
(2) The next ruler was Charles Martel (689-741) who was also called
the Hammerer. According to Cairns, Charles Martel was an
illegitimate son of Pepin, who took over the duties of mayor of
the palace after 714 A. D. His abilities as a warrior were
indispensable, rather, badly needed because the Muslims, who
had overrun Spain, were now threatening to take over all of
Western Europe. Cairns said that Charles fought them and
defeated them at the battle of Tours near Poitiers in 732 A. D. and
obligated the Roman Church to him because he had apparently
saved Western Europe for orthodox Christianity. It will interest
you to note that Martel supported the work of Boniface in
evangelizing the tribes beyond the Rhine, knowing that if they
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were won to Christianity, he would not have difficulty with them
on the Western bank of the Rhine.
(3) Cairns added that Charles successors as mayor of the palace was
his son Pepin (ca. 714-68) known as Pepin the Short or Pepin the
Great, who ruled jointly with his brother from 741-747 A. D.
when the brother withdrew to a monastery (Cairns, 1981, 183-
184).
(4) The next ruler over the Franks was Charlemagne, son of Pepin
the Short.
3.2 Biographical Sketch of Charlemagne
Much information about Charlemagne is derived from Einhard,

sometimes incorrectly known as Eginhard, writer of the biographic
sketch of Charlemagne. Charlemagne was about seven feet tall and had
a proportionately large body. His bright face and long white hair,
coupled with such height, gave him an air of dignity. He delighted in
hunting, riding, and swimming but also had a real interest in culture; and
this interest led him to combine the pleasure of the table with listening to
music or having someone read to him. He was also devoted to religion.
However, his religion did not carry over into his domestic life because
he kept concubines as well as his legal spouse in his palace.
Charlemagne (742-814 A. D.) came to the throne in 768 A. D. and in

800 A. D. he became emperor in the West when the Pope crowned him
Imperator Romanorum (Emperor of the Roman). His influence was felt
in every area of human endeavor in Western Europe.
3.3 The Achievements of Charlemagne
Concerning his views of the achievements and greatness of

Charlemagne, Edward Burns said that he ranks him as one of the most
important rulers of the whole medieval period. According to Burns,
most of his campaigns were very successful, thereby increasing the
Frankish realm. Earle Cairns also supported this view with the following
evidences and proofs. He said that:
1) Charlemagne was also a man of war. He engaged in over fifty

campaigns during the course of his reign in an attempt to end
anarchy within his kingdom and to expand its borders into Italy,
where he completed the defeat of the Lombards, and into
Germany, where he conquered the Saxons.
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2) He spread Christianity among the Saxons by force of arms.
3) He was able to double his father’s possessions until he held all of

Italy as far south as Rome, most of the area of modern Germany,
and all of the area of modern France. So much land in Western
Europe had not been under one jurisdiction since the time of the
Empire.
4) Charlemagne developed an able bureaucracy and a good system

of imperial government to administer his large empire. The
empire was divided into different areas, each of which comprised
several countries, under a duke. The emperor sent men known as
missidominici to the courts of these dukes at unexpected times to
inspect their accounts, to announce new capitularies or laws, and
to check on how well they were keeping order.
5) He was also friendly to the Church. He thought that the Church

might be compared to the soul and the State to the body of man.
Church and State had their respective spheres of responsibility.
6) While on a visit to Rome to finish the work of defeating the

Lombards in 774 A. D., he reconfirmed the donation of lands that
Pepin had made to the Pope in 756.
7) He believed, however, that the ruler of the church should not

dispute the decision of the ruler of the State and that bishops
should also be subordinated to the head of the state.
8) When Pope Leo III was set up by a faction in Rome and was
nearly killed, he left Rome for the court of Charlemagne.
Charlemagne went back to Rome with him, and at a Council the
Pope was cleared of the charges against him. At a holy mass in
the Cathedral on Christmas Day in 800 A. D., while Charlemagne
knelt before the altar, the Pope put the crown on Charlemagne’s
head and declared that he was the emperor of the Romans. Thus
was the Roman Empire revived in the West; and a new Rome, led
by a Teuton, took the place of the old Roman Empire. A
universal empire existed beside a universal church. The classical
and Christian heritages were not linked in a Christian empire
(Cairns, 1981: 185).
3.4 The Efficient Emperors
Perhaps, it is a part of life, that whatever has a beginning will surely

have an end. The good day of Charlemagne did not last long. Hurlbut
said that after the degenerate descendants of Charlemagne lost the
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throne, it became elective, the emperor being chosen by seven princes;
entitled electors. Among the fifty-four emperors, we can merely name a
few of the greatest after the time of Charlemagne.
The first name Hurlbut considered was Henry I called the Fowler
(919-936 A. D.), who began the restoration of the empire, which had
fallen into decay. His son Otto I (the Great), though not crowned as
emperor until 951 A. D., and who reigned until 973 A. D., is regarded as
the real founder of the Holy Roman Empire as distinct from the Roman
Empire.
According to Hurlburt, Frederick Barbarossa (Red Beard) was one of the

most powerful in the line of emperors. Hurlbut said that, Barbarossa
went on the Third Crusade, but was drowned in Asia Minor, and his
death led to the failure of the expedition.
Frederick II, grandson of Barbarossa, has been called the marvel and
enigma of history, enlightened and progressive, the liberal man of his
age, in his views of government and religion; was twice
excommunicated by the Pope, but in the Fifth Crusade made himself
king of Jerusalem.
Rudolph of Hapsburgh, founder of the house of Austria, received the

imperial crown in 1273 A. D. when it brought not much more than an
empty title; but he compelled princes and barons to submit to his
authority. From his time Austria was the most powerful state in the
German confederation, and nearly all the emperors were his
descendants, the archdukes of that country.
Charles V, emperor at the opening of the Reformation (1519 1556 A.

D.) was also hereditary ruler of Austria, Spain, and the Netherlands. He
did his best, but unable to hold all the lands under him to the old
religion. In 1556 A. D. he voluntarily abdicated, and spent the last two
years of his life in retirement (Hurlbut, 1981, 95-96).
3.6 The Emperors and the Popes
Perhaps, you love to go on memory lanes concerning the powers,

authority and influence of Popes in the Dark Ages. Many of them
abused their powers, by excommunicating members, by physical torture
and through inquisition. The Emperors on their own part insisted that
they were above clergymen and women.
For many centuries during the earlier history of the empire, there was
strong rivalry, and sometimes open war between the emperors and the
popes; emperors striving to rule the empire. For instance, Pope Gregory
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VII (Hildebrand) for a time compelled the submission of an emperor,
and Innocent III set up and put down emperors and kings. Happily, the
strife grew less vigorous and ceased after the Reformation, when the
boundary lines between the Church and the State had gradually become
fixed (Hurlbut, 1981, 96).
3.7 The Decline and Fall of the Holy Roman Empire
Perhaps, historians are at the vantage position to know causes, factors or

events that led to the downfall of many nations, kingdoms and Empires.
For instance, the Ancient Egyptian Civilization came to a low ebb
because of endless wars of succession; mismanagement of the resources,
internal wrangling and external forces. Sadly, similar evils could be
traced to the downfall of many nations; including the Holy Roman
Empire.
Hurlbut said that, as the realm of Austria grew more important, the
emperors were increasingly occupied in their hereditary dominions. The
many states of the empire became practically independent, until the
emperorship was little more than a meaningless honor. He added that, in
the eighteenth century, the cynical Voltaire said, the Holy Roman
empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. The succession of
emperors ended in 1806, when Napoleon was at the summit of his
power. In that year Francis II was compelled to renounce the title
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and assumed that of Emperor of
Austria (Hurlbut, 1981, 96).
3.8 Fall of Constantinople in 1453
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 A. D. did not come by surprise.

Severally, the Islamic jihads were targeted against it. The wealth of the
Empire was covered by foes around it. In addition, the religious
speculations and controversies, probably, kept the inhabitants busy, and
they were not thoroughly prepared for the final assault. In his own view,
about the fall of Constantinople, Hurlbut said that, the Greek Empire
never recovered from the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders
in 1204, but the strong defenses, natural and artificial, long protected the
city against the Turks, who succeeded the Arabians as the leading
Islamic power. Hurlbut explains further that, province after province of
the great empire was shorn away, until only the city of Constantinople
was left, and, in 1453, the Turks under Mohammed the Second, finally
took it. He further expressed that, in one day the Church of St. Sophia
was transformed into a mosque, and Constantinople became, as it
remained until 1920, the city of the Sultans and the capital of the
Turkish Empire. Angora (Ankara) became the Turkish capital after
World War I. The Greek Church continues with its patriarch, shorn of
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all but ecclesiastical authority, residing in Constantinople (Istanbul). The
fall of Constantinople in 1453 A. D. ends the period of the Medieval
Church (Hurlbut, 1981, 112).
3.9 Causes of the Separation of the Latin and Greek

Churches
Perhaps, you will be amazed to discover that Christian denominations

are multiplying on daily basis. The parting lines are not always
significant. Interestingly, they quote from the Bible to support their
existence and teachings. As stated earlier, the growth is unabated. The
separation of the Latin and Greek Churches was politically motivated.
The craving for power, popularity and recognition has always the banes
of any institution in our society. Hurlbut said that, although the
separation of the Latin and Greek churches was formally made in the
eleventh century, it was practically accomplished long before. He
explains that between popes and patriarchs strife had been the normal
relation for hundreds of years, until finally, in 1054 A.D., the Pope’s
messenger laid upon the altar of St. Sophia in Constantinople, the decree
of excommunication; whereupon the patriarch in turn issued his decree
excommunicating Rome and the churches submitting to the Pope. Since
that time the Latin and Greek churches have stood apart, neither one
recognizing the churchly existence of the other. Hurlbut further contends
that, most of the questions at issue, forming causes leading to the
separation, seem in our day almost trivial, yet for centuries these were
subjects of violent controversy, and at times of bitter persecutions.
Hurlbut present the following as causes of the separation:
a) Doctrinally, the principal difference lay in the doctrine known as

the procession of the Holy Ghost. The Latin Church held that the
Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son in Latin
filioque. The Greek Church said the Holy Spirit proceeds from
the Father leaving out the word filioque. Over that one word
mighty debates were held, books in untold numbers were written,
and even blood was shed in bitter strife.
b) In the ceremonies of the church, different usages became the

custom in the East and the West, and these customs were
formulated into laws. The marriage of priests was forbidden in
the Western Church, but sanctioned in the Eastern Church.
Throughout the Greek Church at the present time, every village
priest (who bears the title of pope, equivalent to father among the
Roman Catholics) must be a married man.
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c) In the Western Church the adoration of images has been practiced
for a thousand years, while in the Greek Church one sees not
statues but only pictures. Yet the pictures are in bold relief, as bas
relief images, and they are held in the most profound reverence.
d) In the service or the mass the Roman Churches used unleavened

bread (the wafer) while common bread is distributed in the Greek
communion.
e) As a protest against observance of the seventh day, the practice of

fasting on Saturday arose in the West but never in the East. Later,
the Roman Catholic fast day was changed to Friday, the day of
our Lord’s crucifixion.
f) But deeper than these differences of ceremony, in bringing about

the separation of the Latin and Greek churches, was the political
cause in the independence of Europe from the throne of
Constantinople, in the establishment of the Roman Empire (800
A.D.). Even after the fall of the old Empire of Rome in 476 A.D.
the imperial idea still held power; and the new barbarian
kingdoms of the Goths, Franks and other races, in a loose way
regarded themselves as theoretically under the emperor at
Constantinople. But when Charlemagne established the Empire, it
took the place of the ancient empire, separate from and
independent of the emperors of Constantinople. An independent
state necessitated an independent church.
g) But the most powerful force leading to the separation was the
persistent claim of Rome to be the ruling church and of its Pope
to be the Universal Bishop. At Rome the church was gradually
dominating the state; at Constantinople the church was
obsequious to the state. Hence a schism between the two sections
with such opposite conceptions was inevitable; and the final
rending apart of the two great divisions of the church came, as we
have seen, in 1054 A.D. (Hurlbut, 1981, 97).
4.0 CONCLUSION
Perhaps, the revival of the imperial power in the West was brought
about as a result of the papacy searching for security and stability. The
Bishop of Rome needed strong and formidable allies to ward off
enemies that constantly threatened and intimidated the peace of his
territories. Therefore, the Frankish rulers paved way for the desired
Empire the papacy was searching for. The bishop of Rome intended to
use the temporal authority as a tool in his hand to perpetuate his claims
as the Vicar of God on Earth. You will recollect that sometimes the
papacy achieved that lofty aims, as Emperors and Kings were humiliated
114
and brought down on their kneels, pleaded for mercy and forgiveness.
This was also the period when the first great schism in the church
occurred. The Western and Eastern sections of the church separated to
go their respective ways as the Roman Catholic Church in the West, and
the Greek Orthodox Church in the East. However, the gloom of the Dark
Ages was being slowly dispelled by a revival of learning that began
under Charlemagne.
5.0 SUMMARY
Throughout this unit, you have learnt the following points:

Frankish Emperors aided the papacy and supported her claims, whereas,
the Germans and French Rulers fought.
The ideal of a revived Roman Empire was never given up after the fall
of Charlemagne’s empire.
The German emperors of the tenth century took over from the west
Frankish state the tradition of empire, and the empire founded by Otto I
was known as the Holy Roman Empire.
The Carolingian Empire also created the problem of whether the Church
or the State was the representative of Deity on earth.
The issue of whether God had delegated sovereignty to the Pope or to

the Emperor so that one derived his authority from the other was a
heritage of Charlemagne’s empire. This issue embittered relationships
between the Church and the State for some centuries during the Middle
Ages.
The beginning of the Pope’s claim to be a temporal ruler dated from the
grant of lands in Italy to the Pope by Pepin, the ancestor of
Charlemagne, in 756 A. D.
The Pope as a temporal as well as a spiritual ruler made claims they

would not admit were justified on national rulers during the Middle
Ages.
The impetus given to culture by Charlemagne must be counted as one of

the great marks of his empire.
His reign was a bright light illuminating by contrast the cultural

darkness of the Dark Ages elsewhere in Western Europe.
The decline and fall of the Holy Roman Empire and that of
Constantinople
115
1. Discuss the rise and fall of the Holy Roman Empire.

2. Discuss the trends that led to the great Schism of 1054.
Cairns, Earle. E. Christianity through the Century: A History of the

Christian Church. (Rev. & Enlarged Ed.) Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1981, pp. 191-197; 205-206.

Meacham, Standish World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th Edition) New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1986, pp. 390-397; 423-430.
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1981). The Story of the Christian Church, Grand
Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996).Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity


The Barth Press., pp. 51-53.
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UNIT 2 THE CRUSADES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Origin of the Crusades
3.2 The First Crusade
3.3 The Second Crusade
3.4 The Third Crusade
3.5 The Fourth Crusade
3.6 The Fifth Crusade
3.7 The Sixth Crusade
3.8 The Seventh Crusade
3.9 Children’s Crusade
3.10 Causes of Failure of the Crusaders
3.11 Benefits of Crusades
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Another great movement in the Middle Ages, under the inspiration and
at the command of the Church, was the crusades, beginning at the end of
the eleventh century and continuing for nearly three hundred years.
From the fourth century onward even unto the present time pilgrimages
have been made by multitudes every year to the Holy Land. The number
of pilgrims vastly increased about the year 1000 A.D. when the end of
the world and the coming of Christ were almost universally expected;
and even after those events failed to take place, the pilgrimages
continued. At first, they were favored by the Muslim rulers of Palestine,
but, later, the pilgrims suffered oppression, robbery, and sometimes
death. At the same time the weakening eastern empire was menaced by
the Muslims, and the Emperor Alexis besought Pope Urban II to bring
the warriors of Europe to its relief. The spirit arose throughout Europe to
free the Holy Land from Muslims control, and out of this impulse came
the crusades.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
• enumerate the factors that gave rise to crusades

• identify the sponsors of the crusades and their goals
• identify the stages of the crusades and their effects on
• Christendom
• describe the folly of bigotry and fanaticism as related to
children’s crusade
• list the benefits of crusades to the Europeans and the Arabs
• analyze the failures of the expeditions
• describe the effects of the crusades on Papal power
• identify the factors leading to Christian Reformation of the
sixteenth century.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Origin of the Crusades
Perhaps, it should not be far-fetched for one to understand and

appreciate the importance and significance that most Christians attached
to the holy land, in an age when Christians depended on the merits of the
saints and the sales of indulgences rather than salvation by grace.
Average Christians believed that by visiting the holy land (Palestine)
where the Lord Jesus Christ lived, they would be closer to God, and God
will grant that any requests made in the holy land.
Interestingly, as early as the fourth century the mother of Constantine,
the first Christian Emperor, made a trip to the holy land. Therefore, it
became a general practice to atone for ones sins in the holy land. Also
economically, in the early stage of pilgrimage to Palestine it was very
lucrative in nature. The Arabs merchants were blessed with the proceeds
from the pilgrimage. The tourists went with enough cash and as they
returned to Europe they purchased many goods for their home ward
journey. That situation did not last long, rather, there came a period of
hostility intimidation and suspicion. The Arabs developed their empire
and thereby made the Christian pilgrimage burdensome. They would not
accept anybody to intrude on their privacy; therefore, they stopped
Christians mainly from Europe to Palestine. Therefore, when Jerusalem
was conquered, Christians from Europe felt compelled to regain the
Holy City where prayers could be made and the presence of God could
be felt.
Therefore, the birth, growth and conquest of Islam gave rise to Christian
crusades from 1095-1291 A. D. Tim Dowley said that it was Pope
Urban II who made passionate appeals at Clermont for aid to the Eastern
118
Christians against the Turks. The call was a genuine one because Tim
Dowley stated that the Turks had already captured Jerusalem and were
making frantic efforts to invade Constantinople. Therefore, Pope Urban
II’s appeal was well received throughout Europe and the first crusade
was out overland via Constantinople and regained Jerusalem in 1099
A. D.
3.2 The First Crusade
The principal crusades were seven in number, besides many other

expeditions of lesser importance to which the name was given. Pope
Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade in 1095 A. D., at the Council of
Clermont, where a multitude of knights assumed the cross as a badge,
and enlisted for the war against the Saracens. Hurlbut stated that before
the regular expedition was fully organized, a monk called Peter the
Hermit called together an undisciplined multitude, said to number
40,000, and led them toward the East, expecting miraculous aid. His
unorganized, unprovoked mob went to failure, many of its members to
slavery and death. But the first real crusade was undertaken by the best
warriors from every land of Europe, led by Godfrey of Bouillon and
other chiefs. After many reverses, chiefly from the lack of discipline and
dissensions among the leaders, they finally succeeded in taking the city
of Jerusalem and nearly all Palestine, in 1099. They established a
kingdom on feudal principles, and as Godfrey refused the name of king,
he was made Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulchre.
After Godfrey’s death, his brother Baldwin took the title of king. The
kingdom of Jerusalem lasted until 1187, though constantly in a
precarious condition, because it was surrounded by the Saracen Empire
on all sides except the sea, and was far distant from its natural allies in
Europe.
3.3 The Second Crusade
The Second Crusade was called forth by the news that the Saracens were
conquering the out laying provinces of the kingdom of Jerusalem and
menacing the city itself. Under the preaching of the saintly Bernard of
Clairvaux, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany led a great
army to succor the holy places. They met with many defeats, but finally
reached the city. They could not regain the lost territory, but did
postpone for a generation the final fall of the kingdom.
In 1187, Jerusalem was retaken by the Saracens under Saladin, and the
kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end, although the empty title King of
Jerusalem was continued long afterward.
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3.4 The Third Crusade
The fall of the city aroused Europe to the Third Crusade (1188-1192 A.
D.) which was led by three prominent sovereigns, Frederick Barbarossa
of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I the Lion hearted
of England. But Frederick, the best general and statesman, was drowned,
and the two remaining kings quarreled, Philip Augustus went home, and
all the courage of Richard did not avail to bring his army to Jerusalem.
But he obtained a treaty with Saladin, by which the Christian pilgrims
gained the right to visit the Holy Sepulchre unmolested.
3.5 The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade (1201-1204 A. D.) was worse than a failure, for it
wrought in the end great harm to the Christian Church. The Crusaders
were turned aside from their aim of winning the Holy Land, made war
on Constantinople, captured and plundered it, and set up their own rule
over the Greek Empire, which lasted fifty years, and left that empire
helpless as a bulwark against the growing power of the Seljuk Turks.
They were a warlike, uncivilized race, who succeeded the Saracens as
the dominant Mohammedan power soon after the close of the crusading
period (Hurlbut, 1981, 101).
3.6 The Fifth Crusade
In the Fifth Crusade (1228 A. D.) the Emperor Frederick II, although
excommunicated by the Pope, led an army to Palestine, and obtained a
treaty whereby Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem and Nazareth were ceded to
the Christians; and (as no Roman ecclesiastic would crown him, being
under the Pope’s ban), Frederick crowned himself King of Jerusalem.
From that fact the title King of Jerusalem was held by all the German
emperors of Austria until 1835 A. D. But through the quarrel between
the pope and emperor the results of the crusade were lost; Jerusalem was
retaken by the Mohammedans in 1244 A. D. and until 1817 A. D.
remained under their control.
3.7 The Sixth Crusade
The Sixth Crusade (1248-1254 A. D.) was undertaken by Louis IX of

France, known as St. Louis. He made his invasion by way of Egypt, and
though at first successful, was defeated and taken prisoner by the
Mohammedans. At an immense price he was ransomed, and went on to
Palestine, remaining there until 1252 A. D. when the death of his
mother, whom he had left as regent, compelled him to return to France.
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3.8 The Seventh Crusade
The Seventh Crusade (1270 -1272 A. D.) was also under the leadership
of St. Louis, jointly with Prince Edward Plantagenet of England,
afterward King Edward I. The route chosen was again by way of Africa;
but Louis died at Tunis, his son made peace, and Edward returned to
England to become king. So this, generally regarded as the last of the
crusades, came to naught.
3.9 Children’s Crusade
Children's Crusade was a popular and emotional movement in 1212 A.

D., growing out of crusading fervour, but not in any proper sense a
crusade. It lacked any official sanction or approval; indeed, all
responsible authorities, both clerical and lay, deplored it.
Though the movement began in June 1212, when a young shepherd

named Stephen, from Cloyes, France, had a vision in which Jesus
commanded him to raise an army to aid in the recapture of the Holy
Land (or Palestine) from the Muslim Saracens. Stephen recruited a band
of followers that included about 50,000 children and poor adults. The
group marched to Paris to persuade the French king, Philip II, to take up
the Crusade. The king apparently convinced them to return to their
homes.
However in the spring of 1212 A. D. a boy from Cologne named

Nicholas raised a larger followership principally in the Rhineland and
Lower Lorraine. He assured his recruits that God would help them take
Jerusalem back from the Muslims. When they reached Mainz, some
children in the group were persuaded to return home. The remainder
marched through Marbach, near Colmar, and then across the Alps into
Italy, where they separated into smaller groups. Some headed towards
Venice, while the main group proceeded through Piacenza and arrived at
Genoa on August 25. A few may actually have succeeded in finding
passage on ships bound from Pisa to the Holy Land. A handful
apparently reached Rome, and another small group turned up at
Marseille, France. Some eventually returned to their homes, but the
great majority simply disappeared without trace.
Although the expedition known as the Children's Crusade testifies to the

continuing appeal of the Crusading ideal in the early 13th century, the
episode contributed nothing to the achievement of the Crusades' goals.
Instead, it is a pathetic tribute to the grip that the Holy Land held on the
imagination of Europeans and to the fervour that the Crusades excited
among all classes of the population.
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3.10 Causes of Failure of the Crusaders
There were minor crusades, so called, but none deserving special

mention. In fact, from 1270 onward any war undertaken even nominally
in behalf of the church was called a crusade, even when against heretics
in Christian countries.
a) The crusaders failed to free the Holy Land from the dominion of
the Muslims because the kings and princes who led the
movement were perpetually quarreling, each chieftain caring
more for his own interests than for the common cause; all jealous
of one another, and fearful of a success which might promote the
influence or fame of a rival. Against their divided, suspicious,
half-hearted effort was arrayed a fearless, united people, a race
always bold in war, and under the absolute rule of one
commander, whether caliph or sultan.
b) The leadership also possessed no large, far-sighted vision.

Immediate results were all that they looked for. They did not
realize that to found and maintain a kingdom in Palestine, a
thousand kilometers from their own lands, required constant
communication with Western Europe, a strong base of supply,
continual reinforcement.
c) The conquest of the land was an intrusion, not liberation. The

people of Palestine were practically enslaved by the Crusaders; as
slaves were compelled to build castles, fortresses, and palaces for
their hated masters. They welcomed the return of their former
Muslim rulers, for heavy as their yoke had been; it was lighter
than that of the Christian kings of Jerusalem.
3.11 Benefits of Crusades
Yet, despite the failure to maintain a Christian kingdom in Palestine,

certain good results came to Europe from the crusades.
1) After the crusades the pilgrims were protected by the Turkish

government and persecution ceased. In fact, the land became
more prosperous, and the cities of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and
Jerusalem increased in population and in wealth, through the tide
of pilgrims sweeping over Palestine, under guarantees of safety
from the Turkish rulers.
2) After the crusades, Moslem aggressions on Europe were checked.

The experience of those centuries awakened Europe to the danger
from Islam. The Spaniards were encouraged to make war upon
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the Moors, who held half of the peninsula. Under Ferdinand and
Isabella, the Spaniards in 1492, subjugated the Moorish kingdom,
and expelled the Muslims from the land.
3) On the eastern frontier of Europe, Poland and Austria stood on

guard, and in 1683 turned back the tide of Turkish invasion in a
great battle won near the city of Vienna. This victory marked the
beginning of decline in the power of the Turkish Empire.
4) Another result of the crusades was a better acquaintance of

nations with each other. Not only the rulers and chieftains, but the
inferior knights and even the soldiers of the different lands began
to know each other, to recognize interests in common. Among
nations a mutual respect for each other arose, and alliances were
formed. The crusades were a great contribution toward the
development of modern Europe.
5) The crusades furnished a great impulse to trade. The demand for

supplies of every kind arms, provisions, guides, ships promoted
manufactures and commerce.
6) The Crusaders brought home a knowledge of the wealth in the

Orient, its carpets, silks, jewels, and a trade in these arose all over
Western Europe.
7) Merchants grew rich; a middle class arose between lord and serf;
the cities advanced in power, and the castles began to decline in
their control over them.
8) In the after centuries, the cities became the centers of freedom
and reform, breaking away from the arbitrary control of both
princes and prelates.
9) The ecclesiastical power was at first greatly increased through the

crusades. The wars were waged at the call of the church, which
thereby showed its domination over princes and nations.
10) Moreover, the church bought lands, or loaned money on them as

security to crusading knights and greatly enlarged its holdings
throughout Europe.
11) And in the absence of temporal rulers, bishops and popes gained
control.
12) But in the final result, the vast wealth, the over-weaning
ambition, and the unscrupulous use of power by churchmen,
aroused discontent, and aided to pave the way for the
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approaching revolt against the Roman Catholic Church in the
Reformation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The crusades that were organized and sponsored in Europe around

eleventh century had the following two themes; the holy war, or military
expedition blessed by the church and the pilgrimage to a holy place.
5.0 SUMMARY
Throughout this unit you have learnt:
That the two main goals of crusaders were: to recover the lost territories
of Christendom and the pilgrimage to a holy land.
That the crusaders were largely driven by religious motives.

That the first crusade was far more successful than later expeditions.
That from the beginning the papacy was prominently involved in the
movement as it issued incentives to go on crusade, such as immunity
from taxes and debt payment, the indulgence, which guaranteed the
crusaders’ entry into heaven and reduced or abolished his time in
purgatory.
That the popes sent out crusade preachers, organized financial support,
and sought to provide transport.
That the number of crusades is normally given as seven or eight with

many smaller expeditions and that after about 1150 A. D. there was a
regular stream of soldiers, pilgrims and merchants from Europe to Syria.
That one of the original crusader states, Edessa, fell to the Muslims in
1144 A. D. and the second crusade led by the Kings of France and
Germany in 1147-1149 A. D. failed to recover Christian lands because
the expedition was marked by a series of disasters.
That after 1150 A. D. Nureddin and Saladin, two Islamic leaders united
Muslim territories, in the near East, Egypt under one dynasty.
That in 1187 A. D. Saladin sacked Jerusalem and overran crusaders

lands.
That the third crusade was led by King Richard Lionheart of England
and the rulers of France and Germany. Though they recovered part of
the lost territory they were not able to recover Jerusalem itself.
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That in the thirteenth century the crusaders were restricted to a coastal
strip, and the seaport Acre replaced Jerusalem as their capital.
That between 1228-1229 A. D., through negotiation, the Emperor

Frederick II regained Jerusalem, however, it was lost again in 1244
A. D.
That the Mamluke Sultans of Egypt captured Acre in 1291, thereby

ending Christian rule in Syria.
That the fourth crusade was the expedition of the Knights, the two new
religious orders, to defend the holy land, and conquer the great Eastern
City.
That there were other crusades, though, pathetic, such as children’s

crusade.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
Discuss the role of papacy in the crusades
Discuss the successes and failures of the crusades
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Cairns, Earle. E. Christianity through the Century: A History of the

Christian Church. (Rev. & Enlarged Ed.) Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1981, p. 216; 219-221.

Meacham, Standish World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th Edition) New
York: W.W. Norton & Company. 1986, pp. 451-458.
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1981). The Story of the Christian Church. Grand
Dowley, Tim (ed.). Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity

Singapore: Lion Publishing Plc. 1996, pp. 278-283.

The Barth Press, pp. 54-56.
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UNIT 3 FORERUNNERS OF THE REFORMATION
AND INVENTION OF PRINTING PRESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Albigenses
3.2 Waldensians
3.3 John Wycliff
3.4 John Huss
3.5 Jerome Savonarola
3.6 Scholars and Leaders
3.6.1 Anselm in Italy
3.6.2 Peter Abelard
3.6.3 Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)
3.6.4 Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
3.7 Invention of the Printing Press
3.8 Benefits of the Printing Press
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Probably, by now you are aware that you are gradually coming to the
end of your study this first semester, therefore, there is a need for you to
study some antecedent forces to Reformation of 1517 A. D.
There are five great movements to consider in this unit, prior to the
dawn of the Christian Church Reformation. These groups paid the
supreme sacrifice for the faith that was so dear to them. They operated
when the papacy was almost at its peak. They witnessed the risen
Saviour at the expense of their lives. Indeed, they were hunted, but
remained resolute to their Coming King.
Also, this unit highlights the breakthrough in the spread of the gospel’s
true message through the invention of printing press in 1456 A. D.
Renaissance was another factor that aided the Christian Church
Reformation of the sixteenth century. You will study this aspect in the
next unit, which is the last for this semester.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
• narrate the origin of religious reform

• describe the Puritan movement
• narrate the story of Peter Waldo and the Waldensians
• narrate the story of John Wycliffe (1329-1384 A. D.) and his role
in the Reformation
• narrate the story of John Huss of Bohemia
• describe the life and time of Jerome Savanarola of Italy
• identify the contributions of Anselm, Abelard, Bernard and
Thomas Aquinas
• identify the role of the invention of the Printing Press in the
Reformation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Albigenses or Cathari
The period of the Dark Ages has been sufficiently described in previous
units when the papacy claimed to be all in all. It was a period of thick
darkness concerning the teachings of the Bible. Most of the teachings of
the Roman Catholic Church were dogmas that could not be challenged
or refused by Christians of the Middle Ages. And as it were, those
teachings were forced down the throats of people. However, there were
a few Christians who rejected doctrines that were contrary to the simple
but basic teachings of the Bible. Jesse Hurlbut (1981) shed more light on
the struggle that arose between the papacy and these groups. He said that
between 1170 to 1498 A. D., the glimpse of religious light began to
shoot over the age, foretokens of the coming Reformation. He explained
that, at least, five to six great movements for reform in the church arose,
but the world was not ready for them, and they were repressed with
bloody persecution.
The Albigenses or Cathari, Puritans, grew up to prominence in Southern

France, about 1170. It was said that the Puritans repudiated the authority
of tradition, rather, they circulated the New Testament, and opposed the
Romish doctrines of purgatory, image-worship, and priestly claims. It
should be pointed out that the Albigenses held some peculiar views
allied to the ancient Manicheans, who rejected the Old Testament. The
papacy could not countenance these peculiar views, therefore, Pope
Innocent III, in 1208, called for a crusade against them, and the sect was
extirpated by the slaughter of almost the entire population of the region,
Catholic as well as heretic.
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3.2 Waldensians
The Waldensians were founded about the same time, 1170, by Peter
Waldo, a merchant of Lyons, who read, explained, preached and
circulated the Scriptures, to which he appealed against the doctrines of
the Roman Catholics. Tim Dowley (1996) also confirmed that Peter
Waldo or Valdes, experienced conversion about 1175 or 1176 A. D. It
was said that immediately after his conversion, he gave away his world
goods and decided to follow the example of Christ by leading a simple
life of poverty and preaching. It was also said that Waldo had
translations made from the Latin New Testament into the vernacular,
which formed the basis of his evangelism.
With his followers, who were all dedicated men and women, they spread
the message of the Bible and exalted the virtues of poverty. By so doing,
they were a living condemnation of the wealth and laxity of the
established church. Pope Lucius III was not happy with their preaching,
he directed that the Waldensians and other similar groups should be
eliminated by the Episcopal inquisition. An inquisition is a special court
set up by the Roman Catholic Church with a peculiar power to judge
intentions as well as the actions of heretics. The outcomes of the above
sanction, made the Waldensians flee from Lyons rather than submit. As
for the Waldensians such outbursts by the Pope only tended to convince
them that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon, and was not
to be acknowledged. The Poor Men of Lyons went through central and
southern France, where they gained more followers. However, they were
bitterly persecuted severally and driven out of France, but found hiding
places in the valleys of northern Italy. Providentially, in the face of
centuries of persecution, the Waldensians have endured, and constitute a
part of the comparatively small group of Protestants in Italy today. The
Waldensians laid solid foundations on which the great religious changes
of the sixteenth century would occur, when many Waldensians beliefs
entered the mainstream of the Protestant movement.
3.3 John Wycliffe
John Wycliff began the movement in England for freedom from the
Roman power and for reformation in the Church. Hurlbut (1981) said
that he was born about 1329 A. D. and was educated at the University of
Oxford, where he became obtained of theology, and became the leading
spirit in its Councils. It was stated that John Wycliffe was bitter about
the teachings of Roman Catholic Church. Therefore, he took the
following actions against papacy.
He attacked the medicant friars, and the system of monasticism.

He rejected and opposed the authority of the pope in England.
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He wrote against the doctrine of transubstantiation. i.e., in the mass the
bread and wine are transformed into the veritable body of Christ.
Wycliffe urged that the church service be made simpler, according to the
New Testament pattern.
Hurlbut said that, in other lands Wycliffe would have suffered

martyrdom, but in England he was protected by the most powerful
among the nobles, and though the University condemned some of his
doctrines, he was allowed to retire to his parish at Lutterworth and
remain undisturbed as a priest. It was also pointed out that John
Wycliffe’s greatest work was his translation of the New Testament into
English, finished in 1380, the Old Testament, in which he was aided by
friends, appeared in 1384 A. D., the year of Wycliffe’s death. His
followers were called Lollards, at one time numerous, but under Kings
Henry IV and Henry V were persecuted and finally exterminated.
Wycliffe’s preaching and his translation prepared the way for the
Reformation. The next martyr was John Huss of Bohemia.
3.4 John Huss
John Huss, of Bohemia (born 1369 A. D. martyred 1415 A. D.), was a

reader of Wycliffe’s writings, and preached his doctrines, especially
proclaiming freedom from papal authority. He was made Rector of the
University of Prague, and for a time held a commanding influence
throughout Bohemia. Tim Dowley (1996) said that through John Huss’
preachings and writings, emphasis was laid on the following:
personal piety and purity of life

the role of Scripture as an authority in the Church
the Church as the body of Christ, with Christ as its only head
God as the only One who can forgive sin
after lifting preaching to an important status in Church services, he
preached that neither the Pope nor cardinals could establish a doctrine
which was contrary to Scripture
nobody should obey an order that is not based on the Bible
he condemned the corruptness of the clergy
criticized his people for worshipping images, believing in false miracles
and undertaking superstitious pilgrimages
he condemned the sale of indulgences
he criticized the church for withholding the cup of wine from the people
during communion
The papacy could not condone the above charges against her and
therefore planned to exterminate John Huss.
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The Pope excommunicated him, and laid the city of Prague under an
interdict while he remained there. Huss retired, but from his hiding-
place sent forth letters reaffirming his views. After two years he
consented to go before the Council of the Roman Catholic Church at
Constance, in Baden on the border of Switzerland, having received a
safe conduct from the Emperor Sigismund. But the pledge was violated
upon the principle that faith was not to be kept with heretics. Huss was
condemned and burned to death in 1415 A. D. but his fate aroused the
reforming element in his native land, and has influenced Bohemia
through all the centuries since his day.
3.5 Jerome Savonarola
Jerome Savonarola was a monk of the Dominican order at Florence in

Italy, and Prior of the Monastery of St. Mark. Tim Dowley (1996) said
that Savonarola was an Italian preacher who was born in Ferara in 1452
and was executed in 1498 by papal authority. Dowley added that
Savonarola studied humanism and medicine. He later renounced these
pursuits to become a Dominican in 1474. He became a popular preacher
in Florence. His sermons warned of the great judgement coming on the
city after which Florence would unite with Italy in a just
commonwealth. It was said that these predictions seemed to be fulfilled
when Charles VIII, King of France invaded Italy and the Medici rulers
of Florence fled. Dowley said that under the new regime, Savonarola
became a prominent leader who initiated series of reforms through his
preachings some of these initiatives were:
tax reforms
aid to the poor
reforms in the courts
changed the city from a lax corrupt, pleasure-loving place into a virtual
monastery.
Denunciation of Pope Alexander VI and the corrupt papal court.
Hurlbut (1981) in his own account said that Savonarola preached, like
one of the old prophets, against the social, ecclesiastical, and political
evils of his day. His preaching filled the great cathedral to overflowing
with multitudes eager not only to listen, but to obey his teachings. For a
time, he was the practical dictator of Florence and effected a seeming
reformation. But he was excommunicated by the Pope, was imprisoned,
condemned, hanged, and his body burned, in the great square of
Florence. His martyrdom was in 1498 A. D., only nineteen years before
Luther nailed his theses on the cathedral door at Wittenberg.
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3.6 Scholars and Leaders
Let us mention very briefly some of the scholars and leaders of thought
in the period, which we have studied. During the thousand years of the
Medieval Church many great men arose, but we name only four of them
as the intellectual leaders of their age.
3.6.1 Anselm
Anselm was born 1033 in Piedmont in Italy, and at first, like many
others, was a wandering scholar in various lands, but became a monk at
the Monastery of Bee in Normandy, and was made Abbot in 1078 A. D.
He was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of the Church
of England by William Rufus in 1093 A. D.; but strove against William
and his successor Henry I, for the liberty and authority of the church,
and for a time suffered banishment. He was the writer of many
theological and philosophical works, and has been called a second
Augustine. He died in 1109 A. D.
1) Tim Dowley (1966) said that Anselm as Archbishop was known

as a reformer, encouraging regular church synods, enforcing
clerical celibacy and suppressing the slave trade.
2) Anselm was one of the early scholastic theologians, who taught

that faith must lead to the right use of reason: I believe, in order
that I may understand.
3) It was said that, Anselm was the first person to put forward the
ontological argument for the existence of God. Perhaps, this was
an attempt to prove Gods existence by reason alone.
4) However, Anselm’s greatest work in theology was his Cur Deus

Homo (Why God Became Man) Anselm replied that sin runs up a
debt with God which humans can never themselves repay.
5) Anselm’s work showed deep insight into humanity’s need of

atonement.
3.6.2 Peter Abelard
Peter Abelard, born 1079, died 1142, as a philosopher and theologian;

he was the boldest thinker of the Middle Ages. He may be regarded as
the founder of the University of Paris, which was the mother of the
European Universities. His fame as a teacher drew students by the ten
thousand from every part of Europe and many of the great men in the
generation succeeding his own were influenced by his thought. His
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daring speculations and independent opinions more than once brought
him under the ban of the church. Even more famous than his teachings
and writings has been the romantic story of his love-affair with the
beautiful Heloise for whom he broke his monastic vows. They were
married, but afterward compelled to separate. Both entered convents;
Abelard died an abbot and Heloise an abbess.
3.6.3 Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)
Tim Dowley (1996) said that Bernard of Clairvaux was the first of the
great medieval mystics and a leader of a new spirit of ascetic simplicity
and personal devotion. Dowley added that Bernard wished to turn his
back on the world and its comforts, and lead a life of prayer and self-
denial. However, he did not hesitate to criticize and correct the powerful
leaders of his age.
It was also said that Bernard of Clairvaux emphasized God’s love and
believed that Christians come to know God by loving him. Hurlbut
(1981) also described him as Bernard of Clairvaux of a noble French
family. He was educated for the court, but renounced it for the convent.
In 1115 A. D., he established at Clairvaux a monastery of the reformed
Cistercian order, and became its first Abbot. His branch of the order
took root in many countries, and its members were commonly known as
Bernardines. Bernard was a remarkable union of the mystic and the
practical thinker. He preached and promoted the Second Crusade in
1147. A broad-minded gentle-hearted man, he opposed and wrote
against the persecution of the Jews. Some of his hymns, as Jesus, the
very thought of Thee, and O Sacred Head, now wounded, are sung in all
the churches. Only twenty years after his death he was canonized as St.
Bernard. Luther said If there ever lived on earth a God-fearing and holy
monk, it was St. Bernard of Clairvaux.
3.6.4 Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
The greatest mind of the Middle Ages was that of Thomas Aquinas, who
lived 1225 to 1274, and was called Universal Doctor, Angelical Doctor,
and Prince of Scholastics. He was born at Aquino in the kingdom of
Naples, and against the will of his family entered the Dominican order
of monks. While a young student he was so silent that he was
nicknamed the dumb ox; but his master, Albertus Magnus, said, “this ox
will one day fill the world with his bellowing”. He became the most
celebrated and highest authority of all the medieval period in philosophy
and theology, and his writings are still often quoted, especially by
Roman Catholic scholars. He died in 1274 A. D.
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Dowley said that Thomas was a prolific writer, whose works fill
eighteen large volumes. They include commentaries on most of the
books of the Bible, commentary on Peter Lombard’s sentences,
discussions on thirteen works of Aristotle and a variety of disputations
and sermons.
He will forever be remembered for two most important works, which are
the Summa Theologiae and the Summa Contra Gentiles. Together they
represent an encyclopedic summary of Christian thought. The first based
on revelation and the second designed to support Christian belief with
human reason.
Thomas Aquinas emphasized that all human knowledge originates in the

sense. He also emphasized that philosophy is based on data accessible to
all men and that theology is based only on revelation and logical
deduction comes from revelation. His teachings paved way for the
development of sciences during the Renaissance Era.
3.7 Invention of the printing press
A completely new dimension in the history of books, scholarship and

education opened up with the invention of printing – sometimes called
Germany’s chief contribution to the Renaissance. The art of printing
from handcut wooden blocks was invented in Asia about the fifth
century A. D., and the first known printed book was produced by this
means in China in 868. But Europe had to wait until the middle of the
fifteenth century for the art to be rediscovered and developed. About
1445 Johann Guternberg (1400-68) began to pioneer with movable
metal type at Mainz in Germany, and – significantly – the first complete
book known to have been printed in the Christian world was the Bible
(1456).
Until 1462 the new art remained a closely guarded trade secret in Mainz
but in that year the city was plundered and the printers dispersed. Within
two decades the invention spread north, south, east and west; printing-
presses were set up in Rome in 1467, Paris in 1470, Cracow in 1474 and
Westminster in 1476. By the time Luther was born, in 1483, printing
was well established throughout Europe. It was the most momentous
invention since the stirrup, and a revolutionary step forward in
technology. Like the invention of gunpowder (rediscovered at about the
same time), the application of printing to book-production held a
tremendous potential for good and evil in subsequent history.
The printing press was important in the early spread of the reformation.
The writings of the first Germany reformers (Luther and Melanchthon)
reached a comparatively wide public in printed form within weeks and
133
were soon read in Paris and Rome. At the height of the Reformation, in
the last years of Luthers life, busy printers enabled the anonymous work
Beneficio di Christo (which more than any other book spread the
doctrine of justification by faith in Italy) to sell 40,000 copies in Venice
alone after its publication there in 1543. Even before the Reformation,
printing had helped to create a wider and more critical reading-public
than had ever been known in the Christian world. It also met the new
demand for reading material with works such as the religious satires of
Erasmus, which were a big commercial success. On hearing a rumour
that the Sorbonne was about to condemn it, one Paris printer rushed
through an edition of 24,000 copies of Erasmus Colloquies. Thus
printing helped prepare the way for the Reformation.
3.8 Benefits of printing press
Some of the benefits of the printing press to Christianity are as follows:
1) The press brought the scriptures into common use.

2) The press led to their translation and circulation in all languages
of Europe.
3) The people who read the New Testament soon realized that the
papal Church was far from the New Testament ideal.
4) The new teachings of the Reformers, as fast as they appeared,
were set forth in books and pamphlets, which were circulated in
millions throughout Europe.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Throughout this unit you have studied the travails of faithful Christian,
who stood for the correct teachings of the Bible. They gave their lives as
a "living sacrifice" at the altar of freedom of religion. The irony of life
was the strong conviction that the papacy had in clamping down "the
heresy" as an act of God. Indeed, those five great movements bore and
sealed the testimony of Jesus with their blood that eventually became the
seeds of the gospel.
In addition, the invention of the printing press accelerated the growth of

publishing works. Tracts were readily made available and circulated
throughout the world. Through that great invention, translations of the
Bible into several languages were printed at a low cost. Therefore the
above two major events set the stage for the Christian Reformation of
the Sixteenth century in Europe.
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5.0 SUMMARY
It is expected that you have learnt the following points from this unit:
• The exercise of choice in religious doctrine has posed a problem

in Christianity, perhaps since the days of the Apostles
• Albigensians, Waldesians, the Lorlards and others were declared

heretics in the thirteenth century and were punished for their
beliefs.
• Pope Alexander III, in the third Lateran Council of 1179

announced a Crusade against the Cathars (Albigensians) of
France.
• Pope Innocent III was the first Pope to talk about heresy in terms
of treason. Therefore in 1208, he launched a successful Crusade
against the Albigensians that destroyed Cathar as a political
power by 1250 ruining the civilization of the area in the process.
• Gregory IX and Pope Innocent IV incorporated all earlier Papal

statements about the organization of the inquisition, as well as
condoning the use of torture in dealing with heretics.
• Inquisition was a special court with a peculiar power to judge

intentions as well as actions of heretics.
• The invention of the Printing Press and its benefits in terms of

mass production of the Bible, leaflets and tracts which aided the
works of Christian Missionaries.
1. Discuss the forerunners of the Christian Reformation of the

century.
2. Discuss how the printing press was important to the early spread
of the Reformation.

Zondervan Publishing House, , pp. 250-253; 259-265.
135
Meacham, (1986). Standish World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th
Edition) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, p. 358.
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1981). The Story of the Christian Church. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, pp. 110-112; 118.

Houghton, S.M. (2001).Sketches from Church History. Great Britain:

136
UNIT 4 RENAISSANCE AGE TO THE DAWN OF
REFORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Renaissance Defined
3.2 Renaissance and its Impacts
3.3 Renaissance and Humanists
3.4 The Dawn of the Reformation
3.5 The Rise of the Spirit of Nationalism
3.6 The Reformation in Germany
3.7 The Sales of Indulgences
3.8 Martin Luther’s Thesis of 1517
3.9 Burning the Papal Bull
3.10 The Diet at Worms in 1521
3.11 The Wartburg Castle Experience
3.12 The Protestant name
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Perhaps, you need to congratulate yourself that you have come to Unit 4
of Module 3, which is the last unit of your study in the first semester. By
now, you should understand the beginning of the Christian Church, its
growth and persecutions. Without mincing words, you have understood
how the Apostolic church metamorphosized into the Imperial Church
and subsequently came under the control of the papacy. The absolute
authority of papacy over the Christian church inhibited the spirit of
enquiry. Those who dared the Pope paid the supreme sacrifice.
Therefore, the period of the Dark Ages persisted till the Renaissance
Age, the invention of the printing press and the time when forerunners
of the Reformation were slaughtered. In the previous units, you became
aware that the Roman Catholic Church prevailed over all aspects of
human activities when she was at her peak. She asserted authority over
Emperors, Kings, Queens and every other human establishment. In such
an atmosphere, there was no meaningful growth or new developments.
However, there came a new beginning, a rebirth of learning heralded by
the Renaissance Age. This is an age, when every new thing was
subjected to experiment, observation, rigorous verification and backed
137
up with facts and data. This spirit of enquiry became the bedrock for
scientists, philosophers, politicians and the Christian Church Reformers.
In this unit, you will study how the Renaissance Age, accelerated the
dawn of the Christian Church Reformation. The word dawn, signifies,
the early morning time or of a stage when a programme is at its infancy.
Therefore, the word dawn suggests to you that you will only treat the
beginning of the Christian Reformation in this semester. By the grace of
God you will study in details the stories of the Christian Church
Reformation in many countries of Europe and America in the second
semester, as you register for
CRS142: Church History.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the spirit of investigation and experiments in the

Renaissance
• identify the Italian and English fathers in Arts, Rhetoric,
Religion, Painting and Sciences
• identify the motives that gave rise to the decisions made by
forerunners of the Reformation
• analyze the life of Martin Luther and the resultant effect on the
Christian Church.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Renaissance Defined
Renaissance stand for re-birth of learning and also tells of a new

beginning that affected and transformed all aspects of life, political,
economic and religious as well as intellectual and artistic.
Jesse Hurlbut has also lent his voice to the definition of Renaissance in
the following sentence. He defined Renaissance as a very strong
movement that awakened Europe to a new interest in literature, art and
science, the change from medieval to modern aims and methods of
thought.
He adds that during the Middle Ages, the interest of scholars had been in
religious truth, with philosophy as related to religion by churchmen.
However, in this new awakening, a new interest arose in classical
literature, Greek and Latin, in art, that became the first gleams of
modern science (Hurlbut, 1981, 117).
138
Tim Dowley said that, the Renaissance began with the revival of
classical learning by scholars who have come to be called humanists. He
quickly defined a humanist as someone who taught Latin grammar,
originally. However, the humanists stand in contrast to the schoolmen,
and humanism in contrast to scholasticism. He said that they were not
necessarily opposed to Christianity in the early stage because some of
them professed faith in Christ (Tim Dowley, 1996, 354).
3.2 The Renaissance and its Impacts
The period you are now studying started from the 9th to 15th Centuries.
F. I. Akaneme (2004, 47) said that during that period men began to be
dissatisfied with a way of life, which made progress very slow. She
added that, they were not satisfied to learn simply what those before
them had written or taught. They tried to find out new things for
themselves. She further explains that, they questioned most of the
teachings that were forced on them by the Church. Therefore, the spirit
of questioning old beliefs and forming new opinions generally came to
be described as the Renaissance, which means rebirth or revival of
learning. According to Akaneme, the revival was started in Italy by three
famous scholars: Dante (1265-1321 A.D.), Petrarch (1304-1374 A. D.)
and Boccaccio (1313-1321 A.D.). These artists tried to show how
superior the learning, art and culture of the ancient Greeks were, and this
led to a revival of interest in the Greek language.
F. I. Akaneme (2004, 48) further stated that, in the field of science were
two very influential theologians and philosophers: Albert the Great
(1193-1280 A. D.), a Bovarian Dominican priest, and Thomas Aquinas
(1225-1274 A. D.), an Italian monk. Both of them taught at the
University of Paris. She stated further that they were the first to accept
the idea of a distinction between knowledge of nature and revealed
knowledge. It was said that, others who contributed to the revival of
learning were Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253 A. D.), an English
philosopher of science; and Roger Bacon (1290-1294 A. D.), an English
Franciscan Monk, who insisted that for any truth or knowledge to be
accepted it must be observed and experimented. Perhaps, one of the
giants in the field of science was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 A. D.),
an Italian who was a painter, a sculptor, an engineer, an architect, a
physicist, a biologist and a philosopher, who insisted that true learning
must begin with observation and experiments.
Edward Burns (1986, 324-327) concludes that other heroes of the era
were William Ockham (1285-1349 A. D.), an abstract thinker; Giovanni
Boccaccio (1313-1375 A. D.), the greatest writer of Vernacular prose-
fiction and Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400 A. D.), the first major writer
of English that can still be read today. Perhaps, time will not permit one
139
to elongate the list. However, suffice to say that the spirit of enquiry,
doubt or questioning that came with Renaissance period, engendered
discipline into the search of the Scriptures. The spirit of the age,
motivated the reformers to question the dogmas of the Catholic Church.
Therefore, in their search for the truth, as recorded in the Bible, they
discovered that the Roman Catholic Church of their day needed to be
straightened up. You could see how the Renaissance spirit spurred the
Reformers into action. Therefore in this unit you shall study few other
factors that cumulated to the dawn of Reformation and as relates to
Martin Luther.
3.3 Renaissance and Humanists
Although the Renaissance culture was by no means pagan, it certainly

was more secular in its orientation than the culture of the Middle Ages
(Burns, 1986, 598-621). Burns said that humanism in its technical sense
was a program of studies which aimed to replace the medieval scholastic
emphasis on logic and metaphysics with the study of language,
literature, history and ethics.
According to Burns however, the broader sense of humanism lies in a

stress on the dignity of man as the most excellent of all Gods creatures
below the angels. Therefore, Renaissance humanists had a firm belief in
the nobility and possibilities of the human race.
Burns stated that one of the greatest Renaissance scholars and writers
was Francis Petrarch, one of the first Italian humanists. He thought that
the Christian writer must above all cultivate literary eloquence so that he
could inspire people to do well. Burns added that civic humanists like
the Florentines Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) asserted that ambition and
the quest for glory were noble impulses, which ought to be encouraged.
Therefore, they refused to condemn the striving for material possessions,
for they argued that the history of human progress is inseparable from
mankind’s success in gaining mastery over the earth and its resources..
Perhaps, one can agree with Burns, that Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536
A.D.) was the prince of the Christian humanists. According to Burns,
Erasmus intended that everything he wrote must propagate in one form
or another, what he called the philosophy of Christ. Therefore, Burns
said that, the essence of Erasmus’ Christian humanist convictions was
his belief that the entire society of his day was caught up in corruption
and immorality as a result of having lost sight of the simple teachings of
the gospels. Burns added that Erasmus categorically emphasized that no
one could be a good Christian without being certain of exactly what
Christ’s message really was. Therefore, Erasmus spent ten years
studying and comparing all the best early Greek biblical manuscripts he
140
could find in order to establish an authoritative text. Finally, in 1516, a
year before Martin Luther wrote his 95 objections (thesis) against the
teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, Erasmus published his Greek
New testament, one of the most important landmarks of biblical
scholarship of all time. Thus, a solid foundation was laid for the
Christian Church Reformation of 1517 (Edward Burns, 1986, 598-621).
3.4 The Dawn of the Reformation
In this period of two hundred years, the great fact that arrests attention is
the Reformation, which began in Germany and spread over all northern
Europe, resulting in the establishment of national churches owing no
allegiance to Rome. You will now notice some antecedent forces leading
to the Reformation, and greatly furthering its progress. The first to
consider is the rise in the spirit of nationality.
3.5 The Rise in the Spirit of Nationalism
Hurlbut (1981) said that the spirit of nationalism that arose in Europe
during the dawn of Reformation differed from the Medieval strives
between Emperors and Popes, in that it was more of a popular than a
kingly movement. He said that the patriotism of the people was
beginning to manifest itself in the following ways:
i) an unwillingness to submit to a foreign rule over their own

national churches;
ii) willingness to resist the appointment by a pope in a distant land,
of bishops, abbots, and church dignitaries;
iii) a disposition to withhold the contribution of Peter’s pence for the
support of the Pope and the building of stately churches in Rome;
iv) and a determination to abridge the power of the church councils,
bringing the clergy under the same laws and courts with the laity.
This national spirit was a strong support to the reforming
movement
3.6 The Reformation in Germany
While the spirit of reform and of independence was awakening through

all Europe, the flame burst forth first in Germany, in the electorate of
Saxony, under the leadership of Martin Luther, a monk and professor in
the University of Wittenberg. Please notice some of its earlier stages,
and the resultant effects on the world in general.
141
3.7 The Sale of Indulgencies
Perhaps, you need to have an insight to the Sales of tickets authorized by

the papacy to raise funds for its projects. Hurlbut (1981) said that, the
reigning pope, Leo X, needing large sums of money for the completion
of St. Peters Church in Rome, permitted an agent named John Tetzel to
go through Germany selling certificates, signed by the Pope himself,
purporting to bestow the pardon of all sins, not only upon the holders of
the certificates, but upon friends living or dead in whose behalf they
were purchased, without confession, repentance, penance, or absolution
by a priest. Hurlbut explained further that, Tetzel told the people that “as
soon as your coin clinks in the chest, the souls of your friends will rise
out of purgatory to heaven”. Luther preached against Tetzel and his
selling of pardons, denouncing his teaching in no measured terms. The
papacy was rudely shocked and embarrassed. The church was exposed
publicly, and the Pope determined to suppress the insurrection.
3.8 Martin Luther’s Thesis of 1517
Meanwhile, Martin Luther catalogued the abuses in the Church and

determined to make them known publicly. The exact date fixed upon by
historians as the beginning of the Great Reformation, is October 31,
1517. on the morning of that day Martin Luther nailed to the oaken door
of Wittenberg Cathedral a parchment containing ninety-five theses or
statements, nearly all relating to the sale of indulgences, but in their
application striking at the authority of the pope and the priesthood. The
rulers of the church vainly endeavored to coerce and to cajole Luther.
Martin Luther, however, trusted God as he stood firm, and the storm
only made him resolute in his opposition to doctrines and practices not
countenanced by Holy Scripture. He held on to the teachings of the
Bible, and kept on exposing the corrupt practices of the papacy.
3.9 Burning the Papal Bull
After many controversies, and the publication of pamphlets, which made

Luther’s opinions known throughout Germany, Hurlbut (1981) said that
his teachings were formally condemned, and he was excommunicated
by a bull of Pope Leo X in June, 1520. The Elector Frederick of Saxony
was commanded to deliver up Luther for trial and punishment,
providentially, the Elector Frederick, instead, gave him ample
protection, as he sympathized with his views. Therefore, Luther met the
excommunication with defiance, called it the execrable bull of
Antichrist. It was unbelievable that Martin Luther, on December 10,
1520, publicly at the gates of Wittenberg, before an assemblage of the
University professors, the students, and the people burned the papal bull,
and copies of the canons or laws enacted by the Roman authorities. This
142
act constituted Luther’s final renunciation of the Roman Catholic
Church.
3.10 The Diet at Worms in 1521
It was said that the papacy was enraged with fury at the news of the
burning of papal Bull. Hurlbut said that in 1521, Luther was summoned
before the Diet or Supreme Council of the German rulers, meeting at
Worms on the Rhine. Hurlbut stated further that, the new emperor,
Charles V, gave him the promise of a safe conduct. Luther went to the
assembly, though warned by his friends that he might meet the fate of
John Huss in similar circumstances at the Council of Constance, in
1415. Luther could not be deterred at all, rather he said I will go to
Worms, though as many devils were aiming at me as tiles on the roof.
On April 17, 1521, Luther stood before the Diet, over which the emperor
was presiding and in answer to the question whether he would retract the
statements in his books, Luther replied, after consideration, that he could
retract nothing except what was disproved by Scripture or reason.
Martin Luther then ended with the words: Here I stand; I can do naught
else. God help me. Amen. The Emperor Charles was urged to seize
Luther, on the ground that no faith was to be kept with heretics, but he
permitted him to leave Worms in peace. Perhaps, that was the greatest
miracle the Lord God performed in the history of the Christian Church
Reformation (Hurlbut, 1981, 120).
3.11 The Wartburg Castle Experience
It was also said that, while Luther was traveling homeward, he was
suddenly arrested by soldiers of the Elector Frederick, and taken, for his
safety, to the castle of the Wartburg in Thuringia. Luther remained there
nearly a year, in disguise, while storms of war and revolt were raging in
the empire. Interestingly, Luther kept himself busy, for it was said that
during this retirement he made his translation of the New Testament into
the German tongue, a work, which alone would have made him
immortal. Hurlbut said that Martin Luther’s version, is regarded as the
foundation of the German written language. This was in 1521; the Old
Testament was not completed until several years later. It was said that
Luther later left the Castle of Wartburg and went back to Wittenberg
where he resumed his leadership in the movement for a Reformed
Church, just in time to save it from extravagant excesses.
3.12 The Protestant Name
As five teachings of Martin Luther gained momentum throughout the

land, there arose bitterness and opposition amongst Christians in
Germany. The nation became polarized as it were. Hurlbut said that, the
143
division of the German states into the reformed and Roman branches
was between the North and South. He explained that the Southern
princes, led by Austria, adhered to Rome, while those of the North were
mainly followers of Luther. Therefore, in order to find a solution to the
thorny issue, a Diet was held at Spires in 1529, to reconcile the two
parties. Hurlbut stated that, at this Diet, the Catholic rulers were in the
majority, and condemned the Lutheran doctrines. The princes forbade
any teaching of Lutheranism in states where it had not become
dominant; and in the states already Lutheran required that the Catholics
should be allowed the free exercise of their religion. It was said that to
this unequal ruling the Lutheran princes made a formal protest, and from
that time they were known as Protestants and their doctrines as the
Protestant religion.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Renaissance, indeed, became a watershed for the Reformation that

took place in the Christian Church in the 16th Century. The Age of
Renaissance liberated the minds of scholars, politicians and scientists, as
well as religious leaders. They were able to think alike as they
challenged claims of the papacy throughout the late Middle Ages. As
you may recollect, Popes, actually, inhibited the spirit of enquiry
pertaining to religious matters. You remember in your studies that the
papacy asserted that they were the vicar of Jesus Christ on earth. In that
cloudy atmosphere, spirituality of Christians became retarded and
corrupted.
As previously mentioned, other antecedent forces that led to the dawn of

Reformation were the invention of printing press; the faithful witness
bore by the Albigenses, the Waldensians, John Wycliff, John Huss and
Jerome Savonarola; the spirit of Nationalism and the sales of
indulgencies by Tetzel. Thus, the stage for the Reformation was set as
Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the wooden door of the Church at
Wittenberg on October 31, 1517.
5.0 SUMMARY
• You have studied the following points during the course of your
studies:
• Renaissance is described as a re-birth of learning.
• The Renaissance period was marked and characterized by an

increasing desire for knowledge such that critical power
resurfaced.
144
• The Renaissance in science began with two theologians: Albert
the Great (1193-1280 A. D.) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 A.
D.). They were the first to accept the idea of a distinction
between knowledge of nature and revealed knowledge. Thus their
attitude prepared the way for a relatively independent
development of science.
• Humanism in its technical sense was a programme of studies that

places importance on the study of language, literature, history and
ethics. The broader sense of humanism lies in a stress on the
dignity of man as the most excellent of all God’s creature.
Therefore, humanists firmly believed in the nobility and
possibilities of the human race.
• Desiderius Erasmus was called the prince of the Christian

humanists. Erasmus published his Greek New Testament in 1516,
thus laying a solid foundation for the Reformation.
• One of antecedent forces to the Reformation and greatly

furthering its progress was the spirit of Nationalism. The
patriotism of the people was beginning to manifest itself in an
unwillingness to submit to a foreign rule over their own national
churches.
• The sales of indulgencies by John Tetzel as authorized by Pope

Leo X; and the subsequent denunciation of the sales by Martin
Luther heightened tension between the Roman Catholic Church
and Martin Luther. The nailing of Martin Luther’s 95 theses to
the door of Wittenberg, on October 31, 1517 also aggravated the
storm.
• Pope Leo X by his bull excommunicated Martin Luther in June

1520. On December 10, 1520, Martin Luther burnt the Papal bull
and copies of the canons or laws enacted by the Roman
authorities.
• On April 17, 1521, Martin Luther was brought before the Diet of
Worms and was urged to renounce all his works and utterances
against the Church. He refused bluntly, rather, he made the
following statement: “Here I stand, I can do nothing else. God
help me, Amen”.
• While Martin Luther was returning home, he was arrested by the

soldiers of the Elector Frederick and took him to the castle of the
Wartburg for his safety; here Luther was able to translate the
New Testament into German in 1521.
145
• The German states were divided over the new teachings of
Martin Luther. The Southern States led by Austria gave their
allegiance to the Pope while the Northern States were followers
of Luther. At the Diet of Spires in 1529, the Catholic princes
were in the majority and therefore they were favoured and the
judgement was against the Lutheran princes. Therefore, to this
unequal ruling, the Lutheran princes made a formal protest and
from that time they were known as Protestants and their doctrines
as the Protestant religion.
1. Discuss the effects of the Renaissance on the Christian Church

Reformation of the sixteenth century.
2. Discuss a few other antecedent forces leading to the dawn of
Reformation.


Meacham. (1986). Standish World Civilizations (Vol.1, 7th
Edition). New York: W.W. Norton & Company,, pp. 597-606.
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1981).The Story of the Christian Church. Grand


Singapore: Lion Publishing Plc., p. 354.

Akaneme, F. I. (2004). GST 104: History and Philosophy of Science.

Nigeria: Longman Plc., pp.47-48
146

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE TITLE: CHURCH HISTORY I

Course Developer/Writer Professor David .O. Babalola

Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale

Course Coordinator Dr Uzoma Amos Dike

Head of Department: Dr Michael Enyinwa Okoronkwo

What You will Learn in this Course

i. Study the birth of Jesus Christ, the Founder of Christianity in

By the end of this course, you should be able to

i. Narrate the emergence and triumph of Christianity.

These are arranged as follows:

Module 1 Ancient Church History – 30 – 100 A.D

Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church

Module 2 The Imperial Church – 313 – 476 A.D

Unit 1 Reconciliatory Councils and Creedal Development

Module 3 The Medieval Church – 476 – 1453 A.D

Unit 1 The Holy Roman Empire

Each unit includes a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives,

Textbooks and References

Burns, Edward McNall Ralph, Philip Lee Lerner, Robert E. and

Dowley, Tim (ed.). (1996). Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity

Houghton, S.M. (2001). Sketches from Church History. Great Britain:

The Birth of the Christian Church (module1, unit 1)

The causes of Imperial persecutions and their stages (module 1, unit 3)

The Crusades and their effects on the consolidation of the Church

The course will be assessed in two aspects. These are:

For you to do the assignments very well, it is expected of you to apply

This course consists of 10 tutor-marked assignments. The best three

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

How to Get the Most This Course

The following is a practical strategy for studying the reading materials.

Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

CRS141 intends to introduce you to the world of Church History. By

What is the nature of Church History?

Who were John Wycliffe, Jerome and John Huss?

Course Title Church History I

Course Developer/Writer Professor David .O. Babalola

Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale

Course Coordinator Dr Uzoma Amos Dike

Head of Department Dr Michael Enyinwa Okoronkwo

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

Module 1 Ancient Church History - 30 – 100 A.D ……………. 1

Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church.................................. 1

Module 2 The Imperial Church - 313 – 476 A.D ……………. 61

Unit 1 Reconciliatory Councils and Creedal Development.... 61

Module 3 The Medieval Church - 476 – 1453 A.D ………… 106

Unit 1 The Holy Roman Empire.......................................... 106

Unit 1 The Birth of the Christian Church

UNIT 1 THE BIRTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the origin of the Christian Church

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of Church

Definition of the word ‘Church’

3.2 Definition of History

History may be defined (Earle E. Cairns, 1981) as interpreted record of