1

Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission

ETHIOPIA
State and Outlook of
the Environment 2017

Environment for Sustainable

Development

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 Ethiopia
State and Outlook of the Environment
2017

Environment for Sustainable Development

© Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Commission 2018

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 Table of Contents

List of Figures vii

List of Tables ix
Acronyms x
Preface xiv
Executive Summary 1
General Introduction 6
1. Country Context 9
1.1. Geography 9
1.2 Ecology 10
1.3 Demography 10
1.4 Socio-economic situation 10
1.5 Priority environmental issues 11
1.5.1. Climate change 12
1.5.2 Land degradation 12
1.5.3 Deforestation 13
1.5.4. Loss of biodiversity 13
1.5.5. Invasive weed species 13
1.5.6. Pollution 14
1.6. Causes of environmental changes 14
1.6.1. Population growth and demographic changes 14
1.6.2 Poverty 14
1.6.3. Urbanization 14
1.6.4. Excessive dependence on agriculture 15
1.6.5. Excessive use of natural resources 15
1.6.6. Adaptive management 16
1.7. Impacts on environment and human welfare 17
1.7.1 Impact on rural livelihood 17
1.7.2. Impact on urban environment and human welfare 17
1.8. Responses to emerging environmental issues 18
2. Air Quality and Climate Change 21
2.1 State and trends of air quality 22
2.1.1 Introduction 22
2.1.2 Extent and trends in pollution levels 22
2.1.3 Outdoor air pollution 24
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 2.1.4. Impacts of air pollution 27
2.1.5. Responses to air pollution 28
2.2. Climate: state and trends 29
2.2.1. The climate of Ethiopia 29
2.2.2. Observed climate variability and trends 31
2.2.3. Observed trends in climate extremes 36
2.2.4. Climate-related hazards 39
2.2.5. Projected climate change 41
2.2.6. Extreme events 42
2.2.7. Vulnerability and impacts of climate change 44
3. Land 52
3.1. Introduction 53
3.2. State of the Land 54
3.2.1. Land use land cover changes 54
3.2.2. Land degradation 57
3.2.3. Land productivity 62
3.3. Causes of land degradation 63
3.3.1. Population 64
3.3.2. Landholding and land fragmentation 64
3.3.3. Livestock 65
3.3.4. Climate 66
3.3.5. Policy enforcement 67
3.3.6. Invasive species 68
3.3.7. Agricultural practices 68
3.4. Impacts 69
3.4.1. Food security 69
3.4.2. Agricultural yield gap 70
3.4.3. Droughts 71
3.4.4. Floods 71
3.5. Response measures 72
3.5.1. Climate resilience strategy 72
3.5.2. Input supply and distribution 72
3.5.3. Irrigation 73
3.5.4. Watershed development 73
3.6. Outlook 78
3.7. Policy considerations 80
4. Water and Aquatic Resources 81
4.1. Introduction 82
4.2. Water resource development and use 83
4.2.1. Water supply and sanitation 83
4.2.2. Water for irrigation 84
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 4.2.3. Hydropower development 85
4.3. State and trend of water and aquatic resources 86
4.3.1. Rivers and river basins 86
4.3.2. Lakes and Reservoirs 90
4.3.3. Groundwater 93
4.3.4. Wetlands 95
4.3.5. Fishery 97
4.3.6. Transboundary water systems 100
4.3.7. Renewable energy sources 102
4.4. Drivers of aquatic resources degradation 103
4.5. Impacts and Responses 104
4.6. Major risks to the water and aquatic system in Ethiopia 105
4.7. Outlook and Policy Implications 106
5. Forest 110
5.1. Introduction 111
5.2. State and trends of forests 113
5.2.1. Forest types 113
5.2.2. Potential Aggregated Forest Types 114
5.2.3. Forest Cover 115
5.2.4. Legal and Technical Definitions 116
5.2.5. Forest Resource Base 117
5.2.6. The Contribution of Forests to the National Economy 121
5.3. Drivers and pressures 123
5.3.1. Deforestation and forest degradation 123
5.3.2. Contextualizing deforestation in view of spatial variation 126
5.4. Impacts 129
5.5 Response 134
5.5.1 Reforestation and Limiting Forest Cover Loss 134
5.5.2. Policies and Laws 137
5.5.3. Outlook 143
5.5.4. Deforestation and Forest Degradation 143
5.5.5. Sustainable Forest Development 143
5.5.6. Vulnerability of Forests to Climate Change and its Impact 144
5.5.7. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission 145
5.5.8. Priority Forests, Protected Areas and Communities’ Traditional Access
Rights 147
5.5.9. Land Tenure Security and Forest Resources Management 148
5.5.10. Implementing Policies, Strategies and Plans 150
6. Biodiversity 151
6.1. Introduction 152
6.2. The State and Trends of Biodiversity 153
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 6.2.1. Ecosystem diversity 153
6.2.2 Plant Diversity 159
6.2.3 Animal Diversity 160
6.2.4 Cultural Diversity 162
6.3. Pressures 163
6.3.1. Agricultural Expansion 163
6.3.2. Overutilization 163
6.3.3. Invasive Species 164
6.3.4 Climate Change 165
6.3.5 Replacement of Local Varieties and Breeds 165
6.3.6 Pollution 165
6.4. Driving Forces 166
6.4.1. Demographic Change 166
6.4.2. Poverty 166
6.4.3. Low Level of Awareness 166
6.4.4. Weak Implementation of Policies and Laws 167
6.4.5 Climate Related Risks to Biodiversity 167
6.5 Impacts 168
6.5.1 Habitat Fragmentation 168
6.5.2 Threatened Species 169
6.6 Response Measures 170
6.6.1 Conservation Efforts 170
6.6.2. Policies, strategies, legal and institutional frameworks 172
6.6.3. Restoration of Degraded Landscapes 174
6.6.4. Management of Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Their Products 175
6.7. Outlook and Way Forward 176
7. Policy and Institutional Features 179
7.1 Introduction 180
7.2. Environmental PolicyImplementation 182
7.2.1. Policy instruments 184
7.2.2 Challenges in policy implementation 185
7.3. Institutions 186
7.4. Conclusion 192
7.5. Going Forward 193
8. Crosscutting Issues 194
8.1. Gender and Environment 194
8.2. Health and Environment 197
8.3. Waste Management 200
References 203

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List of Figures
Figure 1: State of Environment 2017 Analysis Framework ...............................................................7
Figure 2: State of Environment 2017 Analysis Framework ............................................................ 24
Figure 3: Air pollutants concentration ......................................................................................... 25
Figure 4: Projection of stock of vehicles ....................................................................................... 25
Figure 5: Air Pollution related respiratory Disease in Addis Ababa ............................................. 27
Figure 6: Distribution of average annual solar radiation ............................................................... 28
Figure 7: Rainfall regimes of Ethiopia ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 8: Mean annual rainfall and temperature over Ethiopia. ..................................................... 30
Figure 9: Spatial distribution of coefficient of v a r i a t i o n (CV) ..................................................... 31
Figure 10: Standardized rainfall anomaly trends ............................................................................ 32
Figure 11: Homogeneous rainfall regions ..................................................................................... 33
Figure 12: Annual rainfall trend for the period 1983-2016 (own analysis) ................................... 34
Figure 13: Mean annual minimum and maximum temperature trend ........................................... 35
Figure 14: Standardized temperature anomaly.............................................................................. 35
Figure 15: Average temperature from 1983-2016. ...................................................................... 35
Figure 16: Decadal average temperature from 1983-2016............................................................ 36
Figure 17: Distribution of weather stations used for trend analysis ............................................. 36
Figure 18: Distribution of weather stations ................................................................................... 37
Figure 19: Droughts hazard risk index .......................................................................................... 39
Figure 20: Recent changes in dryness frequencies ........................................................................ 40
Figure 21: Number of people affected by major droughts ............................................................ 40
Figure 22: Percentage change of rainfall over Ethiopia.................................................................. 43
Figure 23: DPSIR Framework for the analysis of state of the land in Ethiopia .............................. 53
Figure 24: Land use land cover of Ethiopia................................................................................... 55
Figure 25: Land degradation index map of Ethiopia ...................................................................... 58
Figure 26: Saline soil distribution of Ethiopian soils (pH based) ................................................... 61
Figure 27: The distribution of acid soils in Ethiopia ....................................................................... 62
Figure 28: Yield gap of major crops .............................................................................................. 71
Figure 29: Priority clusters and commodities for ACC in Ethiopia ............................................... 75
Figure 30: Rainfall distributions in Ethiopia ................................................................................... 82
Figure 31: Water supply access coverage progress towards MDGs ............................................ 83
Figure 32: Trends in proportion of population using an improved drinking water ....................... 84
Figure 33: Hydro-power generation development projection ..................................................... 85
Figure 34: Drainage intensity (l/s/km2) and specific discharge ...................................................... 87

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Figure 35: Variability in monthly flow regimes in selected river basins. .........................................88
Figure 36: Trends in the hydrological flows of Abay at the border .................................................89
Figure 37: Rivers in Ethiopia ..........................................................................................................89
Figure 38: Fluoride concentration map of Ethiopia ..................................................................... 94
Figure 39: Groundwater salinity prone area ...................................................................................95
Figure 40: Distribution of wetlands and river networks in Ethiopia ................................................96
Figure 41: Annual trends in fish production....................................................................................97
Figure 42: Composition of commercially important fish species ....................................................99
Figure 43: DPSIR framework for water and aquatic resource in Ethiopia ....................................103
Figure 44: Decline in per capita water availability ........................................................................104
Figure 45: Potential vegetation map of Ethiopia ...........................................................................114
Figure 46: Aggregated biomes .....................................................................................................114
Figure 47: The DPSIR framework for state of biodiversity in Ethiopia..................................... 153
Figure 48: Threats to ecosystems in Ethiopia ..............................................................................159
Figure 49: Plant accessions conserved at Gene bank during 2008-2017 ....................................172
Figure 50: Number of arrests on wildlife products during 2010-2017 ..........................................176

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List of Tables
Table 1: Air quality guidelines: Ethiopia and WHO 29
Table 2: Climate extreme indices 37
Table 3: Temperature based extreme climate indicators 38
Table 4: Precipitation based extreme climate indicators 38
Table 5: Potential health impacts of climate change in Ethiopia 45
Table 6: Estimated area and net area change of land use land cover types 56
Table 7: Estimate of soil loss and net soil loss from land use land cover types 59
Table 8: Population size, annual growth, and annual increase 64
Table 9: Livestock size and stocking rate 66
Table 10: PSNP clients’ number by clients/ beneficiaries 75
Table 11: Number of second level land certification by year 77
Table 12: Population, food demand and productivity 79
Table 13: Some attributes of river basins in Ethiopia 87
Table 14: Major lakes of Ethiopia 91
Table 15: Major reservoirs and capacities 92
Table 16: Fishery potential yield of lakes, reservoirs, small water bodies, and rivers 98
Table 17: Fishery potential and current catch of major lakes in t/ha/year 98
Table 18: Fishery potential and catch in reservoirs 99
Table 19: Scenarios for forests and woodland 113
Table 20: Aggregated biomes and vegetation types 115
Table 21: Achievements of the forest sector during GTP1 116
Table 22: Estimate of forest resources 118
Table 23: Locations and area covered by bamboo 118
Table 24: Production and export value of some NTFPs 120
Table 25: Contribution of forest-derived products to national Income, 2012-13 122
Table 26: Direct causes of deforestation and forest degradation 125
Table 27: Underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation 125
Table 28: Ranking of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in terms of impact 126
Table 29: Climate of Holdridge life Zones 168
Table 30: Population status of some wild endemic and native mammals 169
Table 31: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries in Ethiopia 170
Table 32: In situ conservation sites 171
Table 33: Accessions of species of crop and horticulture, forest, animal breeds, and microbes conserved
ex situ 171
Table 34: National policies and international conventions 183
Table 35: Characteristics of policy instruments 186
Table 36: Legal, organizational, technical and governance gaps in Gambella and SNNPRS 188
Table 37: Comparative analysis of the state of legal frameworks in regional states 190

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Acronyms
ACC Agricultural Commercialization Clusters
ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CEEPA Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa
CO2e Carbon Dioxide Equivalent
CR Climate Resilience
CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy
CSA Central Statistical Agency
EBI Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute
EFY Ethiopian Fiscal Year
EHT Ethiopia Heritage Trust
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ENP Entoto Natural Park
EPA Environmental Protection Authority
EPCC Ethiopian Panel on Climate Change
ETB Ethiopian Birr
EWCA Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Agency
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FY Fiscal Year
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GE Green Economy
GHG Green House Gases
GOE Government of Ethiopia
GTP Growth and Transformational Plan
ha Hectares

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INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution

Kg Kilograms
LDC Least Developed Countries
M3 Cubic Meters
MCT Ministry of Culture and Tourism
MEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
MoH Ministry of Health
MSIP Multi-Sector Investment Plan
Mt Metric Tone
NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NAP-ETH National Adaptation Plan - Ethiopia
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
NFPA National Forest Priority Area
NFSDP National Forest Sector Development Program
NP National Park
NTFP Non-timber Forest Products
OFWE Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise
PA Protected Area
PSNP Productive Safety Net Program
REDD Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
SESA
Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment
Sida Swedish International Development Authority
SLMP Sustainable Land Management Program
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region
SWC (1) Soil and Water Conservation

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

SWC (2) Solid Waste Collection

TLU Tropical Livestock Units
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
USD United State Dollars
WHO World Health Organization

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 Preface
Despite achievements in economic growth, Ethiopia is threatened with serious environmental
challenges that could limit its ambitious growth targets. The country has continued efforts to grow the
economy and needs to be strongly supported by sustainable environmental management and
actions that facilitate and strengthen adaptation to climate change. This State of the Environment
(SoE-2017) Report assesses the state of Ethiopia’s environment as of 2017 to provide objective
information to policy makers and decision-takers at various levels as well as the public.
The report presents analysis of the state of environment in terms of air quality and climate change,
land, aquatic resources, forests and biodiversity. It also includes policy analysis and crosscutting
issues (gender and environment, Health and environment and waste management).
Producing the State of the Environment for Ethiopia is the mandate of the Environment, Forestry,
and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC). The commission is greatful to the Ethiopian Academy of
Sciences for collaborating in producing the report. The Commission would also like to take this
opportunity to gratefully acknowledge the following senior professionals who have put industrious
efforts in the preparation of the report:

• Study Team Members - Dr. Belay Simane, Ato Tilaye Nigussie, Professor Woldeamlak
Bewket, Ato Motuma Didita, Dr. Degefie Tibebe, Dr. Tena Alamirew, Dr. Daniel Bekele,
Dr. Abayineh Amare and Dr. Paulos Asrat.

• Report Reviewers - Dr. Tefera Mengestu, Dr. Solomon Zewudie, Prof. Sebsebe
Demissew, Prof. Afework Bekele, Dr. Assefa Mebrate, Dr. Solomon Bekure, Prof. Abebe
Getahun; Prof. Seyoum Mengistou, Prof. Brook Lemma, Ato Gebru Jembere, Dr. Sehin
Teferra, and Dr. Ewenat G/Hanna.

• Editor – Ato Abebe Kirub

The Commission would also like to thank the officials and professionals of different ministries and
other organizations for providing invaluable comments and inputs throughout the process of report
preparation.

Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change Commission

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Photo- Meti Bekele

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Foreword
Ethiopia is one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa and aspires to achieve middle-income
status by 2025, without increasing its net greenhouse gas emissions, while protecting itself against
the negative impacts of climate change. Ethiopia’s rapid development is attributed to a public
investment-led development strategy that has produced tangible growth and measurably improved
social circumstances. These interventions have been guided by a series of targeted macro-
economic planning instruments, namely, the First and Second Growth and Transformation Plans
(GTP I; 2010-2015 and GTP II; 2015-2020), which outline the goals and benchmarks for Ethiopia
to reach middle-income status by 2025. Despite achievements in economic growth, Ethiopia is
confronted with environmental challenges that could limit its ambitious growth targets.
The major environmental issues facing Ethiopia include climate change, land degradation,
deforestation, soil erosion, and depletion of nutrients in the soil, which, in parts of the northern
highlands, are leading to a worrying surge in desertification. With the exception of climate change,
the major environmental issues affecting Ethiopia are soil erosion and land degradation,
deforestation and forest degradation, water scarcity, biodiversity loss and various types of pollution.
With a historical legacy of this widespread and severe environmental degradation, environmental
problems are significant obstacles to achieving the ambitious goal of the country. The ongoing
destruction and degradation of the environmental resources, on which the Ethiopian development
strategy depends, represents a major policy and practical challenge. An overarching national
policy, that establishes a clear vision for the protection and sustainable management of Ethiopia’s
environment, is still absent and policies that are available are not properly implemented.
The Government of Ethiopia, therefore, recognizes the importance of designing development
policies with due emphasis to climate and climate change. Green growth is a necessity as well as
an opportunity to be seized by the country. Such an action is an opportunity because it enables to
realize the country’s huge renewable energy potential and is a necessity because it arrests agro-
ecological degradation that has trapped millions of our citizens in poverty. Recognizing the close
links between environmental and development concerns, Ethiopia is working to integrate climate
considerations into its broader development planning processes. The Ethiopian Climate Resilient
Green Economy (CRGE) initiative, which was launched in late 2011, has laid the foundation for
integrated planning for a climate-resilient development.
Over the past few years, some progress was made to implement the CRGE by putting in place
institutional arrangements, establishing financial instruments, and executing mitigation and
adaptation initiatives to meet national objectives and fulfill regional and international commitments.
Nevertheless, not much has been researched about the adequacy of the existing policy
frameworks, institutional arrangements, and technical capacities to effectively deliver the CRGE
strategy.
The 2017 State of the Environment (SOE-2017) Report is prepared to fulfill EFCCC’s responsibility
to regularly assess the state of Ethiopia’s environment to provide objective information to policy and
decision- makers at various levels as well as the public. The specific objective of the SOE report is
to:

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• Provide the Ethiopian people with reliable information on the state of the environment that
supports the livelihood of a vast majority of the population, thus, the economy of Ethiopia;
• Provide the Government, other decision-makers/actors and the general public, responsible for
using and managing the environment, with an assessment of how effectively the environment
is being managed and identify the key national environmental issues; and describe an
environmental outlook based on scenario analysis.

The report presents the analysis of the state of the environment in terms of air quality and climate
change, land, aquatic resources, forests and biodiversity. It also summarizes analysis of
environment related policies and crosscutting issues such as gender, health and waste
management vis-à-vis the environment.
I am confident that the report provides the basis for evidence-based policymaking and
environment friendly exploitation of the environmental resources so that the country could achieve
its vision of sustainable growth and development. The report would also provide the baseline to
which impacts of the short- and medium-term sustainable development efforts would be analyzed.

Fekadu Beyene (Prof.)

Commissioner, Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission

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Executive Summary
Introduction
The Ethiopian environment is subject to a wide array of societal pressures and associated
environmental risks. Despite several years of substantial efforts by state and non-state actors, it is
highly unlikely that the nationally agreed environmental objectives of reaching “SDG plan” by 2025
will be met. An overarching national policy that establishes a clear vision for the protection and
sustainable management of Ethiopia’s environment is still not adequate and those available are not
properly implemented. Ethiopia’s recent State of Environment Report was issued in 2007. This
report, therefore, builds on SoE 2007, which was a new ground on the scope and depth of its
reporting, and for setting a baseline for future comparisons over time. The SoE is built on the drivers-
pressures-state- impact-response (DPSIR) framework in combination with the sustainable livelihood
framework for generating, compiling, analyzing and validating the information. The framework is
based on the concept that drivers (underlying natural and human-caused forces) exert pressures
(immediate factors) on the environment that lead to changes in the state of the environment. These
changes can result in impacts on society. Society responds to changes and impacts through policy
and management actions.

Air quality and climate

Ethiopia has become warmer over the past century and human-induced climate change is expected to
bring further warming at unprecedented rates over the next century. On the average, climate model
projections included in the IPCC 4th Assessment Report show a tendency for increased rainfall, in
particular during October, November, and December. However, there was no clear model consensus in
this prediction, with some models predicting a large increase and others a significant decrease in mean
annual precipitation. Beyond the matter of changes in average annual precipitation, there is much
uncertainty about the future distribution, timing, and intensity of rainfall in the country.
Ethiopia’s low level of economic development combined with its heavy dependence on rain-fed
agriculture, which is sensitive to climate change, and its high population growth rate make the country
particularly exposed to climate change, and, due to low adaptive capacity, highly vulnerable to the
adverse impacts of these changes.

Intense pressure on the country’s soil, water, and biodiversity, because of population growth and
inappropriate traditional farming and management, i.e., extensive cultivation, overgrazing and
deforestation and soil erosion add to the challenges of climate change adaptation, is still escalating.

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Land
The land sector in Ethiopia faces a number of challenges including population and livestock pressure,
impacts of climate change, unsustainable utilization of land leading to different forms of degradation, limited
investment, conflicting sectoral land related policies and lack of other policies such as National Land Use
Planning Policy.

On average, the area covered by annual crops and perennial crops has increased by 1,987,302 and
6,495,885 ha annually between 2007 and 2013. On the other hand, the area covered by grazing land and
natural forest has shrunk by 7,778,225 and 3430694 ha annually respectively. The expansion of agricultural
land that is driven by population pressure and outflow of grazing land and uncultivated land. Development
related activities, mainly agricultural investment projects and urban expansions have contributed for
substantial LU/LC change in the country.

Land degradation in the form of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, soil compaction, and increased salinization
and acidity pose a serious threat to sustainable management and diversification of agricultural production
systems. Annual soil loss increased from 1,493,000,000 tons in 2007 to 2,136,940,683 tons in 2013. Factors
such as deforestation, farmland fragmentation, poor agricultural practices, among others, have led to the
degradation of soil. Moreover, prevailing soil management practices including over tillage and blanket
fertilizer applications are key factors of land degradations.

The intensity of salinity has been increasing fast due to the establishment of large-scale irrigated farms in
recent years. The inadequate provision of drainage system, poor water management practices coupled with
unsound reclamation procedures have made the problem worse. Soil acidity has become a primary problem
for agricultural soils, in the western, southern and even the central highlands of the country, which receive
high rainfall. The addition of lime and the application of compost are some of the measures that need to be
taken to ameliorate soil acidity.

Productivity has been increasing steadily over the last years. However, current rates of gain in crop yields is
not adequate enough to meet expected demand for food, feed, fiber, and fuel on existing crop land due to
primarily physical and chemical land degradations in Ethiopia. With a rapidly growing population, Ethiopia
needs to increase food production in grain equivalent, by at least one million metric tons. As a response to
the state of land degradation and low soil productivity, a number of steps are taken in terms of community-
based watershed management, soil fertility management, establishing climate resilient agriculture, and land
certification. However, these measures are limited and need further scaling up.

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Water
The main water related challenge of the country is the significant spatial and temporal variability of the
resource. Incipient hydraulic infrastructure development, including water storage at scale, limits the adaptive
capacity of the country to climate extremes.

On the other hand, growing population, rapid urbanization, and growing industrial and economic activity, are
the major drivers for increased demand for water. Water quality degradation due to pollution has become a
fast growing challenge in sustaining the water and aquatic resources in the country. Rivers such as Awash
and its tributaries, lakes such as Hawassa and Zeway, groundwater aquifers such as Akaki well field are
getting extensively polluted making the resources unsafe for use. The storage capacity of lakes, wetlands
and reservoirs is declining fast due to sedimentation, and waterweeds invasion, and this decline is threating
the aquatic systems including fishery.

On the positive side and in response to growing challenges and state of water quality decline, the
government has been developing polices, strategies, and proclamations directed to the sustainable
development and management of water resources. Three river basins authorities have been established to
manage water in its hydrologic boundary following integrated water resource management principle. Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has established a department that focuses on water quality
monitoring. The national community mobilization for sustainable land management is expected to positively
contribute reducing reservoir sedimentation. The venture to establish industry parks/zones and centrally
treating wastes, as exhibited in the Hawassa Industry Park, is expected to reduce the adverse impact of
industrial pollution in the future. Sustained efforts still need to be made to ensure the regulation enacted by
sectors are harmonized and effectively implemented.

Forest
Ethiopia’s forest resources, including high forests, woodlands and trees on farms, provide goods and
services that have economic, ecological and social values. In 2015, forest cover was estimated at 15.5%.
About 95% of the natural high forests are found in Oromia, Gambella, SNNPRS, Amhara and Benishangul-
Gumuz Regional States. Oromia, SNNPRS, Amhara and Tigray hold most of the industrial plantations and
woodlots. The largest commercial plantations are located in Oromia, Amhara and SNNPRS. Amhara Region
has also the largest privately owned woodlots. Oromia, SNNPRS and Amhara together contain about 93.5%
of the total plantation resources in the country. Woodlands are found in Gamabela, Benishangul-Gumuz,
Somali, Afar, Tigray and Amhara Regions.

There is lack of consistent and reliable data on the area coverage, standing stock, growth rate, production
and productivity of forest resources. Ethiopia has no standardized forest inventory system in place and no
information about the growing stock and increment rates of the remaining forests. Consequently, estimates
of forest area, growth rate, total volume, etc. from different sources vary considerably.

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In 2015, MOFED estimated forestry’s contribution to be 3.3%. However, UNEP (2016) reports that in FY
2012/13, Ethiopia’s forests generated economic benefits in the form of cash and in-kind income equivalent
to 16.9 billion USD or 12.9% of the measured value of GDP. The discrepancy between MOFED’s and
UNEP’s estimates shows the need for accurately accounting the contribution of the forestry sector to GDP.

Deforestation and forest degradation are critical problems in Ethiopia. MEFCC reports that the annual forest
loss is approximately 92,000 ha/year and the gain 19,000 ha/year. This indicates the imbalance between the
rate of deforestation and reforestation. It also highlights the importance of increasing forest cover, but also
protecting existing forests.

The direct causes of deforestation and forest degradation include expansion of smallholder and large-scale
commercial farms, fuel wood collection and charcoal production and free grazing by livestock. The
underlying causes are population growth, increasing demand for construction and fuel wood, insecure land
tenure, unclear or absence of benefits’/income sharing mechanism, poor law enforcement and seasonal
unemployment and/or underemployment.

Since the establishment of MEFCC in 2013, the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) has been making a
concerted effort to: a) reinforce the institutional capacity of the forest sector; b) rehabilitate degraded lands
and increase vegetation cover; and c) limit the rate of deforestation in line with the CRGE’s goal to increase
forest cover to 30% by 2020.

Despite the efforts made by the government of Ethiopia to respond to deforestation and forest degradation,
annual wood fuel consumption is expected to rise by 65% between 2010 and 2030, outstripping cu rrent
supply and leading to forest degradation of more than 22 million tons of woody biomass; straining the
functioning of the natural forest eco-system. In addition, a growing economy means increasing demand for
wood and wood-based products.

Protecting priority forests, protected areas, responding to the demands of communities for traditional access
rights, land tenure security and improved forest resources management, enhancing capacity to implement
policies, and strategies and plans will be important areas of work for all the sector stakeholders.

Biodiversity
Ethiopia’s biodiversity is being threatened mainly as a result of anthropogenic factors that lead to habitat
fragmentation, population reduction and gradual loss of species. A wide range of driving forces and
pressures has contributed to the vulnerability of biodiversity, to loss and environmental degradation and to
hampering ecosystem services. Direct pressures include habitat conversion, overutilization, invasive
species, climate change, replacement of local varieties and breeds and pollution. The driving forces of
biodiversity loss governing the direct pressures include demographic change (population growth), poverty,
limited awareness and weak implementation of policies and legal frameworks.

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Response measures have been taken to reverse the situation and sustainably manage the biodiversity
resources in the country. These include establishment of protected area systems and other in situ
conservation areas for plant, animal and microbial genetic resources, biosphere reserves, on- farm
conservation, gene banks, field gene banks, botanic gardens and restoration of ecosystems and species.
Besides, biodiversity related policies, strategies and legal frameworks, including institutional structures,
were developed. The NBSAP is, for instance, an overarching strategy designed to guide national efforts in
conservation, sustainable utilization and access and benefit sharing on biodiversity. These measures are
assumed to ensure conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity resources, legal access to genetic
resources and control over illegal trafficking of wildlife and their products. As a result, the size of
conservation areas and ex situ conserved samples is increasing; the level of awareness on biodiversity is
improving and illegal movement of wildlife and their products is decreasing steadily over the last years.

Despite these progressive measures of the government, gaps in institutional capacity, biodiversity related
policies and legal frameworks and their implementation remain constraining biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use. Apart from these, weak inter-sectoral collaboration/coordination, mandate overlaps,
inadequate organizational structures, inadequate incentive mechanisms for biodiversity conservation are
limiting effective implementation of the existing policies and legal frameworks. In order to improve these,
policy measures such as alignment of sectoral polices, law enforcement mechanisms, including ESIA, public
awareness and enhancement of stakeholder collaboration and coordination are suggested. Strengthening of
institutional capacities and biodiversity incentives for local communities surrounding protected areas needs
further attention.

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General Introduction
Background
The Ethiopian environment is subject to a wide array of societal pressures and associated environmental
risks. Despite several years of substantial efforts by state and non-state actors, it is unlikely to meet the
national environmental objectives of reaching “SDG plan” by 2025. An overarching national policy that
establishes a clear vision for the protection and sustainable management of Ethiopia’s environment is still
inadequate and those available are not yet properly implemented. This report identifies the key environmental
issues and presents analytical perspectives for the S0E 2018 reporting. It does so by outlining important
trends and key challenges associated with the key environmental issues. The overview and thematic reports
also examine the future outlook for the environment, taking into account the drivers, pressures, current state
and trends, and management response, along with the resilience of the environment and the remaining risks
that threaten it.

Ethiopia’s first State of Environment Report was issued in 2007. This report builds on SoE 2007, which was a
new ground on the scope and depth of its reporting, and for setting a baseline for future comparisons over
time. Since 2009, the former Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change (MEFCC) has been
preparing to review the state of Ethiopia’s environment. In recognition of its legal mandate, capacity, and track
of records in providing evidence-based policy advice to the Government of Ethiopia, the former MEFCC (the
current Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission) commissioned the Ethiopian Academy of
Sciences (EAS) to prepare the third Ethiopia’s State of Environment Report. EAS then commissioned senior
experts for the different thematic areas who were assisted by qualified researchers to ensure the generation
of information based on the best available secondary data sources.

This report provides an overview of the current state of Ethiopia’s environment. It uses information and data
available from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA), Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Energy (MoWIE), Institute of Biodiversity (IBC) and other relevant
organizations. The environmental experts, as a result, have used this information and data to produce this
update on the state of Ethiopia’s environment.

The objectives of SOE 2018 report are to:

• Provide the Ethiopian people with reliable information on the state of the environment that supports
the livelihood of a vast majority of the population, and thus, the country’s economy;
• Provide the Government, other decision-makers/actors and the general public, responsible for using
and managing the environment, with an assessment of how effectively the environment is being
managed and identify the key national environmental issues; and describe an environmental outlook
based on scenario analysis.

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The framework
The SoE framework is the underlying structure used across all themes to assess the environment. It is put on
the drivers-pressures-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework aligned with the sustainable livelihood
framework for generating, compiling, analyzing and validating the information (Figure 1). The basis of the
framework is a national scale assessment drawn on internationally accepted DPSIR framework for reporting
on socio-ecological systems. It is also based on the concept that drivers (underlying natural and human-
caused forces) exert pressures (immediate factors) on the environment that lead to changes in the state of the
environment. These changes can result in impacts on society. Society responds to changes and impacts
through policy and management actions.

As in SoE 2007, each of the SoE 2017 thematic reports present assessment summaries for the pressures,
state and trends, and management effectiveness of the theme. The summaries comprise a short synopsis
and graphical representation of the key results of the assessments, providing an at-a-glance view of our
environment. The summary text in the key message tables should be understood concurrence with the
explanatory text in the theme reports.

Information supporting the assessments was drawn from a wide range of data sources (referenced in the
reports), and from extensive consultations with experts and representative organizations in a variety of
scientific disciplines and government agencies across the Ministries. In many cases, consultation was in the
form of expert workshops facilitating information gathering, discussion of issues and gauging of opinions. In
some cases, experts across disciplines provided direct input into the assessment process. Regional SOERs,
Ethiopia SOER (draft synthesis report), Ethiopian Panel on Climate Change (EPCC) report, Previous Ethiopia
SoE reports, Baseline/assessment/evaluation reports other relevant documents from MEFCC, Environmental
studies conducted by national academic and research institutions, and relevant documents available on the
Web were used.

Figure 1: State of Environment 2017 Analysis Framework

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1. Country Context
Key message
Ethiopia has a high-level strategy to pursue agriculture-based industrialisation with a goal of
achieving middle-income country status by 2025 with no net increase in carbon emissions. The
economy is currently heavily dependent on agriculture and forest resources. With a historical
legacy of widespread, severe environmental degradation, environmental issues (climate
change, land degradation, deforestation and forest degradation, water scarcity, biodiversity loss,
and various types of pollution) are significant obstacles to the successful achievement of this
goal. The ongoing destruction and degradation of the environment resources on which the
Ethiopian development strategy depends represents a major policy and practical challenge.

1.1. Geography
Ethiopia is a large land-locked country occupying an area of over 1.1 million square km. The physiographic
diversity of the country is impressive. It consists of rugged mountains, flat-topped plateaus, deep gorges and
river valleys and vast lowland areas. About 45% of the country is highland with an altitude of 1500 m or
above, and 55 % is lowlands with an altitude of less than 1500 m. The highest peak is at Ras Dashen (4,620
m) and the lowest altitude is in the Danakil depression (120 m below sea level). The Great Rift Valley cuts
across the country in a northeast-southwest direction and divides the highlands and plateaus and associated
river drainage systems into western and eastern parts. It is tectonic movements, volcanic eruptions, and land
surface processes such as erosion over the ages that have contributed to the country’s diverse topography.

Ethiopia has a tropical climate that is strongly a function of altitude. The mean annual temperature varies from
more than 30 0C in the lowlands to less than 10 0C in the highlands. The annual rainfall is over 2,700 mm in
the southwestern highlands; and less than 200 mm towards the north; less than 100 mm in the northeast; and
less than 200 mm in the southeast. Based on rainfall distribution, Ethiopia has three major seasons: ‘Kiremt’
(June – September, the main rainy season for most parts); ‘Bega’ (October – February, the dry season for
most parts); and ‘Belg’ (March – May, the short rainy season for some parts). While this is the broad climatic
pattern, large spatial and temporal variability are the salient features of Ethiopia’s climate. Spatially, distinctly
different across short horizontal distances are common. Temporally, temperature has shown increasing
tendencies in most parts of the country, while rainfall has historically been highly seasonal, exceptionally
variable, and unpredictable. It does not have clear countrywide significant trend.

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1.2 Ecology
As a result of the contrasting physiographic and climatic features of the country, Ethiopia has diverse
ecosystems. There are 10 major ecosystems, and 18 major and 49 minor agro-ecological zones, which are
inhabited by a great diversity of animal, plant and microbial genetic resources (FDRE, 2015). Evidence
suggests that there are 1,408 known species of fauna and 6,603 species of flora, of which 15.1 percent are
considered endemic (FDRE, 2015). This makes Ethiopia to be t one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world.

Ethiopia has a total territorial area of approximately 1,221,900 km2 (122 million hectares). The major
physiographic features are a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift
Valley and surrounded by lowlands along the periphery. The diversity of the terrain is fundamental to regional
variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. Much of the Ethiopia’s
landmass is part of the East African Rift Plateau.

The wide ranges of topographic and climatic factors, parent material, and unsustainable land use practices
have resulted in extreme vulnerability of soils (FAO,1984). Ethiopia has 19 soil associations. The major soil
types are Lithososls (17.1%), Nitisols (12.2%), Cambisols (11.6%), Regosols (10.9%), Vertisols (10.0%), and
Fluvisols (8.3%). Considering the cultivated lands, Nitosols (23%), Vertisols (19%), and Cambisols (18%) are
the dominant soil types (MoA, 2000). The majority of Ethiopian highlands soils remain relatively fertile at
depth. However, most highland soils are deficient in important nutrients and require fertilizer to sustain crop
yields. Ethiopian soils are generally low in available nitrogen and phosphorous; thus, cannot produce high
crop yields unless supplemented with the required nutrients.

1.3 Demography
Ethiopia’s population is estimated to be over 100 million, making the nation the second most populous country
in Africa. Only about 20 percent of the population lives in urban areas. The crude population density is 96
persons per square km. The crude birth and death rates are 36.5 and 7.7 per 1000 population (2017 est.),
indicating a rate of natural increase of 28.8 per 1000 population which is quite high. About 70 percent of
Ethiopians are below the age of 30, and the population pyramid is therefore wide at the bottom and narrow at
the apex indicating that the proportion of the productive age group is small and the dependent age group is
large. It also indicates the potential for a further growth of the population. Recent evidences however suggest
that Ethiopia is on the path to the age structure necessary for reaping a demographic dividend in the coming
decades. The rapid growth of Ethiopia’s population is putting increasing pressure on environmental resources,
expanding environmental degradation, and raising vulnerability to the changing climate.

1.4 Socio-economic situation

Ethiopia is implementing the second phase of its Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II) which will run to
2019/20. GTP II aims to continue expanding physical infrastructure through public investments and to
transform the country into a manufacturing hub. It also targets an average of 11% GDP growth annually, and
inline with the manufacturing strategy, the industrial sector is set to expand by 20% on average, creating more
jobs. The share of the population living below the national poverty line decreased from 30% in 2011 to 24% in
2016.

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Ethiopia’s economy experienced strong, broad-based growth averaging 10.3% a year from 2006/07 to
2016/17, compared to a regional average of 5.4%. Ethiopia’s real gross domestic product (GDP) growth
decelerated to 7.7% in 2017/18. Industry, mainly construction, and services accounted for most of the growth.
Agriculture and manufacturing made lower contribution to growth in 207/18 compared to the previous year.

Despite recent rapid economic growth, Ethiopia remains one of the least developed countries (LDCs) in Sub-
Saharan Africa with per capita GDP of 691 USD. After suffering economic stagnation for most of the 1970s
and 1980s, its economy began to grow in the mid-1990s. Although it was able to reduce its extreme poverty
rate from 46% in 1995 to 23.5% in 2016, Ethiopia still has more than 25 million poor people.

Agriculture has been and will remain the main driver of Ethiopia’s economic growth, accounting for almost
40% of GDP and more than 80% of the labor force, and contributing most of the foreign exchange earnings
from export of goods regardless of a recent increase in the service and industry sector which contributes 45.8
and 14.2% respectively (FDRE, 2016). Ethiopia’s rapid population growth is putting increasing pressure on
land resources, expanding environmental degradation, and raising vulnerability to food shortages. It is also
affected by climate- induced rainfall variability, low input such as fertilizer, improved seed, pesticide and
herbicide use.

Ethiopia strives to ensure that its economic growth is broad-based and inclusive. It envisions to become a
middle-income country by 2025 with a carbon-neutral growth path.. , due to the efforts made, in the past
couple of years, the proportion of the population living below the national poverty line fell from 38.7% in
2003/4 to 29.6 percent in 2010/11 and to 23.4% in 2014/15. Yet, despite its progress towards eliminating
extreme poverty, due both to rapid population growth and a low starting base, Ethiopia remains one of the
poorest countries.

Unemployment in Ethiopia is becoming an economic plague due to the rapid population growth and very slow
economic transformation, Ethiopia, one of the rapidly growing African countries, has a history of
unemployment. At different times, unemployment rates in Ethiopia ranged between 16 and 26%. Efforts to
promote job creation and rapid growth is challenged with diverse socioeconomic problems with a tangible and
profound socio-political impact. Unemployment in Ethiopia, particularly among the young college-educated
people, presents a barrier to economic development and growth while pushing healthy adult professionals to
the margins of physical and financial survival. It is therefore, imperative to take feasible and visible steps to
transform the economic situation in the country for enduring social, economic and political stability.

1.5 Priority environmental issues

In Ethiopia, the livelihood security of the people, particularly in rural areas, is closely linked to natural
resources. However, because of population pressure, unsustainable use, inappropriate management,
expansion of planned development (commercial farms and infrastructure development), weakness in
enforcing environmental policies and regulations, etc., there is considerable depletion of natural resources
and environmental degradation.

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The major environmental issues that increase the vulnerability of Ethiopians, with the highest risk to political,
economic and social landscape, include: climate change, pollution, land degradation, deforestation and forest
degradation, water scarcity and biodiversity loss. Unwise use of natural resources and failure to protect the
environment could result in floods and landslides, droughts, desertification, loss of land productivity;
population displacement increased rural-urban migration, etc. Some of the major environmental risks are
described below.
1.5.1. Climate change
Ethiopia is vulnerable to climate variability and global climate change. Climate change has occurred across
much of Ethiopia, particularly since the 1970s, at a rate that is variable but broadly consistent with wider
African and global trends. Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.3°C between 1960 and 2006, an
average rate of 0.28°C per decade. Climate models suggest that Ethiopia will see further warming in all
seasons of between 0.7°C and 2.3°C by the 2020s and of between 1.4°C and 2.9°C by the 2050s and that
the timing, intensity, and volume of rainfall will change over much of the country. Climate change is predicted
to affect the GDP growth of the country by between 0.5 and 2.5 percent each year unless effective steps are
taken to build resilience. The frequency and intensity of droughts has increased in recent years, severely
affecting the livelihoods of millions of people. At the same time, increases in floods have placed additional
stress on social institutions and intensified the vulnerability of households. Climate related shocks affect
productivity, together with high levels of poverty and low levels of technology, leave people with limited
choices or resources to adapt. These changes also hamper economic progress and exacerbate existing
social and economic problems. The Ethiopian government is committed to building a Climate Resilient Green
Economy (CRGE) that aims to ensure economic development whilst pursuing a low emissions pathway and
building resilience to climate change. However, the uncertainties associated with the impacts of climate
change make adaptation actions more complex, and require to make the most of “no-regrets” adaptation
approaches – which will bring cost-effective benefits to nature and people under a range of longer-term
climatic changes.
1.5.2 Land degradation

Land degradation, resulting from unsustainable land management practices including inappropriate
cultivation, deforestation, overgrazing and cultivation on steep lands due to population pressure, is a major
threat to the environment in Ethiopia. Land degradation in the form of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, soil
compaction, and increased salinization and acidity pose a serious threat to sustainable management and
diversification of agricultural production systems. The Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) initiative
reported that the annual net erosion is 940 million tons a year, or 18 tons/ha/year (Hurni et al. 2015).

Factors such as deforestation, farmland fragmentation, poor agricultural practices and uncontrolled and free
grazing, among others, have led to the degradation of soil. Moreover, prevailing soil management practices
including over tillage and blanket fertilizer applications are key factors of land degradations. Out of a total
land mass of 1,221,900 square kilometers (122 million hectares), approximately 11 million ha are salt
affected soils.

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The intensity of salinity has been increasing fast due to the establishment of large-scale irrigated farms in
recent years. Inadequate provision of drainage system, poor water management practices coupled with
unsound reclamation procedures have made the problem worse. Land degradation is exacerbated by
overgrazing, deforestation, population pressure, land tenure insecurity and lack of land use planning. The
present condition and rate of soil erosion in Ethiopia calls for more comprehensive and immediate actions
supported with a conducive policy environment to reverse the land degradation process .

1.5.3 Deforestation
The current rate of deforestation is estimated at 150,000 to 200,000 hectares per year and the FAO estimate
that fertile topsoil is lost at a rate of one billion cubic meters annually. In the rural setting, massive
deforestation and degradation takes place for farming land and building houses to accommodate the
increasing rural population. This has exposed the soil for wind and running erosions, thus, depleting the soil
nutrients. Forest products like timber and lumber are also major causes for deforestation in Ethiopia. The
annual forest loss is approximately 92,000 ha/year and the gain is about 19,000 ha/year (MEFCC 2017). This
indicates the imbalance between the rate of deforestation and reforestation. However, Ethiopia has made
progress in rehabilitating degraded lands, protecting natural forests, and establishing new plantations over the
past ten years. Reports from MEFCC indicate that in 2015 Ethiopia’s forest cover was estimated to be 15.5%.

1.5.4. Loss of biodiversity

Owing to the land, soils, and climatic configuration, Ethiopia is one of the richest countries in
biodiversity. This wealth is the source of economic and social wellbeing through direct provision of
food, fiber and fuel as well as environmental services including regulation of climate, water, and
health. Ethiopia’s biodiversity resource is, however, threatened by several socioeconomic and
natural factors. Significant areas of forests, grassland, and shrub land have been lost through
conversion to farmland across the country. Several efforts have been made mainly on conservation,
species and ecosystem restoration and development of policies, strategies, and legal frameworks to
reverse the situation.

1.5.5. Invasive weed species

Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are of great concern in Ethiopia, posing particular problems on
biodiversity of the country, agricultural lands, range lands, national parks, water ways, lakes, rivers,
power dams, roadsides and urban green spaces with great economic and ecological consequences.
Foremost among these are parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), prosopis (Prosopis
juliflora), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and lantana weed (Lantana camara). Their high
seed production capacity and spread, adaptation to wide climatic and soil conditions, spread by
animal movement and their association with pastoralists way of life and overgrazing are challenges
to their management in Ethiopia.

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1.5.6. Pollution

Pollution is undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of

environment including air, water, and solid, which causes harmful effects to various form of life and
property. Air and water pollutions in Ethiopia are high. The water in Ethiopia is contaminated with
human sewage, , bacteria, and trash due to unsafe industrial and domestic waste disposal. Both
solid and liquid wastes are discharged directly into water sources without treatment. Air pollution is
also increasingly becoming a health concern due to high concentrations of indoor pollutants as well
as traffic-related and other ambient air pollutants.

1.6. Causes of environmental changes

1.6.1. Population growth and demographic changes

The country’s population is expected to reach 150 million by 2030. Ethiopia’s rapid population growth is
putting increasing pressure on land resources, expanding environmental degradation, and intensifing food
shortages. The total dependency ratio is about 82.1 (youth dependency ratio: 75.8, elderly dependency ratio:
6.3). The present rate of population growth is expected to be followed by intensive use of land to produce
more food and feed for the growing human and livestock population. It is clear that this intensification of land
use must be accompanied by both increased production and conservation of the soil at the same time. With
more than 40 percent of the population below the age of 15 and a fertility rate of over 5 children per woman
(and even higher in rural areas), Ethiopia will have to make further progress in meeting its family planning
needs if it is to achieve the age structure necessary for reaping a demographic dividend in the coming
decades.

1.6.2 Poverty

Since 2007, Ethiopia has achieved strong economic growth, making it one of the highest performing
economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet it remains one of the world’s least developed countries, ranked 174
out of 187 in the 2011 UNDP Human Development Index and 76 out of 70 in the 2012 Global Hunger Index.
About 29 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line (IFAD 2012). . Over the past fifteen
years, the headcount poverty rate declined by about 93 percent from 45.5 percent in 2000 to 23.5 percent in
2016. According to the recent Household Consumption Expenditure Survey Report, between 2010/11 and
2015/16, about 5.3 million people are lifted out of poverty. Poverty gap and poverty severity indices have
respectively declined from 10.1 percent and 3.9 percent in 2000 to 3.7 percent and 1.4 percent in 2016.
Nonetheless, poverty is still a challenge in Ethiopia as over 22 million people are living below the national
poverty line.

1.6.3. Urbanization

The urban population in Ethiopia is increasing rapidly, but also the least urbanized, with urbanization at only
19%, significantly below the sub-Saharan average of 37%. The urban population has grown at an average
3.8% per annum since 2005 and is expected to triple from 15.2 million in 2012 to 42.3 million by 2037. This
could pose a significant development challenge if not addressed properly.

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If managed proactively, urban population growth presents a huge opportunity to shift the structure and
location of economic activity from rural agriculture to the larger and more diversified urban industrial and
service sectors. Otherwise, rapid urban population growth may pose a demographic challenge as cities
struggle to provide jobs, infrastructure and services, and housing.

The central challenge for the Ethiopian Government is to make sure that cities are attractive places in which
to work and live, while fostering smart urbanization. Making urbanization a national priority will accelerate
Ethiopia’s progress towards reaching middle-income status. Since 2004/05, the government has focused
more on developing housing, upgrading slums, providing infrastructure and promoting small urban
enterprises.

1.6.4. Excessive dependence on agriculture

Ethiopia, having registered high economic growth since 2005 at an average 10.8% per annum, stands out as
one of the fastest growing economies in the world. In 2014/15, real GDP grew by 10.2%, keeping the
momentum of the 10.3% growth rate of 2013/14. The services sector contributed 4.7 percentage points of
this growth followed by industry and agriculture contributing 3 and 2.5 percentage points, respectively. While
the share of agriculture in the GDP declined over ten years from 47% in 2004/05 to 39% in 2014/15, that of
the services sector increased from 40% to 46% in the same period. Meanwhile, the contribution of the
industrial sector remained low, at 15% of GDP in 2014/15.

Despite its declining contribution to GDP over the years, agriculture remains the leading sector in terms of
contribution to the country’s overall economy. It is a major source of food for domestic consumption, of raw
materials for the domestic manufacturing industries and of primary commodities for export. Moreover, the
sector contributes 73% of employment, and supplies 70% of the raw-material requirements of local
industries. Livestock and livestock products, as well as food crops, were the leading contributors to
agriculture-sector growth in 2014/15. Ethiopia’s agriculture depends highly on traditional farming methods
and a rain-fed farming system, and is vulnerable to environmental and climate-related shocks.
Excessive dependence of agriculture on the vagaries of nature needs to be improved through massive
investment to modernize the agricultural system. Climate change is also a major threat to the sustainability
of growth due to its negative impact on agricultural output, but also to the additional cost of climate-resilient
infrastructure.

1.6.5. Excessive use of natural resources

The natural resources base land, water, and biodiversity is under intense pressure from population growth
and erosion-inducing traditional farming and management practices. The livelihoods of farming
communities face severe constraints related to intensive cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation, soil
erosion and soil fertility decline, water scarcity, livestock feed, and fuel wood demand. Climate change is
also contributing to these challenges. Deforestation and land degradation have led to reduced agricultural
productivity, increased sediment loads, and accelerated stream flows—higher floods and reduced base
flows. Biomass fuel provides close to 95 % of the total energy supply of the country, 77 % being derived
from woody biomass, 9 % crop residue, and 8 % from dung (MoA, 2000).

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Unsustainable and subsistence social and economic developments (indirect causes) in the watershed exert
pressure on the environment and, consequently, land degradation became a crucial problem due to the
direct causes. This leads to direct effects (reduced production & food insecurity; migration and social
conflicts; high soil erosion rates and reduced soil fertility; increased sediment load affecting the downstream
dams and reservoirs; reduced water supply and quality; and loss of biodiversity) that eventually brings
poverty and breakdown of ecosystems. The direct causes (pressure) for this are improper cultivation
practices, deforestation, overgrazing, and cultivation on steep slops due to population pressure and climate
change. The drivers or indirect causes are both socio-economical and biophysical.

1.6.6. Adaptive management

Adaptive management should be practiced based on science and, traditional and local knowledge,
accompanied with monitoring environmental and socio-economic impacts, and adopting responses to
unsustainable responses (CBD, 2004). The malpractice of adaptive management arises from inadequate
coordination, supportive and enabling policy frameworks and the lack of data and information and appropriate
analytical tools at local and national level.

Adaptive management requires the development of supportive policies and frameworks, as well as
coordination across programs and institutions responsible for agriculture, climate change, food security, land
use, water management and energy generation to avoid inconsistencies and promote harmonization of efforts.

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1.7. Impacts on environment and human welfare

1.7.1 Impact on rural livelihood

Environmental challenges in Ethiopia are affecting the livelihoods of the rural population and threatening
food security situation. It is also contributing to persistent poverty, and results in decreasing ecosystem
resilience and provision of environmental services. In addition, environmental degeneration due to land
degradation adversely affects the health, well-being and livelihood opportunities of individuals as
agriculture in Ethiopia is the largest contributor to overall economic growth and poverty reduction.
Accounting for 45 % of national GDP, 90 % of exports, and 84 % of the labor force, agriculture remains the
economy’s most important sector. The livelihood of most of the rural population, of which 39.3% live below
poverty line, is fully or partially dependent on environmental goods and services. The frequency and
intensity of droughts has increased in recent years, severely affecting the livelihoods of millions of people.
At the same time, increases in floods have placed additional stress on social institutions and increased the
vulnerability of households.

1.7.2. Impact on urban environment and human welfare

The implications of climate change for social welfare and development in urban areas are enormous. The
impacts of the increased frequency and/or intensity of drought, floods, storms and heat waves, water
supply constraints and other changes that climate change is likely to bring are serious development
challenges and are distributed unevenly within urban areas among different social groups.

These urban dwellers are at risk from the direct and indirect impacts of climate change. Climate change is
likely to bring droughts that usually exert indirect pressure on the health of city dwellers. The primary
causal pathway linking drought to urban health is availability of food. A decrease in regional food
production reduces availability and raises prices in cities to the degree that the poor are unable to buy
sufficient food.

Climate change may reduce access to safe drinking water in cities. Climate change affects the availability
of water to urban populations, particularly in urban centers that lack adequate water resource
management and infrastructure. Over and above the acute effects of flooding, climate change may reduce
the effectiveness of other sectors such as energy, transport, and built infrastructure.

One of the main ways that climate change affects urban populations is through the impact on health,
mostly from physical hazards but also from extreme temperatures, increased risk of some diseases and
constraints on food availability. Health impacts of storms and floods on cities also increases.

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1.8. Responses to emerging environmental issues
The emerging policy issues in Ethiopia focus around the acceleration and achievement of the Agenda
2030 on SDGs as an overarching framework that could holistically address development deficits to
address climate change, environmental protection and the sustainable utilization of natural resources.
Ethiopia has developed and implemented a range of legal, policy and institutional frameworks. The
objectives of national policies are to promote sustainable utilization of natural resources to support
sustainable growth and poverty reduction. The policies are integrated into sectoral policies and
implemented at federal, regional and district levels. In addition, GTP I and II accorded priority to the
environment for sustainable development. The intervention strategies focus on improving watershed
management, afforestation, and soil conservation.

The Government has been formulating and implementing ambitious and robust mid term plans since the
mid-2000s, Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) has been
implemented during 2005/06 to 2009/10 followed by the First Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I) that
was implemented from 2010/11 to 2014/15. Currently, the Second Growth and transformation Plan (GTP
II), whose major objectives include maintaining the strong growth averaged 10.8 percent achieved in the
past, deepening economic transformation, and aiming to become a lower middle income and carbon
neutral status by 2025, is in its third year of implementation.

As mentioned above, Ethiopia has a vision of becoming a middle-income and carbon-neutral economy by
2025. The implementation of the Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy developed in 2011 is
geared to meeting this ambition. The CRGE strategy has set out a comprehensive strategy to develop the
economy in a manner that minimizes the economy’s susceptibility to, inter alia, climate change, and this
strategy has been implemented through GTP I and II.

Ethiopia’s National Adaptation Plan (NAP-ETH) builds on ongoing efforts to address climate change in the
country’s development policy framework, including the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy
and the second Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II), as well as sectoral climate resilience strategies
and regional and municipal adaptation plans. Its goal is to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate
change by building adaptive capacity and resilience. NAP- ETH aims to strengthen holistic integration of
climate change adaptation in Ethiopia’s long-term development pathway, supported by effective
institutions and governance structures, finance for implementation and capacity development and
strengthened systems for disaster risk management and integration among different sectors.

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The Ethiopia Government and its partners made massive land rehabilitation and conservation efforts since
mid 1970s. Various nationwide SWC initiatives have been undertaken and, especially since the 1980s,
multiple donors have supported these efforts. These initiatives include Food-for-Work (FFW) (1973–2002),
Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transition to more sustainable livelihoods (MERET, 2003–
2015), Productive Safety Net Programs (PSNP, 2005–present), Community Mobilization through free-labor
days (1998–present), and the National Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP, 2008–2018).The
MERET project emerged to link land rehabilitation with income generating activities and livelihoods through
the Community-based Participatory Watershed Development Approach, with direct beneficiaries estimated to
be 1–1.5 million people annually. The PSNP provides resources to food insecure households through food
and cash transfers for participation in labor-intensive public works including SWC activities. SLMP, one of the
conservation initiatives launched in 2008, has managed to reach scale successfully. The program primarily
focuses on conservation measures, which include physical conservation measures as well as biological
conservation measures. The Massive land rehabilitation and conservation efforts that have been
implemented in recent years by local level communities and NGOs need to be scaled at a faster rate with
better planning and quality control.
Ethiopia has been making major headways in rehabilitating its forestry and expanding its coverage. The
forest cover in the country has shown some significant increase because of reforestation over the last
decade. Ethiopia envisaged raising national forest coverage to 30 % by 2025 from 15.5% now. Ethiopia has
officially launched the annual seedlings plantation program to be implemented at a national level. The
Government plans to plant 4.3 billion seedlings on a million of hectare of land this Ethiopian rainy season.

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2. Air Quality and Climate Change

Key messages
Air quality is an important global environmental concern. However, research into types,
extent and trends in pollutant concentrations in Ethiopia are very few and at micro spatial
scales. Evidences from these few studies indicate that both indoor and outdoor air pollution
are considerable problems. Indoor particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxide concentrations were reportedly much higher than tolerable limits of international
standards for health. A study of ambient air (outdoor) quality exists only for Addis Aababa,
and it shows that particulate matter, ozone and carbon monoxide concentrations are higher
than WHO standards.

Indoor air pollution, which has serious health implications, is mostly caused by biomass
burning for household energy production. Hence, this needs to be tackled through the
provision of clean energy alternatives to both rural and urban households. Outdoor air
pollution is mostly a result of emissions from vehicles and industries; there is also a study
showing association of outdoor air pollution with respiratory health problems in Addis
Ababa. Outdoor air pollution is likely to increase with the rapidly growing urbanization of the
country. The recent effort at monitoring ambient air pollution by the National Meteorological
Agency at Addis Ababa, Adama, and Hawassa should be strengthened and also cover
other major towns. This is useful to enforce the existing air quality standard or its revised
version as necessary.

Climate change, which is driven by the change in the global atmospheric quality – is
evidently affecting the economy, society and ecosystems of Ethiopia. Station data show
statistically significant increase in the minimum and maximum temperatures over the past
six decades for most parts of the country, whereas rainfall does not show clear patterns of
change; rainfall trends are localized showing slight increase or decrease at local scales.
Model projections also indicate increasing temperatures, but results for rainfall are mixed.
Drought and flood are the major climate related hazards in the country in the current as well
as the projected climate. Some projections further indicate that it is very likely that extreme
weather events like drought and flood will be intensified in the future.

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 Ethiopia is an active member of the international community through the UNFCCC
process, and has already signed the Paris Agreement. As part of this international
commitment, there are now programs under implementation to deliver the NDCs in the
context of an overarching policy framework called Climate Resilient Green Economy
(CRGE) strategy, which was launched in 2011. The CRGE strategy is aimed at
fostering economic growth, ensuring transition to a green economy and enhancing
national resilience to climate change; hence, responding to both national needs and
international commitments.

Implementation of the CRGE and the delivery of its national and international benefits
require a large amount of financial, technological, and institutional capacity inputs. This
in turn requires soliciting support from bilateral and international sources of finance for
program implementation as well as for technology transfer and institutional capacity
enhancement including for coordination mechanisms at all levels.

2.1 State and trends of air quality

2.1.1 Introduction
Air quality refers to the degree to which the air in a particular place is pollution-free. Air pollutants are
chemicals, compounds or elements that are released into the atmosphere mainly owing to human activities,
and which can cause damage to living organisms (Moriarty, 1999). Air pollutants can be indoors or outdoors
depending on the sources that the pollutants are released. The major source of indoor pollutants is indoor
combustion of biomass fuels, whereas vehicles and industries are the major sources of outdoor pollution.

In Ethiopia, air pollution and its effects are not well documented. Until recent years, they were considered
generally low and inconsequential. Recent studies, however, revealed that air pollution is increasingly
becoming a health concern due to high concentrations of indoor as well as traffic-related and other ambient
air pollutants (FDRE, 2002; Sanbata, 2012; Graham, 2011; WHO, 2006).

2.1.2 Extent and trends in pollution levels

2.1.2.1. Indoor air pollution
There are a few case studies conducted on assessing indoor air pollution (IAP) in Ethiopia. The objectives of
those studies were to assess the effects of indoor air pollution on human health using cross- sectional data.
As there is no direct measurement of pollutant concentrations that cover the country, findings from case
studies conducted in Tigray, west welega, Kebribeyah, and Butajira were considered and summarized in this
report (Usinger, 2008; Dyjack et al., 2005).

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2.1.2.2. Indoor particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide
(CO)
Review of the few available studies across the country showed that the average concentrations of PM2.5
reached as high as 280 μg/m3 for 24-hour mean measurements (Tefera et al., 2016). A study conducted in
59 slum neighborhood houses of Addis Ababa in 2012 showed that the mean PM2.5 concentrations was 818
μg/m3 with a standard deviation of 3.61. Solid fuel, Kerosene and clean fuel are the major sources of
pollutants in the study (Sanbata, 2012). Another study in Addis Ababa also reported that the 24-h mean
PM2.5 from kitchens reached 1, 580 μg/m3 which exceeded the WHO standards (WHO 2006). Based on
TSP assessment in rural Tigray, it is reported that the average indoor TSP concentration was 20mg/m3
(Range 83–175 mg/m3) (Usinger, 2008). A study in Gimbie, west Wollega, Oromia Region noted that the
concentration of respiratory suspended particulate (RSP) in biomass-fuel-using-homes was 130 times higher
than the air quality standards (Dyjack et al., 2005). In Arsi-Negele, indoor concentrations of CO and PM2.5
from biomass fuels in the 8-hr average period were 1.22 μg/m3 and 50 ppm, respectively (Desalegn et al.,
2011).

Very few studies considered indoor concentration of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Ethiopia. One study
conducted in rural area of Ethiopia reported high average levels of NO2 (97 ppb) in a large longitudinal
study. This is twice as high as the WHO standard for a mean 24-hr concentration (Kumie et al., 2009).

Regarding indoor carbon monoxide (CO), higher concentrations were found among households using
traditional stoves and solid biomass fuels; the CO concentrations being higher than regulatory limits used in
the United States. A study in Addis Ababa homes reported the 8 hr average CO concentration as 16 ppm
(Range: 0.66 – 69 ppm). This exceeds the US EPA’s 8 hr average CO limit of 9 ppm in 48% of the
households (WHO, 2006). Burning dung was the major cause of higher CO concentration and sometimes it
exceeded 4000 ppm due to low energy efficiency (Usinger, 2008).

2.1.2.3 Causes of indoor air pollution

The major cause of indoor air pollution in Ethiopia is biomass fuel. According to a 2011 Welfare Monitoring
Survey (CSA, 2011), 95% of Ethiopian households use biomass fuel with the majority using firewood for
cooking (Figure 2). Firewood is the primary source of energy in both rural (90%) and urban (54%) areas.
Next to firewood, charcoal is used in urban areas (18%) for cooking compared to its negligible use in rural
areas (0.2%). Use of cleaner fuels such as kerosene and electricity for cooking in rural areas is almost
non-existent, but kerosene is widely used for lighting (88%) (CSA, 2011). These data are quite old and we
believe that use of electric stove and biogas use have likely increased since these data were collected, but
there is no actual data to support this claim.

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Figure 2: State of Environment 2017 Analysis Framework

2.1.3 Outdoor air pollution

Ambient air pollution is one of the least studied in Ethiopia. Monitoring of pollutants, which are related to
traffic and industries, is a very recent phenomenon in some major cities like Addis Ababa, Hawassa, and
Adama. The sections below present analysis of available information on pollutants in Addis Ababa.

2.1.3.1 Particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO)
WHO studies in 2007 and 2008, PM10 mass concentrations measured in the city of Addis Ababa were in the
range of 17 to 285 μg/m3 (WHO 2007; 2008). This is higher than those in sub-urban areas, which was
40μg/m3. This is below the WHO standard value (Etyemezian et al., 2005) as well as Ethiopia’s EPA (EPA,
2003). The mean TSP concentration of 195μg/m3 exceeded the WHO safe standard value (120 μg/m3).
With regard to carbon monoxide, the mean concentration of all on-road collected samples was 5.4 ppm. This
concentration is more than half of the 8-hour WHO standard value.

Figure 3a shows summary of three years’ data collected from National Meteorological agency (NMA) Tikur
Anbesa air pollution monitoring station in Addis Ababa for NO, NO2, O3 and CO gases. It can be seen that
the 24 hour mean concentrations of NO2, NO and O3 were up to 50 μg/ m3, 21 μg/m3, 25μg/m3,
respectively, during 2014 to 2017. In the same period, the highest CO was 20 mg/m3. Among the pollutants,
NO2 concentration was the highest and the major sources of this pollutant is vehicles. Vehicles are major
contributors of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and other pollutants. Figure 3b shows PM2.5
concentrations, which was made available by US Embassy in Addis Ababa. The 24 hours mean PM2.5
concentration ranges from 0 to 60 μg/m3 with an average value close to 25 μg/m3. This is below the
Ethiopian EPA’s standard for daily PM2.5 concentrations.

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a b

Figure 3:Air pollutants concentration measured at Tikur Anbesa Station, NMA,Addis Ababa (a) Hourly mean PM2.5
concentrations at US Embassy in Addis Ababa (b)

2.1.3.2. Causes of ambient air pollution

The major cause of ambient air pollution in Ethiopia is related with traffic. This is easily seen from the
coincidence of peak concentration of pollutants with high traffic congestion segments of the day. It was
observed that daily maxima of CO concentration in Addis Ababa were in the early mornings at rush hour time
and late afternoons. The peak hour for PM10 and CO levels was 7:00 am. Secondary peaks follow this in the
late afternoons and early evenings. High vehicle traffic and cooking/heating activities are expected to be the
causes of such peak hours for PM10 and CO levels. Temperature inversion could also be a cause for higher
concentration in the early evenings (Etyemezian et al., 2005). Other than the traffic, geological materials,
probably from unpaved roads and road shoulders are also possible sources for PM10. According to Kumie et
al. (2010), up to two-thirds, i.e., 34 to 66% of the total mass of PM10 reconstructed chemical composition
was derived from geological materials.

Figure 4 shows the growth of vehicles in the country, which implies that the transport sector will continue to
be the major cause of ambient air pollution in Ethiopia. The vehicles fuel consumption is anticipated to
increase by 285 % between 2015 and 2035, with most of that increase coming from diesel (Danyo et al.
2017).

Figure 4: Projection of stock of vehicles

Source: Danyo et. al (2017)

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2.1.3.3. GHGs emissions
Emission assessment in 2013 indicated that emissions from Agriculture, forestry and other land use
accounted for 79% while the energy and industrial processes and product use (IPPU) sectors contributed
15% and 1% respectively and the waste sector only 5%. In terms of emission by gas, methane and carbon
dioxide accounted respectively for about 52 and 26% of all greenhouse gas emissions from human activities
in Ethiopia.

Based on the same source (the 2013 estimate), the total emissions were about 146,160.43 Gg of carbon
equivalent. Out of this carbon equivalent, Carbon dioxide accounted 40,357.15 Gg; methane accounted
72,793.82 Gg and Nitrous Oxide accounted 30418.03 Gg. There was a decrease of emission by 24.11% in
total estimated emissions compared with 2010.

Source: MEFCC (2015)

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2.1.4. Impacts of air pollution

There are a few studies on health impacts of air pollution in Ethiopia. It is reported that air pollution is
becoming the main cause of diseases such as acute lower respiratory infection and chronic obstructive
pulmonary diseases (WHO, 2007; IHME, 2014). Ethiopia reported that 1,262,908 cases (5% of total) of
acute upper respiratory infections and 5% of pneumonia cases —this accounts for 7% of hospital
admissions—might have been linked to air pollution (MoH, 2011). For the same year, 2% of hospital
admissions were due to tuberculosis. Pneumonia is the leading cause of hospital admissions and the
second cause of morbidity in the country.

Another study reported 42% of 1,565 deaths that occurred in Addis Ababa in the years 2006–2009 were due
to communicable diseases. Tuberculosis and respiratory tract infections caused 12% and 3% of the deaths,
respectively. Non-communicable diseases accounted for 51% of the deaths, with asthma being the primary
cause. Tuberculosis, respiratory tract infections, and asthma collectively accounted for about 17% of all
deaths in Addis Ababa (Misganaw et al., 2012a). All are diseases that may have links with indoor or outdoor
air quality situation. Another study found that tuberculosis and respiratory infections as the second (11%)
and third (8%) causes of the deaths that occurred in public and private hospitals in Addis Ababa for the
period 2006–2009 (Misganaw et al., 2012b).

Acute lower respiratory infection is also linked with high level of fine particulate matter in the air. The
problem is especially observed among children (CSA, 2012). According to CSA’s countrywide report,
national prevalence of acute respiratory infection was 7% (CSA, 2012). Similar results were also found that
focused in Addis Ababa and in the rural area of Shebedino district, southern Ethiopia (Sanbata, 2012;
Biruck, 2011).

Recent study by Tarekegn MM and Gulilat TY in 2018 indicates that air pollution related diseases like acute
upper respiratory infections, acute bronchitis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
pneumonia, have been increasing in the last five (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Air Pollution related respiratory Disease in Addis Ababa

(Tarekegn MM, Gulilat TY (2018)).

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2.1.5. Responses to air pollution
The Government of Ethiopia has taken different response measures to ensure the right of citizens to live a
healthy life in a healthy environment. The responses include developments of policy and legal frameworks
and building institutions and capacity for air quality monitoring, surveillance and regulation.

2.1.5.1. Legal and policy frameworks

The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia provides for a favorable policy environment
for air quality (Article 44/1). The Constitution grants fundamental rights to have clean and healthy
environment (FDRE, 1994). The 1993 Health Policy emphasizes about air pollution that the provisions cover
environmental policy on ambient air quality standards and on the need for regulatory limits for both stationary
and mobile air pollution sources (FDRE, 2003). The policy priority for clean energy sources as part of the
green growth strategy of the country will also have air quality benefits. For instance, in the transport sector
the recently introduced light trains and railway is expected to effectively replace half of the country’s need for
fuel-based transportation and the emissions problems associated with it (Tefera, et al. 2016). Though it is not
yet introduced, electric buses are also in the transport development plan of Addis Ababa city. Similarly, in the
energy sector, clean energy production from hydropower, wind, geothermal, and solar sources are steadily
increasing. With regard to decreasing indoor pollution, more than 11 million improved cooking stoves were
planned to be distributed during the current Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II) These all have air
quality benefits, and hence can be considered as responses to the emerging problem of ambient air
pollution. Especially, the renewable energy resources, wind power and solar radiation, are very huge (Figure
6a) and very recently, the government has given much attention to these resources though the current
exploitation is less than 1 % from the potential.

a b

Figure 6: Distribution of average annual solar radiation in kWh/m2/yr (1980-2009) (a), and distribution of average wind speed, m/s
(height: 50m, 1980-2009) (b).
Source: MEF (2015)

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2.1.5.2 Ambient air quality monitoring and regulating capacity

The then Ministry of Environment and Forest (now MEFCC) has set air quality standards, i.e., the Ambient
Environmental Quality Standards aimed at controlling emissions by point sources (Table 1). However, this
has not been implemented. Very recently, efforts are underway to measure pollutant gases at Addis Ababa,
Adama, and Hawassa cities under the National Meteorological Agency. The monitoring and enforcing of the
standards on ambient air pollution is under MEFCC.

Table 1: Air quality guidelines: Ethiopia and WHO

Guideline value WHO air quality
Pollutant (micrograms per guidelines (micrograms
cubic meter) per cubic meter)
Sulphur dioxide (10 minutes) 500 500
Sulphur dioxide (daily) 125 20
Sulphur dioxide (annual) 50 -
Nitrogen dioxide (1 hour) 200 200
Nitrogen dioxide (annual)) 40 40
Carbon monoxide (15 minutes) 100000 -
Carbon monoxide (30 minutes) 60000 -
Carbon monoxide (8 hours) 10000 -
Ozone (8 hours) 120 100
Ozone (1 hour) 180
Particulate matter less than 10 microns (annual) 50 20
Particulate matter less than 10 microns(daily) 150 50
Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns(annual) 15 10
Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns(daily) 65 25
Lead (annual) 0.5 -

Source: Guidelines Ambient Environment Standards for Ethiopia 2003. The Environmental Protection Agency and The
United Nations Industrial Development Organization prepared under the Ecologically Sustainable Industrial Development
(ESID) Project, August, Addis Ababa

2.2. Climate: state and trends

2.2.1. The climate of Ethiopia
Ethiopia has a tropical climate system, which is dominated by convective rainfall. Bekuretsion (1987a) states
that weather and climate of Ethiopia arises from the influence of tropical weather systems, like the Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the monsoon, easterly waves, etc., and the quasi- stationary subtropical
anticyclones of both northern and southern hemispheres. Topography of the country modifies the large-scale
pattern and created diverse localized climates. Temperatures are influenced by altitude of places.
Precipitation varies with latitude, decreasing from south to north, whereas the meteorological framework is
deeply affected also by elevation and physiography, especially as regards temperature distribution and
anemometric characteristics. The proximity of the Asiatic continent is an important factor that influences the
Ethiopian precipitation.

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In winter, the contrast between the thermal anticyclone of western Asia and Egypt and the equatorial low
pressures determine the presence of trade winds blowing from northeast to southwest. These winds relatively
cool but rather dry, control the dry period (bega in Amharic). In spring, the influence of southwestern winds,
coming from the Congo basin, determines the season of ‘little rains’ (belg in Amharic) that can bring relatively
abundant precipitation in the southern part of the country. In summer, the Guinean monsoon, consisting of
equatorial warm and humid winds, results in bountiful rains (kiremt in Amharic) which are also influenced by
the orographic diversity mentioned above.

Broadly classified, Ethiopia has three seasons and three rainfall regimes. The seasons are Belg— short rainy
season, March-May; Kiremt—main rainy season, June-September; and Bega—dry season, October-January.
Figure 7 shows the three rainfall regimes: region A has two wet and one dry season during February/ March-
May and June/July- September, respectively, region B has one dry and one wet season, and region C has
two dry and two wet seasons. It is bimodal which spans from Feb-May and Oct-Nov.

Figure 7: Rainfall regimes of Ethiopia

Source: NMA (1996)
The annual rainfall ranges from less than 300 mm in the southeastern and northwestern lowlands to over
2,000 mm in the southwestern highlands. The average temperature ranges from 25 to 300C in the southeast
and northeast lowlands, and 15-20 0C in the central highlands (Figure 8)

Figure 8: Mean annual rainfall and temperature over Ethiopia.

Source: NMA-maproom

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2.2.2. Observed climate variability and trends

2.2.2.1. Rainfall variability
Rainfall in Ethiopia is characterized by seasonal and inter-annual variability. El Niño -Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) mostly creates rainfall deficit in our Kirmet season, while normal and above normal rainfall in the
belg season. La Niña is the opposite of El Niño and it is associated with rainfall deficiency in belg season and
normal and above normal rainfall in kiremt season. Apart from ENSO, Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) has an
influence on Ethiopian rainfall especially in belg season. Positive IOD causes above normal rainfall whereas
negative IOD causes below normal rainfall in belg rainfall receiving parts of the country.

Spatially, rainfall variability is higher over the eastern half of the country as compared to the western half
(Rienecker et al., 2012). ENACT rainfall data (Dinku et al. 2016) is used to compute the coefficient of
variation for annual, kiremt and belg seasons. The coefficient of variation for annual rainfall ranged from 9 to
30%, and it was strongly associated with the rainfall amount increasing from the southwestern Ethiopia to all
directions following the decrease in rainfall amount. Seasonally, Belg rainfall is more variable than Kiremt
rainfall; the coefficient of variation is more than 30% for most part of Belg rainfall receiving areas (Fig. 9a; Fig
9b; Fig 9c). Aragie (2013) reported that rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability decreasing) while
total rainfall is declining in some parts of Ethiopia. Funk et al. (2012) reported that areas receiving sufficient
rainfall during the Belg season, considering 500 mm as sufficient amount for growing crops, contracted by
16% since 1990. The same source also reported contraction of areas receiving sufficient Kiremt rainfall over
the period 1960-1989.

a b C

Figure 9: Spatial distribution of coefficient of variation (CV) of Annual rainfall (a) Kirmet (b), and belg(c) rainfalls (1 983-
2016) (b).
Source: NMA-maproom

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 2.2.2.2. Rainfall trends
Rainfall amount has remained stable over Ethiopia, with only a statistically non-significant slight decrease
(Figure 10). It is clearly shown in figure 10 that higher negative rainfall anomaly is observed especially after
2015, which is associated with the strong El Niño event recorded in the country.

Figure 10: Standardized rainfall anomaly trends for the period 1983-2016 relative to 1983-2012 average

ENACT rainfall data based analysis of rainfall anomaly trend for 12 homogeneous rainfall regions (Figure
11a) shows no significant trend in rainfall except slight increase and decrease trends over the different
homogeneous rainfall regions (Figure 11b). Accordingly, Reg-1, Reg-3, Reg-7 and Reg-8 show a slight
increasing trend in rainfall while Reg-2, Reg-4, Reg-5, Reg-6, Reg-9, Reg 10, Reg-11 and Reg-12 show
decreases. Gridded annual rainfall trend is computed as well to see spatial patterns (Figure 12). A tendency
of decrease and an increase of rainfall is observed without any particular pattern over Ethiopia.Aragie (2013)
analyzed rainfall trend seasonally and found decreases in Belg (Feb-May) and Kiremt (June-Sept) rainfalls
by 15-20% between 1975 and 2010.

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b
Figure 11: Homogeneous rainfall regions (Tsidu 2012) (a), Trends of standardized annual rainfall anomaly for the period 1983-2016
relative to 1983-2012 average for the twelve homogeneous rainfall zones (b) (own analysis)

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Figure 12: Annual rainfall trend for the period 1983-2016 (own analysis)

Seasonal analysis of the EPCC study indicated that Belg rains decreased by 150 to 50 mm across the south-
central and eastern parts of the country, while the kiremt rains declined by 150 to 50 mm across the western
and southern Ethiopia. No major trend was found for Kiremt rainfall except in the southeastern Ethiopia
mostly covering Somali region. Significant declines in rainy days especially in parts of Oromia, Benishangul-
Gumuz, and Gambella Regions.

Overall, all studies confirm that there is no statistically significant increase or decrease in rainfall amount in
Ethiopia based on observed as well as model outputs.

2.2.2.3. Temperature trends

Many studies confirm that there is an increasing significant trend in minimum and maximum temperature
over Ethiopia. Analysis based on ENACT long years gridded data revealed that mean annual minimum and
maximum temperature trend is significantly increased during the period of 1983-2016 (Figures 13a and 13b).
The analysis revealed that mean temperature increases by 0.45°C per decade since 1980s. Relatively
higher increasing trend is observed in the eastern and northern part of the country. According to MEFCC
(2015) report, which is prepared as Ethiopia’s Second National Communication to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), temperature is clearly rising throughout the country.
The degree of warming varied from one part of the country to another. The report indicates a temperature
increase of 0.1 to 0.4°C per decade, resulting in an average temperature increase of around 1°C (0.25°C
per decade) since the 1960s. The observed temperature increase is proportionate with corresponding
increases in the minimum and maximum temperatures (Figures 14a and 14b).

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a b

Figure 13: Mean annual minimum and maximum temperature trend for period 1983-2016 (own analysis)

a b

Figure 14: Standardized temperature anomaly for minimum(a) and maximum temperatures (b)for the period 1983-2016 relative to 1983-
2012 average (own analysis)

The hottest year since 1980’s was 2009 (Figure 15). After 2010, there has been a slight decrease of
temperature though it is still higher compared with the period before 2010.

Figure 15: Average temperature from 1983-2016

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Figure 16: Decadal average temperature from 1983-2016

2.2.3. Observed trends in climate extremes

EPCC (2015) analyzed climate extremes using indices (Table 2) for selected meteorological stations in
Ethiopia for the period 1980-2010 (Figure 17a). Analysis of historical rainfall extremes in the study indicated
that for most of precipitation indices, small and equal percentage of stations showed increasing and
decreasing trend whereas the trend is not significant for most of the stations (Figure 17b). A number of
stations exhibited a significant decreasing trend in Simple Precipitation Intensity Index (SDII).
Both maximum and minimum temperature extremes (TXx, TNx, TNn, TX90p, and WSD) showed significant
increasing trend in more than 60% of the stations. On the other hand, cold days (TX10p) and cold nights
(TN10p) showed a significant decreasing trend for large number of stations. The results, therefore, indicate
that Ethiopia has been getting warmer over the last 30 years with an increasing trend of extreme warming
indicators in most parts of the country.
a
TXx 6 37
TXn 6 24
TNx 14 31
TNn 14 12
TX90P 8 47
TX10P 49 6
TN90P 12 41
TN10P 31 14
WSDI 8 31
CSDI 18 10 Non-Significant
TR20 2 6 Significant
SU25 4 49
SDII 18
PRTOT 8 10
R99pTOT 6 4
R95pTOT 8 6
RX5day 12 8
RX1day 10 8
R20 6 6
R10 6 6
CWD 8 10
0
CDD 6 4 b
Figure 17: Distribution of weather stations used for trend analysis (a),80 and 60the proportion
40 20 of stations
0 20 with
40 significant
60 80

decrease (to the right of zero) and increase (to the left of zero) for 22 climate indices for the period 1980-2010 (b).
Bars in purple indicate percentage of stations with significant trend (a<0.05).
Source: EPCC (2015).

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Table 2: Climate extreme indices

Index Description
TXx Monthly maximum value of daily maximum temperature
TNx Monthly maximum value of daily minimum temperature
TXn Monthly minimum value of daily maximum temperature
TNn, Monthly minimum value of daily minimum temperature
TX90p percentage of days when TX > 90th %ile
TN90p percentage of days when TN > 90th %ile
TX10p percentage of days when TX < 10th %ile
TN10p percentage of days when TN < 10th %ile
WSD, Warm spell duration index: Annual count of days with at least 6 consecutive days when TX > 90th %ile
CSDI Cold spell duration index: Annual count of days with at least 6 consecutive days when TN < 10th %ile
TR Number of tropical nights: Annual count of days when TN (daily minimum temperature) > 20oC
SU Number of summer days: Annual count of days when TX (daily maximum temperature) > 25oC
SDII Simple precipitation intensity index
PRTOT Annual total precipitation in wet days
R99Ptot Annual total PRCP when RR > 99p
R95Ptot Annual total PRCP when RR > 95p
Rx1day Monthly maximum 1-day precipitation
Rx5day Monthly maximum consecutive 5-day precipitation
R10mm Annual count of days when PRCP 10mm
R20mm Annual count of days when PRCP 20mm
CWD Maximum length of wet spell, maximum number of consecutive days with RR 1mm
CDD Maximum length of dry spell, maximum number of consecutive days with RR < 1mm.

Further, we conducted climate extremes analysis based on updated meteorological data for 10 selected
meteorological stations located in different parts of Ethiopia for the period 1980-2016 (Figure 18). This
analysis is used as indicative of the status, updating the work of EPCC (2015).

Figure 18: Distribution of weather stations used for analysis of climate extremes

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Table 3 shows the indicators for temperature extremes for 2016 and 1981-2010 average. Accordingly, TXx,
TNn, TX90p and TN90p show significant increases for most stations while TX10p and TN10p show
decreases; for instance, warm days and warm nights increased by more than three folds in 2016 compared
with the average values of 1983 to 2010. For some meteorological stations, i.e. Addis Ababa and Hawassa,
the lowest value of daily minimum temperature (TNn) increased by two folds in 2016 as compared with the
average values for 1983-2010. However, the highest value of daily maximum temperature (TXx) shows very
slight increase in 2016 as compared with the 1983-2010 average. All these indicators show that the warming
is because of higher increasing of daily minimum temperatures.

Table 3: Temperature based extreme climate indicators for 2016 and 1981-2010 average

Highest Lowest
value of daily value of daily Warm Warm Cool Cool
Station maximum minimum days nights days nights
tempeature temperature (TX90p) (TN90p) (TX10p) (TN10p)
(TXx) (TNn)
Addis (28.7*, 28.8) (1.9*, 4) (31*, 98) (34*, 181) (33*, 9) (32*, 0)
Ababa
Combolcha (32.6*, 33.5) (3.6*, 3.8) (35*, 139) (35*, 55) (34*, 12) (34*, 17)
Dire Dawa (37.7*, 38.8) (10.9*, 10.8) (34*, 104) (31*, 40) (33*, 6) (33*, 22)
Gonder (32.7*, 33) (7.8*, 8.5) (32*, 109) (29*, 72) (31*, 12) (29*, 5)
Gore (29.9*, 31) (10.2*, 10.6) (30*, 96) (31*, 49) (30*, 17) (29*, 14)
Jimma (33.1*, 34.1) (0.6*, 0.5) (32*, 94) (34*, 67) (34*, 17) (33*, 22)
Hawassa (32.7*, 33.6) (4.3*, 8.4) (33*, 115) (35*, 125) (34*, 5) (33*, 1)
Jinka (33.1*, 34.5) (10.7*, 10.5) (31*, 92) (31*, 119) (31*, 4) (29*, 7)
Mekelle (29.6*, 31.5) (4.2*, 4.5) (28*, 45) (30*, 51) (28*, 7) (29*, 14)
Gode (39.2*, 40) (16.4*, 13.5) (24*, 68) (26*, 65) (25*, 18) (24*, 15)

Table 4 shows the precipitation based extreme climate indicators for 2016 and 1981-2010 average.
Accordingly, no particular pattern is observed across the stations except the increased value of consecutive
dry days (CDD) for all stations in 2016 as compared with the 1983-2016 average.

Table 4: Average precipitation based extreme climate indicators for 2016 and 1981-2010

Heavy Consecutive
Max 5-day precipitation
Stations precipitation days dry days
(RX5days)
(R10) (CCD)
Addis Ababa (37*, 28) (93*, 144.8) (61*, 114)
Combolcha (35*, 21) (117.4*, 139.2) (57*, 65)
Dire Dawa (21*, 4) (89.4*, 41.4) (60*, 173)
Gonder (38*, 36) (109.8*, 93.3) (82*, 77)
Gore (68*, 63) (114*, 84.6) (38*, 69)
Jimma (54*, 66) (107.7*, 131.6) (33*, 44)
Hawassa (29*, 17) (89*, 57.8) (41*, 69)
Jinka (44*, 45) (107.1*, 92.7) (37*, 47)
Mekelle (21*, 18) (100.3*, 66.5) (88*, 100)
Gode (5*, 10) (53.7*, 100) (123*, 159)

* 1981-2010 average value

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2.2.4. Climate-related hazards

2.2.4.1. Droughts
Drought is the recurring climate-related hazard in Ethiopia. According to the Global Facility for Disaster
Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), frequency, magnitude and intensity of droughts have significantly
increased globally since the 1970s (World Bank, 2011). It is likely to worsen under the projected changes in
climate. Figures 19a and 19b show the risk index of drought hazard for Ethiopia. The central and northern
part of the country, which the highlands are exposed to higher drought risk, compared to the lowland part of
the country. The southern part experiences lower drought risk.

Substantial warming across Ethiopia has exacerbated the dryness/drought conditions. Figures 20a and 20b
show the dryness trend as the x-axes identify the percentage change in the number of below normal rainfall
seasons between 1983 and 2010 and 2011 and 2016 for the MAM and JJAS seasons. The y-axes describe
the decreased rainfall averages for these same periods, expressed in units of standard deviations in the
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). To evaluate the spatial pattern, we used the homogeneous rainfall
zones presented above (figure 11). Accordingly, for the MAM, Reg-5, Reg-6, Reg-7, Reg-8, Reg-9 and Reg-
12 experienced a 20–60% increase in the frequency of below-normal rains with increased drought (∆SPI < -
0.3).

a b
Figure 19: Droughts hazard risk index (a), and flood mortality risks (b).
Source: WB-GFDRR (2011)

During the JJAS season, most regions have experienced up to 10% increase in the frequency of below-
normal rainfalls. Region 4 has experienced close to 30% increase in the frequency of below normal rainfall.
Increased drought magnitude is also experienced in most regions (∆SPI <0), which means more frequent
droughts and generally drier climates.

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 a

Figure 20: Recent changes in dryness frequencies (a) and standardized precipitation index (SPI) values (b) for March–May and June–
September

In Ethiopia, drought has significant impact on social and economic affairs. As it is documented by EM-DAT
(2011), drought affected millions of Ethiopians (Figure 21a). In 2003, drought affected approximately
12,600,000 people in Tigray, Oromiya, Amhara, Somali, and Afar Regions together. In 2015, over
10,000,000 people in Somali and Afar Regions were affected. The highest mortality due to drought was in
1983, when approximately 300,000 people died.

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Figure 21: Number of people affected by major droughts (a) and floods (b) in Ethiopia
Source: EM-DAT: The Emergency Events Database - Universite catholique de Louvain (UCL) - CRED, D. Guha-Sapir - www.emdat. be,
Brussels, Belgium

2.2.4.2. Floods
Flood is the other major climate-related hazard in Ethiopia. Flash floods occur regularly throughout the
country. The most recent flood events occurred in 1988, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2006; caused
significant damages EM-DAT (2018). The major flood event of 1990 affected 350,000 people, and the 2006
flood affected 450,000 people. The number of deaths due to flooding peaked in 2006.The frequency and
intensity of floods are also associated with environmental degradation, which is a major problem in the
country.

2.2.5. Projected climate change

2.2.5.1 Rainfall
EPCC (2015) developed model-based rainfall projections using Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project
Phase 5 (CMIP5) over Ethiopia during the 21st century for RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 (Figures 20a and
20b). The ensemble-mean annual precipitation for all RCPs show increase by 4% to 12% by 2100 compared
to the 1975-2005 baseline. The response of different parts of the country to the different RCPs is slightly
different. The percentage increase is higher over northern part of Ethiopia under RCP2.6 scenarios and over
southern and southeastern Ethiopia under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios.

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2.2.5.2. Temperature
EPCC (2015) indicates that mean annual surface temperature will increase by 3.5% to 8.5% (from 0.50C to
6 0C) by 2100 relative to the 1975 to 2005 baseline period for all the RCPs. Although there is a slight spatial
difference among the three RCPs in mean temperature projections of the 2020s, the difference increases
with time. EPCC stated that under RCP2.6 the mean annual temperature increases by approximately 10C at
the end of the century relative to the baseline period, and 50C in RCP8.5. For RCP 4.5, which represents the
moderate scenario, the projected increase in temperature is around 20C.

2.2.6. Extreme events

Based on the projected mean annual rainfall and mean annual surface temperature, it is very likely that
extreme weather events like drought and flood will be intensified in the future. McSweeney et al. (2008)
reported that larger share of total precipitation will fall during heavy precipitation events especially from July
to December. This is expected to lead to increased incidence of extreme events with severe droughts in one
year, and heavy flooding with soil erosion and landslides in the next (Aragie, 2013). McSweeney et al. (2008)
predicted substantial increases in the frequency of hot days and nights, with up to 93% of days and 99% of
nights likely to be ‘hot’ in the July-September season by the 2090s, compared to 10% of days and nights in
the same season in the 1960s.

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a b
Figure 22: Percentage change of rainfall over Ethiopia for the end-term (2068-2099) (a), and percentage change of mean annual
surface temperature over Ethiopia for the end-term (2068-2099) (b) relative to the baseline period (1975-2005) mean for RCP2.6 (top
row), RCP4.5 (middle row) and RCP8.5 (bottom row).
Source: EPCC (2015)

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2.2.7. Vulnerability and impacts of climate change
Vulnerability of socioeconomic and ecological systems to climate change is determined by complex and
interacting factors that determine exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity of the systems to climate
related hazards. Vulnerability is high where exposure and sensitivity are high and adaptive capacity is low.
Reducing vulnerability therefore requires actions that will reduce exposure to hazards; reduce sensitivity to
effects of the hazards; and enhance the capacity to adapt to effects of the hazards.
Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable countries to the adverse impacts of the ongoing climate change. By
most measures, exposure and sensitivity are high and adaptive capacity is low in Ethiopia. The ecological
setting and level of socioeconomic development of the country condition this. Ecologically, high natural
climate variability, a large highland area with rugged terrain and steep slopes, and a vast lowland area with
arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid climates characterize Ethiopia. Land degradation is a widespread
problem in both the highlands and lowlands. In socioeconomic terms, the large majority of Ethiopia’s
population subsists on small-scale agriculture and pastoralism; poverty is prevalent in both rural and urban
areas; and governance and institutional capacities are weak.

Rainfall variability, drought, flood, and landslides are the major climate related hazards in Ethiopia. Drought is
evidently the single most important climate-related hazard influencing the country. Recurrent drought events
in the past resulted in displacement of large populations, loss of lives and damages to property. Floods are
also recurrent in parts of the country and cause loss of lives and property; recent major floods occurred in
1988, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 2006.

The social, economic, and environmental costs of droughts and floods as the extreme climate events have
always been immense. With climate change, the prediction is that extreme events are likely to become more
frequent, severe and expanded in geographic coverage, indicating even greater potential human, social,
economic, and environmental damages. The major areas of concern for Ethiopia are human health,
agriculture, food security, water resources, energy, and infrastructure. Regarding economy-wide impact,
World Bank (2011) projects that climate change could reduce Ethiopia’s GDP by between 0.5 and 10% from
what could be achieved in the 2040-49 decade without climate change impacts.

2.2.7.1. Ecosystems
There is limited empirical research on vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change impacts in Ethiopia.
Based on a review of the limited available studies, EPCC (2015) concluded that climate change is likely to
cause significant adverse impacts in all five of the major ecosystems in the country; i.e., (i) afroalpine and sub-
afroalpine, (ii) forest, (iii) drylands, (iv) wetlands and (v) agro-biodiversity ecosystems. The experienced and
projected impacts, according to this review, include shifts in geographical ranges of some native plants and
animals, changes in timing of life cycle events of some plants and animals, spread of invasive species and
diseases, and declines in species, populations and genetic resources as well as extinction or loss of
biodiversity resources. The cumulative effect of these multidimensional impacts of climate change is loss of
ecosystem services and functions, which are vitally important for human wellbeing.

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2.2.7.2. Human health

Climate change has a wide range of impacts on human health, direct and indirect. The direct impacts include
morbidity and mortality associated with temperature extremes, storms, and floods. The indirect impacts
include increased incidence of vector-borne and non-vector-borne infectious diseases, reduced food and
water availability translating into malnutrition and increases in severity of infectious diseases among
vulnerable groups. For instance, occurrence of malaria, a vector-borne disease, is expected to increase in
Ethiopia because of expansion of malaria-prone areas. Similarly, in the past outbreaks of cholera and other
diseases often occurred following drought and flood episodes; diarrhea outbreaks and increased malaria
incidence were reported in some parts of the country following floods in 2005 and 2006. It is worth noting
that climate sensitive diseases like malaria, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and leshmaniasis are already
common in Ethiopia, a situation expected to worsen with climate change. The summary of health potential
health impacts of climate change is presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Potential health impacts of climate change in Ethiopia

Climate change effect Health impact

Extreme heat and cold Cardiovascular disease, skin cancer

Temperature change effects on food Diarrhoeal diseases

and water-borne diseases
Temperature and rainfall change Malaria, Leshmaniasis, Dengue fever; Filariasis,
effects on vector-borne diseases RVF, Schistosomiasis
Climate change effects on agriculture Malnutrition

Extreme rainfall and flooding Fatal and non-fatal injuries and mental health
effects
Air pollution effects
Deaths and diseases associated with air pollution
and
Allergies
Source: MEFCC (2015)

2.2.7.3. Agriculture and Food Security

Projected effects of climate change in Ethiopia include increased temperature, increased variability of rainfall
and shortening of the Belg season. These changes will negatively affect agricultural production, both crop
and livestock, in many ways; differently affecting different parts of the country. These include, shortened
growing period, increased water stress, increased loss of soils and plant nutrients, increased scarcity of
livestock feed and water, increased ‘heat load’ on livestock, and flood damages on crops, grazing resources
in some areas. Without effective adaptation, therefore, climate change could lead to decreased agricultural
production, yield potential, and even land area suitable for agriculture. This has implications, on Ethiopian
economy as agriculture is contributing over 40% to the national GDP.

More directly, climate change impacts on agriculture have serious implications for food and nutrition security
from household to national levels. Hence the poor, and vulnerable, especially women and children will be
severely affected. In addition to the direct effects on agricultural production and supply, climate change will
also affect the demand side. With local production declining, income opportunities and purchasing power will
decrease. At the same time, decrease in production and increased demand will lead to price increases for
the most important food crops like cereals, negatively affecting food and nutrition security of the poor.

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2.2.7.4. Water resources
Ethiopia is, relative to many African countries, richly endowed with water resources; and water is the vital
resource for national development prospects. Despite overall abundance, irregular spatial and temporal
distribution makes water an extremely scarce resource in some parts of the country and in certain times of
the year. The fact that Ethiopia has one of the lowest water storage infrastructures in the world (World Bank,
2006) contributes to the challenge of inter- temporal variability in water availability. Water resources are
inextricably linked with climate, so the projected climate change has serious implications for water
availability. Although rainfall is projected to increase in parts of East Africa including over the Ethiopian
highlands because of climate change, evapo-transpiration will also increase due to a rise in temperatures,
thus reducing the benefit of the increase (IPCC, 2013). Projected rise in temperature and increased
variability in rainfall due to climate change will adversely affect water resource systems. Ethiopia’s rainfall is
highly variable in space and time. A large part of the country (~70%) is believed to be arid or semi-arid.
Water availability in these arid and semi-arid regions is particularly sensitive to changes in rainfall and
evapo-transpiration amounts and temporal patterns. Thus, a reduction in amount or reliability of rainfall or an
increase in evaporation will exacerbate the already serious shortage of water in many places and dry
months of the year.

Studies on climate change impacts on Ethiopian river flows show mixed results. These evidences suggest
that inter- and intra-basin differences will exist such that some sub-basins and catchments could
experience declines in runoff while others will experience increases in runoff. Increased rainfall variability
due to climate change, which is more likely to occur, can cause shrinkage of wetlands in some parts,
affecting breeding sites of some bird species. On the other hand, drainage density could increase because
of the predicted increased heavy rainfall events, contributing to drainage efficiency, soil erosion, and floods
hazards. In general, the combined effects of climate change and increasing water demand to be expected
from population growth and economic development indicate that water resource management will present
special challenges of meeting competing demands for water.

2.2.7.5. Energy
The largest source of energy in Ethiopia is biomass (95% of total). Only 5% is from electricity, almost all of
which (> 95%) is generated from hydropower (FDRE, 2011). There is a large potential for hydropower in
the country, and the government has clear plans to develop this potential to meet the growing demand for
energy. This energy mix makes the country’s energy sector highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate
change is expected to alter hydrology of the Ethiopian rivers, mainly creating increased variability. This has
implications to hydropower production as both droughts and floods can become more frequent. Drought
can lead to water shortage in dams, while dangerous floods can become considerable safety concerns for
dams. More intense rainfall projected to occur because of climate change can enhance soil erosion from
uplands and supply sediments into the dams. Extreme weather events as heavy rainstorms can also
destroy energy infrastructure; for example, power transmission and distribution lines. Such episodes are
observed in the current climate, but will likely increase with the expected increase in extreme weather
events.

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The economic impacts of climate change effects on hydropower are felt in the costs of power cuts. Power
cuts also have spillover effects on to the environment; i.e., it can lead to higher rates of deforestation as
people resort to biomass energy whenever power interruption occurs. On the other hand, rising temperatures
and droughts can contribute to gradual disappearance of biomass, increasing hardship for those who are
dependent on biomass for their energy needs including people living in urban settlements of the country.

2.2.7.6. Infrastructure
Extreme events such as floods, heavy rains, and strong winds that are predicted to become more frequent
can cause destruction of infrastructure such as electric power, telecommunication and water supply lines,
and roads and bridges. This will be extra burden in terms of additional infrastructure maintenance costs. An
example is the floods of 2006 in Dire Dawa destroyed roads and bridges, and the damage was estimated at
over 4.4 million Birr. Similarly, the 2002/03 drought year caused a 2 m decrease in water levels of Lake
Tana, a shallow lake of 9 m average depth, and this stalled lake transportation for some months. The total
cost to the Lake Tana Transport Enterprise was estimated at over 4.2 million Birr; the World Bank (2010)
estimates between $15 million and $31 million per year, depending on the climate model used. This appears
a possible estimate as for instance infrastructural damage in Dire Dawa alone due to the 2006 flood was
estimated at over 7.3 million Birr; and in Addis Ababa, estimates indicate that flood in 1994 caused loss of
residential property with over 31.3 million Birr.

2.2.7.7. Social dimensions of climate change impacts

Climate change affects different economic, social and age groups differently. The poor, women, children, and
older people are particularly vulnerable. The poor in both rural and urban areas of Ethiopia possess fewer
resources, including information and decision making authority, to cope with climate change shocks and
stresses. Women are disproportionately vulnerable to climate change compared to men, because of existing
gender inequalities. Gender inequalities mean that women and men have differing roles, resources, rights,
knowledge, and time with which to cope with climate change.

Children constitute another large group who are most vulnerable to climate change impacts in Ethiopia.
Children face multiple threats from climate change, including direct impacts from increasingly frequent and
intense climate related disasters, increased incidence of water borne diseases, poor sanitation, declining
nutrition, increasingly fragile livelihoods, and additional burdens on their families. Through such multiple
impacts, climate change could affect children’s mental capacity, learning, and growth. Violence against
children, as well as women, including sexual abuse, trafficking and early marriage generally increase when
families are under economic pressure, hence a likely indirect impact of climate change on children, girls and
women. There is very little research evidence on climate change impacts on the elderly in Ethiopia. However,
it is obvious that older people will be more affected than youth by climate change impacts because of their
greater physical weakness and associated decline in incomes that can be common in old age. Reduced
mobility, changes in physiology, and more limited access to resources all undermine the adaptive capacity of
elderly, including greater susceptibility to climate-sensitive diseases that may increase in incidence and
range.

2.2.7.8. National Responses to Climate Change

Ethiopia became part of the international community to respond to climate change by ratifying the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2005.

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A provision in the Convention is for all Parties to the Convention ‘to develop, periodically update, publish, and
make available national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all
greenhouse gases (GHGs). Ethiopia submitted the First/ Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC
Secretariat in 2001 and the Second National Communication in 2016.
Similarly, Ethiopia prepared and submitted a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2007 as
recommended at the seventh session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 7) to the UNFCCC for the Least
Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and submit their most urgent and immediate adaptation needs. NAPA
was updated and replaced by Ethiopia’s Program of Adaptation to Climate Change (EPACC) in 2010.
The country has also submitted a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) plan to the UNFCCC in
2010 to comply with the requirements of the Copenhagen Accord, which is an outcome of COP 15 in
Copenhagen, with the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) in 2015 in accordance with the
decisions at COP 20. The INDCs have become NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) as Ethiopia has
signed the Paris Agreement in 2016. Most recently, Ethiopia has completed preparation of a National
Adaptation Plans (NAPs) (in 2017) in compliance with the Cancun Adaptation Framework (CAF) of the
UNFCCC that invites all developing country Parties to formulate and implement medium- and long-term
adaptation plans.
As it is clear from the foregoing, Ethiopia has been an active member of the international community through
the UNFCCC process. Learning from this and taking into account the national development-planning context,
Ethiopia developed an overarching framework and strategy, which is the Climate Resilient Green Economy
(CRGE) strategy, which was launched in 2011.

2.2.7.9. The CRGE strategy

The vision of the CRGE is to achieve middle-income status by 2025 in a climate resilient green growth path
that will be carbon neutral by 2030. It has three complementary objectives of fostering economic
development and growth; ensuring abatement and avoidance of future emissions, i.e., transition to a green
economy; and improving resilience to climate change. The CRGE has two building blocks: Climate
Resilience (CR) and Green Economy (GE) components.
The objective of the GE component is to lead to the target of zero net emissions by 2030. It has four pillars:
improving crop and livestock production for higher food security and farmer income while reducing
emissions; protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services; expanding
electricity generation from renewable sources of energy; and leapfrogging to modern and energy-efficient
technologies in transport, industries, and buildings. The GE strategy is completed and currently being
implemented on power, buildings, forestry, soil, livestock, transport, and industry.

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The CR component aims at building a climate resilient economy, by enhancing capacities to cope with and
manage climate-change related shocks and stresses. CR strategies have been prepared and implementation
is underway for agriculture and forestry, and water and energy sectors. Health and transport sectors CR
strategies are under development. Even though sectoral CR strategies are yet to be developed for some
sectors, the CRGE strategy has been under implementation mainstreamed into the second five-year Growth
and Transformation Plans (GTP I, 2010-2015 and GTP II, 2015-2020). In the current Plan (GTP II), building
climate resilient green economy is one of the nine pillar strategies.

The Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) coordinates implementation of the
CRGE strategy across sectors, and carries out capacity-building activities for sectoral and regional bodies. The
Sectoral Reduction Mechanism (SRM), which was issued in 2014, facilitates actions on priorities identified in
the CRGE and guides various sectors to reduce GHG emissions and vulnerability to climate change, and
compiles a web-based CRGE Registry to monitor progress towards the strategic objectives. The function of
resource mobilization, allocation, and management for CRGE implementation is provided by the CRGE
Facility, which was established in 2012. The responsibility of the financial management aspect of the CRGE
Facility is given to the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED), while EFCCC is responsible
for managing its technical aspects.

2.2.7.10. Outlook
In Ethiopia, there is very little research evidence on air quality issues. Apparently, air pollution has been
considered as negligible and inconsequential. As a result, very little is known about types, extent and trends
in pollutant concentrations in both urban and rural contexts. The few available studies however indicate that
both indoor and outdoor air pollution are considerable problems. Indoor particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide
and carbon monoxide concentrations were reportedly much higher than tolerable limits of international
standards for health. Hence, it constitutes a major health risk among exposed households. Indoor air
pollution is mainly associated with the use of biomass fuels for household energy production. At the present,
95% of Ethiopian households use energy generated from biomass sources. This shows that the scale of the
problem is perhaps much larger than the available evidences could indicate.

The effective solution to the problem of indoor air pollution is the provision of clean energy alternatives such
as electricity to households. However, the heavy dependence on biomass for household energy production
will continue into the near future given the slow pace of electrification, or even the adoption of biomass-
based fuel-efficient stoves in the country. Even when electricity availed, the rural households will most likely
use it for lighting purposes and continue to rely on biomass for cooking and heating purposes. Indoor air
pollution will therefore remain an environmental problem and a health risk in the near future. Improving
access, including affordability, to clean energy sources is the lasting solution to the problem of indoor air
pollution.

There are even fewer studies on ambient air quality in the country. The available information is for the city of
Addis Ababa and the National Meteorological Agency has recently started air quality monitoring in Addis
Ababa, Adama and Hawassa. The available evidence for Addis Ababa shows that particulate matter, ozone
and carbon monoxide concentrations are higher than WHO standards. The major sources of these pollutants
are emissions from vehicles and industries.

49
The fast rate of urbanization, the rapidly growing number of vehicles most of which are old in age and hence
fuel- inefficient, and the weak institutional capacity to enforce air quality standards suggest that ambient air
pollution is very likely to grow in Ethiopia in the coming years. The available observational data are too few
to make any conclusion, but it is a useful initiative that should be strengthened and scaled up to cover the
major towns.

Climate change – which is driven by the change in the global atmospheric quality – is a major development
challenge to Ethiopia. Natural climate variability is already a heavy economic burden to the country, and
anthropogenic climate change constitutes an added problem layer. Drought and flood, which are the major
climate related hazards in the country, are recurrent phenomena in the historical climate. However, there is
some evidence that the incidence and intensity of droughts and floods have increased over the past years.
Model-based projections also suggest that climate change is likely to increase the frequency, severity and
spatial coverage of drought and flood risks in the future. Economy-wide, climate change is projected to
cause reduction in the national GDP by between 0.5 and 10% from what could be achieved in the 2040-49
decade without climate change impacts.

Recognizing the scale of the climate change challenge, Ethiopia has mainstreamed adaptation and mitigation
actions into relevant sectoral policies and strategies and the implementation of the five- year development
plans. The CRGE strategy provides the overarching policy direction and vision for the national adaptation
and mitigation actions. Implementation of the CRGE and associated strategies—the green economy
strategy, the sectoral resilience strategies and the adaptation plan— will certainly ease the economic, social
and environmental costs of the ongoing climate change. In other words, as implementation of the CRGE
progresses as it is planned, impacts of climate change will be mitigated as a result. But its full-scale
implementation is beset with limited financial capacity to execute multiple and large-scale projects and
programs, limited technological capacity to fully embrace green growth options, inadequate institutional
capacity at all levels including institutions for research and development in climate change issues, and
absence of effective coordination mechanisms at both the federal and regional levels. In addition to
dedicating national resources, Ethiopia therefore needs to solicit support from bilateral and international
sources of finance for program implementation as well as for technology transfer and institutional capacity
enhancement including for coordination mechanisms at all levels. The fact that Ethiopia is a frontrunner in
the international arena in contributing towards the mitigation of the global climate change should be used as
an opportunity to leverage the much-needed international assistance.

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51
3. Land
Key messages
Unsustainable land-use practices and population pressure are the major drivers of land degradation
(physical, chemical and biological) with high economic costs in Ethiopia. Given the extent of the
land degradation problem and a limited impact of interventions so far made both by the government
and the international community, sustainable land management efforts must be scaled up to cover
all the agricultural lands with effective land use policy and coordination of all stakeholders.

Addressing the challenges to land resource through the development of a suite of stronger, more
comprehensive and cohesive land use policies focused on protecting and maintaining the land
capital and ongoing improvements to current land management arrangements is imperative for a
sustainable future.

Land productivity has been increasing steadily over the last years. However, current rates of crop
and livestock productivities are not adequate to meet the demand of the rapidly growing population.
Sustainable intensification of agricultural production activities through sustained use of productivity
enhancing agricultural technologies is the right option of meeting the CRGE vision in Ethiopia.

As a response measure to the state of the land degradation and low productivity, a number of
positive steps were in terms of community-based watershed management, soil fertility
management, establishing climate resilient agriculture, and land certification. However, these
measures are limited and need further scaling up.

The projected Ethiopian population for 2030 is 139.62 million, compared with 104.9 million in 2017.
The food demand is projected to increase from 19.3 million tons in 2017 to 31.4 million tons in
2030. This requires either additional 60% over the current level of cultivated land to produce 12
million tons or an increase in the current productivity by 79% through sustainable intensification.
Adopting and scaling Climate Smart Agriculture, which is a sustainable intensification of agricultural
production activities through sustained use of productivity enhancing agricultural technologies, is a
viable option for building resilience and food security for Ethiopia.

Land, with so many livelihoods dependent on it, is a critical productive asset to accomplishing the
goals outlined in the overall development vision of the country to reach a middle-income status by
2025. Therefore, integrating land tenure and land use with sustainable management is imperative.
The security of tenure accorded to different social groups in the land policy needs to translate into
reality on the ground.

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3.1. Introduction
The land sector in Ethiopia faces a number of challenges, including population and livestock pressure,
inequitable distribution and unsustainable utilization leading to different forms of degradation, limited
investment, conflicting sectoral land-related policies and lack of effective national land use policy and
planning. Factors such as deforestation, farmland fragmentation, poor agricultural practices, among others,
have led to the degradation of soils. Land degradation is widely spread leading to loss of ecosystem
functions and productivity is common in many parts of Ethiopia. Moreover, prevailing soil management
practices, including over tillage and blanket fertilizer applications are key factors of land degradation.
The state of the land resources report deals with the issues that have direct relevance to the land
environment and its management. The report is presented in terms of land use land cover (LULC) change,
physical and chemical land degradation along with some perspective on recent historical changes – the
dynamics of the state – and direction of the current changes. The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response
(DPSIR) framework is used here to assess the issues of the state of the land in the Ethiopian context (Figure
23). This allows for continuity with previous reports, and facilitates the assessment of the environmental
change. It also provides policy analysis and offers analytical frameworks for decision-making (UNEP, 2008).

Figure 23: DPSIR Framework for the analysis of state of the land in Ethiopia

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 Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Priority was given to accessing the national-scale data that exists, which allowed the assessment of the
change and trajectory of the whole of the Ethiopian land environment. Publicly available data were also used
because the Digital State of the Environment requires that all the data be made publicly available. Expert
opinions were also solicited through consultations. This was followed by an exploration of emerging issues,
and significant changes in the environmental landscape over the last five years that are of national
significance.

The land use land cover changes of Ethiopia considered the period 2007 as a base year and the 2013 LULC
map to explore the status of the change and the net change of each LULC type for the period under
consideration. Before analyzing the change in LULC type, different LULC types were identified and
categorized into seven major types in order to align with the 2007 report. As a result, the forest category
includes dense forest, moderate forest, and sparse forest. The grazing land category contains both open
grassland and closed grassland. The woodland and shrub land category include woodland, open shrub land
and closed shrub land. The uncultivated land category contains three land use types such as wetland, water
body, and settlement. Bare land, rock outcrop, lava field, and saltpan were categorized under unproductive
land. Finally, the remaining two land use types, annual cropland, and perennial cropland were taken as they
are.
Land degradation processes, which imply a reduction of the productivity of the land—soil degradation and
accelerated erosion, reduction of the quantity and diversity of natural vegetation—are widely spread and are
defined as the long-term loss of ecosystem function and productivity caused by disturbances from which the
land cannot recover unaided. An assessment of the status of land degradation in Ethiopia was done only in
1983. Although it is believed that land degradation has continued with equal or greater intensity, there has
never been a systematic and comprehensive assessment since then. Therefore, the estimated soil loss
(t/ha/yr) developed for the Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study (Hurni, 1986) were used. Also used is the
soil loss estimates of a recent study in Ethiopia using USPED model by the Economics of Land Degradation
(ELD) Initiative (Hurni et al. 2015), which takes in to account the impact of the soil and water conservation
activities over the past years and the net erosion/deposition factors.

3.2. State of the Land

3.2.1. Land use land cover changes
In Ethiopia, the temporal pattern of land use during the period 2007-2013 has been characterized by
increasingly intensely changing landscapes (Figure 24). The land use changes have transformed land cover
to farmlands, forest, woodland and shrub land, unproductive land, and perennial cropland at the expense of
grazing land and uncultivated land, leading to a significant decline in grazing land as well as a reduction in
wetlands and water body.

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

A B

Figure 24: Land use land cover map for 2007 (A), and 2013 (B) of Ethiopia
Sources: Ethiopian Mapping Agency; Landsat 2013 ETM+)

Table 6 shows the trends of total area covered by each land use land cover type and percentage share of
each land use land cover of the total area for the years 2007 and 2013. It also depicts net area change and
percentage change of net area change in land use and land cover change for the years 2007 and 2013,
respectively for the seven land use land cover. From the total area, forest covered 3.6%, and 13.74% in 2007
and 2013, respectively. The largest proportion of the total area of the country was covered by grazing land
(51%) and uncultivated land (18.7%) in 2007, while woodland and shrub land and annual cropland took the
largest share of the total land in 2013.
Of the total area of the country, woodland and shrub land covered 8.1% in 2007. This further increased to
41.22% in 2013. Annual cropland accounted for 13.1% and 18.18% of the total area in 2007 and 2013,
respectively. In 2007, the grassland accounted for 51%. However, it showed a significant decline to 11.30%
of the total area of the country in the year 2013. The area coverage of perennial cropland has shown an
increasing trend between 2007 and 2013. It covered 1.7% in 2007, and 3.73% in 2013. The trend further
shows that the percentage shares of uncultivated land declined from 18.7% in 2007 to 1.19% in 2013. On
the contrary, an increase of unproductive land from 3.8% in 2007 to 10.6% in 2013 was observed.
There was a dramatic expansion of woodland and shrub land, followed by cropland and forestland in 2013
as compared to 2007. However, grazing land and uncultivated land had shown a considerable decline in
area coverage from 2007 to 2013 (Table 6). The area covered by cropland was increased by 5,971,845
hectares between 2007 and 2013. The expansion of cropland is driven by population pressure and the
conversion of grazing land and uncultivated land.

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 Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Table 6: Estimated area and net area change of land use land cover types

Area (2007) Area (2013) Net area change

Land use and land 2007-2013
cover type ha % ha % ha %
Annual cropland 15401065 13.1 21372991 5971845
1 3
8 8
.
. 7
1 8
8
Perennial crops 1998612 1.7 4390664 2392052
3 1
. 1
9
7 .
3 6
9
Grazing land 59958344 51 13288994 -46669350
1 -
1 7
7
. .
3 8
0 4
Currently unproductive 4467485 3.8 12457975 7990490
1 1
land 0 7
8
. .
6 8
0
Currently uncultivated 21984726 18.7 1400565 -20584161
1 -
land . 9
3
1 .
9 6
3
Forest 4232354 3.6 16156166 11923812
1 2
3 8
1
. .
7 7
4 3
Wood land and shrub 9522796 8.1 48498108 38975312
4 4
land 1 0
9
. .
2 2
2 8
Total 117565382 100 117565382 1
0
0
Sources: Ethiopian Mapping Agency; Landsat (2007 ETM+; 2013 ETM+)

The net area changes of forest and woodland and shrub land has increased by 281.73% and 409.28%,
respectively in 2013 as compared to the area in 2007. Moreover, the net area changes of perennial crop and
annual crop increased by 119.69% and 38.78%, respectively in the same period. The net area increases for
unproductive land in 2013 is 178.8% over the area in 2007. On the contrary, the net area changes of grazing
land between 2007 and 2013 decreased by 77.84%. Similarly, the net area changes for uncultivated land
decreased by 93.63% during the period under consideration.

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3.2.2. Land degradation

3.2.2.1. Physical land degradation
The 2007 State of the Environment reported that soil erosion by water is the dominant degradation process
and occurs particularly on cropland, with annual soil loss rates on average of 42 t/ha/year for croplands, and
as high as 300 t/ha/year in extreme cases (Hurni 1986). Other degradation processes include intensified
runoff from grasslands and related gullying, as well as high soil erosion rates from heavily degraded lands.
However, this study did not consider the impact of the soil and water conservation activities over the past
years and the net erosion/deposition factors.
A recent study in Ethiopia, using USPED model by the ELD Initiative (Hurni et al. 2015), reported that the
present annual net erosion is –940 million tons’ year, or –18 tons/ha/year. This estimate considered the net
erosion/deposition factors. Further, the estimate considered existing conservation structures, which are
present in about 18% of the cropland on slopes greater than 8% in the study area of the USPED model.
However, the share of cropland situated on slopes steeper than 8% totals 77%, which means that such area
needs soil and water conservation. As a result, conservation structures would need to be built on an
additional 59% of the cropland (12.7 million ha), in order for all sloping cropland to be conserved. Looking
exclusively at the cropland, the model produced an annual net erosion of –380 million tons (–20.2 t/ha/ year).
This value could be reduced to –222 million tons (–11.8 t/ha) if conservation structures were constructed on
all sloping cropland.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Figure 25: Land degradation index map of Ethiopia

Source: ATA, 2017

The land degradation index map of Ethiopia is presented in Figure 25. The index signifies the degree of land
degradation severity in different parts of the country. Moreover, the annual soil loss rate for each LULC
type—as modified by Hurni et al. 2015; percentage share of soil loss and the net percentage change in soil
loss from each land use land cover type for the year 2015 as compared to the base year 2007 is presented
in Table 7. The mean annual soil loss due to erosion considerably changed in the year 2015 as compared
with that of 2007. Annual soil loss decreased from 1,437,119,260 tons in 2007 to 1,097,665,698 tons in
2015. In terms of net soil loss, woodland and shrub land took the highest net soil loss followed by forest, and
perennial cropland between 2015 and 2007. The net soil loss from uncultivated land accounted for 94%
followed by grazing land, which takes 78% during 2015-2007.

58
Table 7: Estimate of soil loss and net soil loss from land use land cover types
2007 2015 Net soil loss
Land use Rate of soil
Area (ha) Soil loss (t/yr) Rate of soil Area (ha) Tons %
loss (t/ha/yr Soil loss (t/yr)
loss (t/ha/
yr)
Annual cropland 42.0 15401065 646,844,730 20.2 21,372,910 431,732,782 -215,111,948 -33

Perennial crops 8.0 1998612 15,988,896 4.0 4,390,664 17,562,656 1,573,760 10

Grazing land 5.0 59958344 299,791,720 5.0 13,288,994 66,444,970 -233,346,750 -78

Currently unproductive land 70.0 4467485 312,723,950 20.2 12,457,975 251,651,095 -61,072,855 -20

Currently uncultivated land 5.0 21984726 109,923,630 5.0 1,400,565 7,002,825 -102,920,805 -94

Forest 1.0 4232354 4,232,354 5.0 16,156,166 80,780,830 76,548,476 1,809

Wood land and shrub land 5.0 9522796 47,613,980 5.0 48,498,108 242,490,540 194,876,560 409

Total 19.6 117565382 1,437,119,260 9.8 117,565,382 1,097,665,698 -339,453,562 -24

Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Sources: Ethiopian Mapping Agency; Landsat (2007 ETM+) and Computed based on Hurni (1986) and Hurni et al. (2015).

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 Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

3.2.2.2. Chemical land degradation

Soil salinity
The problem of salt affected soil is old but the magnitude and intensity have been increasing fast due to the
establishment of large-scale irrigated farms in recent decades. Inadequate provision of drainage systems, poor
water management practices coupled with unsound reclamation procedures have made the problem worse.
The soluble salts that occur in salt affected soils consist mostly of various proportions of Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-
, , and occasionally K+, and ions with minor quantities of B, F and Li that are
seldom of major importance because of their toxicity to plants. These ionic constituents of salt affected soils
are released and made soluble from rocks and weather able minerals during the processes of geochemical
and pedo-chemical weathering.

About 9% of the Ethiopian population lives in the areas affected by salinity. The semi-arid and arid lowlands
and valleys in Ethiopia have major problems of salinity and alkalinity. About 44 million ha in 36% of the
country’s total land is potentially susceptible to salinity problems. Out of the 44 million ha, 33 million ha has
dominantly salinity problems, 8 million ha has combined salinity and alkalinity problems, and 3 million ha has
dominantly alkalinity problems (Figure 26).
The main sources of salinity are shallow ground water tables, natural saline seeps, and source from marine
origin. Development of large irrigation schemes, at Middle and Lower Awash Valley, without appropriate
drainage system and water management practices led to gradual rise of saline groundwater. Furthermore,
development of shallow saline groundwater with high evapotranspiration contributed to secondary salinization.
There are many effective ways of improving salt-affected land, such as water leaching, chemical remediation
and phytoremediation (Sharma and Minhas, 2005; Qadir et al. 2007). The remediation
of salt-affected soil using chemical agents, including gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), calcite (CaCO3), calcium
chloride (CaCl2.2H2O), and organic matter—farmyard manure, green manure, organic amendment and
municipal solid waste; is a successful approach that has been implemented worldwide, being effective, low
cost, and simple (Sharma and Minhas, 2005; Tejada et al. 2006). The soil and water conservation efforts and
application of compost could be taken as effective remediation for salt- affected soils. The physical, chemical,
and biological properties of soil in salt-affected areas can be improved by applying organic matter.

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Figure 26: Saline soil distribution of Ethiopian soils (pH based)

Source: ATA working paper (2017)

Soil acidity
Acidification is a natural process that usually occurs because of nitrate leaching in high-rainfall areas. Soils in
areas with large amounts of rainfall tend to be acidic because the water leaches basic cations—calcium,
magnesium, sodium, and potassium—out of the soil profile, and these cations are then replaced by acidic
cations—hydrogen and aluminum. Soil acidity can lead to elemental toxicities for plants by aluminum, iron,
manganese, and zinc due to the increased solubility of these elements at low pH values. Soil acidity can
cause limited availability of some macronutrients and micronutrients such as phosphorus, which binds to iron
and aluminum oxides in acidic soils.

In Ethiopia, vast areas of land in the western, southern and even the central highlands of the country, which
receive high rainfall, are affected by soil acidity (Figure 27).
Soil acidity can be ameliorated by adding lime/limestone (calcium carbonate) and similar compounds that
have been ground fine for use (Buni 2014). Lime treats acidity by combining with carbon dioxide gas, water,
and hydrogen ions to form free calcium ions and carbonic acid—weak acid. The carbonic acid then
dissociates to form carbon dioxide gas and water, ridding the soil of hydrogen ions. Benefits of liming include
improved nitrogen fixation and availability of essential nutrients (Ca, P, and Mo) and decreasing the solubility
of toxic elements Al and Mn. Lime recommendations have to be as specific as possible, taking soils, crops,
and climate as well as the financial position of farmers into account.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Figure 27: The distribution of acid soils in Ethiopia

Source: ATA working paper (2017)

3.2.2.3. Biological land degradation

Organic matter depletion and nutrient depletion often occur together in the same area. Most farmers in
Ethiopia do not return animal dung and crop residues (Gete et al. 2010). Organic matter depletion is driven
by competing uses for crop residues and manure as livestock feed and fuel, respectively. Burning of dung
cake and crop residues is common in Ethiopia due to a lack of widely available and affordable fuel wood;
dung cake accounts for about 50% of households’ fuel supply, particularly in the north and central highland
cereal zones. The use of dung as fuel instead of fertilizer is estimated to reduce Ethiopia’s agricultural
GDP by 7% and in some cases; manure is used as a source of supplementary cash income (Zenebe,
2007). Zinash and Seyoum (1989) reported that 63% of cereal straws are used for feed, 20% for fuel, 10%
for construction, and 7% for bedding. Similarly, some estimates suggest the nutrient contents of the crop
residues used as feed are higher than the quantities applied as fertilizers.
The wide ranges of topographic, climatic factors, parent material and land use have resulted in extreme
variability of soils in Ethiopia. Ethiopian soils are largely of volcanic origin. Assessments of nutrient status
of Ethiopian soils indicate ranges of 0.9–2.9 g N kg−1 and 0.4–1.10 g P kg−1 soil.
The calculated national nutrient balances were on average: 47 kg N ha−1, 15 kg P205 ha−1 and 38 kg
K2O ha−1 for the year 2000 (Amare et al, 2005). At the national level, full nutrient balance results indicate
a depletion rate of 122 kg N ha−1 yr−1, 13 kg P ha−1 yr−1 and 82 kg K ha−1 yr−1. The soil nutrient stocks
are decreasing with the exception of areas under permanent and vegetable crops.

3.2.3. Land productivity

Productivity trend over the years (2008-2016) is assessed for the major crop categories, including cereals,
pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, root crops, and perennials. Considering the first 5 years (2008-2012), the
increase in productivity of cereals is on average by 6.4% each year.

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Productivity of cereals had shown about 25% increase in 2012 over the productivity in 2008. Likewise, for
the next period (2012-2016), the average yearly increase in productivity of cereals is 6%. The productivity
increased by 28% in 2016 compared to 2012. Considering the entire period, (2008-2016), the average
yearly increase in productivity of cereals is 6.2%. Cereals had shown about 60% productivity increase in
2016 over the productivity in 2008.
Productivity of pulses had also been increasing in the period 2008-2016, except in the year 2015.
Considering the first 5 years (2008-2012), the increase in productivity in 2012 is about 22% higher than the
productivity in 2008. During 2012-2016 periods, the productivity of pulses has increased by 17% in 2016
compared to the productivity in 2012. Considering the entire period (2008-2016), pulses’ productivity
increased by 43% in 2016 compared to the productivity in 2008.
Oil seeds had shown irregular change in productivity over the entire period. For example, the productivity
comparison between 2012 and 2008 showed 5% decline in 2012 as compared to 2008. On the contrary,
productivity of oil seeds had shown an increasing trend but a small change over the second period (2012-
2016). The productivity in 2016 is 10% higher than the productivity in 2012. From 2008 to 2016, oil seed’s
productivity in 2016 is 5% higher than the productivity in 2008.
Considerable irregularities are observed in the productivity of vegetables over the period 2008- 2016. Crop
productivity had been fluctuating in the first period (2008-2012), but generally showed a 19% higher
productivity in 2012 compared to 2008. However, in the next period (2012-2016), vegetables had shown a
22% decline in productivity in 2016 as compared to 2012. The productivity of vegetables had declined by
7% in 2016 as compared to the productivity in 2008.
The change in productivity of root crops is negligible for the first period (2012-2008). However, these crops
had shown a tremendous change in the second period (2012-2016) showing on average 31% increase in
productivity each year. Considering the period (2008-2016), the productivity increase for root crops was
about 125% in 2016 compared to the productivity in 2008.
Productivity of perennial crops initially showed fluctuating and small changes in the period 2008- 2011.
However, the productivity considerably increased in 2012 (127%) as compared to the productivity in 2008.
From 2012 to 2016, the productivity increase is on average 44% each year. Considering the period
between 2008 and 2016, productivity of perennials is 439% higher in 2016 as compared to the productivity
in 2008.

3.3. Causes of land degradation

This section tracks back from observations made on the state and dynamics of the key land resources to:
the causal factors, the driving forces, and the pressures. The distinction between driving forces and
pressures is not always clear. They might be viewed as indirect (or underlying) and direct (or proximate)
drivers, respectively. The major drivers are population growth, climate change, limited land area, and
ineffective or non-existent land use policy. The pressures are land fragmentation, expansion of agriculture
to marginal areas, unsustainable agricultural practices or poor land management (mining), excess use of
alkaline fertilizers, and overgrazing.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

3.3.1. Population
The annual population growth rate of Ethiopia in the inter-census period before 1984 was 3.2 % while that
between 1984 and 1994 was 2.9 %. It was calculated as 2.6 % between 1994 and 2007; and declined to
2.5 % per annum between 2007 and 2013 (Table 8). The general trend of population indicates that annual
population growth rate in Ethiopia is in a slight declining trend following the launching and implementation
of the national population policy of Ethiopia in 1993.
The actual number of people added in Ethiopia from the 40 million in 1984 was 1.3 million (Table 8). This
increased to 1.6, 1.9 million and 2.1 million in 1994, in 2007 and in 2012, respectively. The number of
people added further increased to 2.5 million in 2017. Following this trend, the population is projected to
reach about 140 million by 2030. The declining trend in annual population growth rate and total fertility
rates recorded is not significant enough to stop the rapid increase of the population due to the hidden
momentum of an already large population to grow further despite policy intervention, witnessing the fact
that rapid population growth is still one major challenge to Ethiopia’s socio-economic development
planning.
The Ethiopian population doubled in 23 years’ time, between 1994 and 2017. Following this, the population
would also take 23 years to double between 2007 and 2030. This will induce increased demand for food,
energy and other natural resources, and greatly influence the manner in which these resources are
utilized.

Table 8: Population size, annual growth, and annual increase

Year Population Annual Annual addition of people

(million) population (million)
Growth rate (%)
1984 40.0 3.0 1.3
1994 53.5 2.9 1.6

2007 73.8 2.6 1.9

2013 85.9 2.5 2.1
2017 104.96 2.4 2.5
2030 139.62 2.0 2.8
Source: CSA (1984, 1994, 2007 Census) and 2012 Annual Statistical Abstract

3.3.2. Landholding and land fragmentation

Under the Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 40(3), land is vested in the state and in the people. According to
this article, every citizen has the right to acquire and use land, but not to sell. The Constitution also
provides that government may expropriate private property for public purposes subject to compensation,
which is equivalent to the value of property under Article 40(5). The enabling legislation is the proclamation
that provides the government the right of expropriation of landholdings for public purposes and payment of
compensations (Proc. No. 455 /2005). However, land expropriation has encountered resistance from
farmers because of unfair compensation and lack of training before and after compensation to continue
their livelihoods unabated.

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Land is the main economic, political, social, and cultural asset in Ethiopia. It is the crucial source of
livelihood. It remains an asset that farmers have to accumulate wealth and transfer the same to future
generations. Farmers and pastoralists are guaranteed a plot of land free of charge while urban residents can
secure the same through ground lease arrangements. Farmers’ rights to the land give them possessory or
holding privileges, including the rights to use, rent, donate, and inherit. Urban dwellers may obtain land on
15-99 years lease agreements depending on the purpose for which the land is needed and such right may be
freely transferable.
The Ethiopian subsistence agriculture has not only suffered from continuous decline of cultivated land but
also from farm fragmentation. The national average landholding per capita had shown a decreasing trend
from 2008 to 2014, with an average annual rate of 0.005 hectares. However, the change is not significant
and is becoming more comparable through time, which implies that new landholding is entering to cropland
at the expense of other land use to meet the demand of increasing population in need of cropland. The small
farm size leads to a reduction of sustainable land management practices such as fallowing practice or
shortening of fallow cycles, and rotation, with a consequence of declining soil quality and fertility.
A study by Gebresellassie (2006), based on the national survey data (2004), indicated that the average farm
size in Ethiopia was fragmented into 2.3 plots, each with 0.35 hectares. The study further indicates 44% of
farm household having one plot with 0.34 hectares, while 11% of farm households have more than four plots,
each with 0.32 hectares. It is argued that the process of farm fragmentation has been in part induced by
farmers’ voluntary actions of transferring part of their farm to children reaching working age and forming their
own farm family but without securing any alternative livelihood options (Gebresellassie 2006).
3.3.3. Livestock
Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural grazing and browse, crop residues, improved
pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Excessive pressure on the vegetation cover by
animals is a crucial problem for rangelands while livestock does not necessarily cause land degradation,
overgrazing can be a major factor in land degradation, causing a large part of the damage in Ethiopia. This
could be induced by the increase in cattle numbers and the decline in the quality of rangelands, which have
been significant during the recent decades. These two trends are obviously incompatible in the end, and
pastureland degradation is likely to happen. The massive expansion of irrigated agriculture, particularly sugar
plantation has also reduced grazing land size. They are taking away prime dry season grazing land along
riverbanks.
In order to show the livestock pressure on land resources, livestock stocking rate per hectare is calculated
based on the livestock population data of Ethiopia (CSA 2008-2013) and land-use land cover data that
corresponds to the years 2007 and 2013. The stocking rate measures the number of tropical livestock units
(TLU) per hectare of grazing land constituting all types of livestock. To calculate the stocking rate, first the
total livestock population of the country is converted into TLU, using the conversion factor for each category
of livestock following Stock et al. (1991). Then the average livestock-stocking rate per hectare is calculated
by dividing the total livestock units by the total area of rangeland available for the years 2007 and 2013.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Following the land-use-land cover change data, the total grazing land in 2007 was 59,958,344 hectares. In
the same year, the total livestock population of Ethiopia was about 50,514,720 TLU. Based on this, the
livestock-stocking rate was 0.84 TLU per hectare. In the year 2013, the total grazing land of Ethiopia showed
unprecedented decline to 13,288,994 hectares (78%) as compared to 2007. On the other hand, the total
livestock population of the country expressed in terms of TLU was increased to 55,509,430—by 10% in
2013. Following the extraordinary decline in grazing land, livestock stocking rate is calculated to be 4.18
showing about 398% increase compared to the livestock rate in 2007 (Table 9).
The number of TLU has shown tremendous increase in 2013 compared to 2007 (398%). The increase in
stocking rate emanates from two sources. The major source is the unparalleled decline in grazing land by
78%, which causes concentration of more livestock units on a given grazing land beyond its carrying
capacity. Parallel to this, the livestock population of the country had also increased by about 10%, which
further enhanced livestock concentration per unit grazing land. The mismatch between livestock population
and grazing land emanated from the combined effect of the decline in grazing land and increased livestock
population resulted in a mounted trend of pastureland degradation.
Table 9: Livestock size and stocking rate

Grazingland
Year TLU TLU/ha
(ha)
2007 50,514,720 59,958,344 0.84
2013 55,509,430 13,288,994 4.18
Change (2013-2007) 4,994,710 (-46,669,350) 3.34

percentage change (2013-2007) 9.9 (-77.84) 398

This increased concentration of livestock in a given grazing land also induced a decline in the capacity and
quality of rangelands and compromised their ability to support livestock grazing sustainably. Long years of
overgrazing reduce plant cover, eliminating the most desirable forage species first. This opens up the land to
undesirable weeds, brush, and trees and leads to increasing soil erosion and lower soil fertility and the land
becomes less and less productive. With less nutritious forage available, herders respond by actually
increasing the size of their cattle herds to compensate for losses in weight. In other instances, small
ruminants replace cattle as forage deteriorates, and eventually they will graze on anything, including young
trees, which ultimately results in barren land, floods, and erosion.
3.3.4. Climate
Climate variability and climate change are significant drivers in the land degradation and food security
challenges Ethiopia currently experiences and will be a major pressure in the future. Historical data indicate
that rainfall is increasingly becoming erratic, with marked seasonal deficits when compared to long-term
averages. Droughts appear to be increasingly frequent, covering wider areas; heavy rainfall events appear to
be increasingly frequent, with changes in rainfall patterns, including decreased reliability and less
predictability; temperatures are increasing; the number of extreme events is likely to increase affecting the
state of land across the country.

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Ethiopian agriculture is typically rain-fed and relies on predictable rainy seasons. The increasing
unpredictability of future rains is, therefore, a key barrier to successful food production and could become a
significant threat to food security. It is also possible that climate change impacts will cause more land
degradation, making it harder for Ethiopia’s smallholder farmers to grow crops and make a living. Such
repeated exposure to more acute weather shocks, with no time to avoid or prepare for them could seriously
degrade the resilience built around rural smallholder farming and pastoral communities through PSNP, and
could drive Ethiopia’s rural poor deeper into food insecurity and exacerbate their vulnerability.
3.3.5. Policy enforcement
Problems of inappropriate land uses, population growth, over-exploitation of natural assets and
environmental degradation are complex and long-term. Their linkage exacerbates them with poverty,
inequality, and social conflicts because many people have inadequate access to land or to the benefits from
its use. Many land management practices, such as soil and water conservation (SWC) structures, involve
long-term investments that require greater tenure security for widespread adoption. It is necessary to
promote desirable land investments or protection and conservation of land-based resources by linking
provision of increased tenure security. A viable land use policy and environmental impact assessment laws
are believed to be a fundamental base for sustainable land management and hence, sustainable agricultural
development.

In response to the escalating land degradation, the Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation
(Proclamation No. 456/2005) and Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (Proclamation No.
9/1995) are enacted. The proclamations provide a new system of administration for rural land management
and use and for sustainable rural land use planning based on the different agro-ecological zones of the
country necessary for the conservation and development of natural resources. The Proclamation, among
other things: provides rules relative to acquisition and use of rural land by farmers and pastoralists transfer of
rural land use rights, distribution of rural land, resolution of disputes, and restrictions on the use of rural land;
and defines responsibilities of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and Regions.
Article 10 of the policy states that “a holder of rural land shall be obliged to use and protect his land and if the
land gets damaged, the user of the land shall lose his use right.”
The Environmental Impact Assessment law (Proclamation No. 9/1995) was enacted to contribute to
environmentally sound development cooperation by identifying, predicting, and evaluating the foreseeable
environmental effects both beneficial and adverse, of public and private big land development activities.
However, Ethiopia’s Investment Proclamation does not make EIA a requirement for obtaining an investment
permit, and in practice the Ethiopian Investment Authority grants investment permits without EIA as a
requirement. However, the EIA Proclamation imposes a duty on any licensing agency to ensure that the
relevant environmental agency has authorized implementation of a project before issuing an investment
permit.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

However, these policies have not been fully implemented due to limited political commitment from the
sectors, lack of awareness among different stakeholders, limited capacity, insufficient structure to effectively
put the policies to use, lack of functional linkage with regional and sectoral organs.

The Ethiopian Government has leased at least one million hectares (ha) of land for agricultural investments
over the period 2005 to 2012. This includes around 380,000 ha from the federal land bank, managed by the
Ministry of Agriculture; 335,000 ha by regional governments; and 335,000 ha for state-run sugar plantations.
With limited scrutiny of investors regional governments gave land. Until recently, no environmental impact
assessment had been done. In many regions, record keeping of land investment has been poor. Some land
leases are very large: eight are over 25,000 ha and one is 100,000 ha. Experts suggest that these sizes are
unmanageable and that 10,000 ha would be a more realistic upper size limit. They also suggest that land
should be given out in blocks of 5,000 ha, with extensions only permitted where land has been developed
effectively.
3.3.6. Invasive species
Invasive species are posing negative impacts on native biodiversity, agricultural lands, rangelands, national
parks, waterways, lakes, rivers, power dams, roadsides, and urban green spaces with great economic and
social consequences. The most common ones in Ethiopia are parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus),
prosopis (Prosopis juliflora), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and lantana weed (Lantana camara).

In Ethiopia, prosopis is an Invasive Alien Species (IAS), causing economic and environmental harm. It has
inflicted significant damage to rangelands and farmlands and in particular is threatening pastoral and agro-
pastoral livelihoods. Prosopis was intentionally introduced as an agroforestry species in the Awash Basin, but
now it threatens agricultural land and protected areas in the Awash National Park. It is aggressively invading
pastoral areas in the Middle and Upper Awash Valley, Borana and Eastern Hararge, destroying natural
pasture, displacing native trees, forming impenetrable thickets, and reducing grazing potential. Prosopis
invasion is taking over prime grazing and irrigable land in Afar Region alone. Parthenium hysterophorus is
also another invasive plant that was introduced accidentally through aid shipments, and is spreading rapidly,
causing up to 90% reduction in forage production. Its impact in natural habitats clearly poses a major threat
to rangelands and croplands.
Attempts to combat the threat of invasive species in Ethiopia have followed the usual piecemeal approach,
which have not been coordinated across sectors, and have focused mainly on attempting to address the
major invaders. The emphasis is on tackling problems that threaten agriculture and human activity, due to
insufficient resources and capacity or information available to address the threats to natural ecosystems.
3.3.7. Agricultural practices
Unsustainable and inappropriate land management is the main cause of physical, chemical, and biological
degradation of cultivated land, grazing lands, and forestland. Vulnerability to degradation can arise from the
number of plowing during field preparation—3-6 times depending on the crop; the absence of contour
plowing, terracing, or perennial crops which grow throughout the year and the lack of manure or crop
residue to increase soil fertility through organic cycling. Cross plowing is practiced because the traditional
plow in Ethiopia, called Maresha, cannot be efficiently used over the same line of plowing in consecutive
tillage operations (Temesgen et al. 2008).

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Inadequate capacity of farmers to maintain and enhance environmental services by preventing and reducing
degradation and deforestation due to lack of appropriate technology is also a very important driver. Loss of
soil fertility and increased moisture stress result in low crop yields and high levels of poverty. There is
inadequate knowledge on watershed management and other related sustainable land management practices
to allow informed decision- making at all levels. All these intertwined factors present constraints for making
progress in reducing land degradation, implementing SLM, and enhancing environmental services.
Land shortage and poverty, taken together, lead to non-sustainable land management practices.
Subsistence farmers are led to clear forests, cultivate steep slopes without conservation, overgraze
rangelands, make unbalanced fertilizer applications, and the other causes noted above. Farmers are
reluctant to invest in measures to conserve land resources if their future rights to use these resources are not
secure. Enforcing the land use policy and solving the land tenure issue should be included as components in
sustainable land development efforts.

3.4. Impacts
3.4.1. Food security
There existed a strong consensus that land degradation has a negative implication to household food
security status and contributes directly to the decline in both the current and potential crop yield in Ethiopia.
The immediate consequence of land degradation is lower crop yields, leading to higher poverty rates among
agricultural households. This is because the removal of the topsoil by any means has disastrous effects on
the productive capacity of the soil and ecological well-being. Given limited data and complex interlinkages, it
is difficult to quantify the potential impact of land degradation on food security of the country.

To see the status of food security of the country, the per capita food supply in terms of cereal availability;
calorie availability per capita; proportion and number of population undernourished and population needed
emergency food assistance is assessed. The first indicator takes 225kg of cereals as a minimum amount of
food requirement per person per year, while the second indicator considers 2100 kilo calorie per adult
equivalent per day as a minimum food requirement as mentioned in the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia Food Security Strategy (FDRE, 2002). The third indicator shows the percentage and number of total
undernourished population who are not able to acquire enough food to meet the daily minimum dietary
energy requirements, over a period of one year.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

A major problem confronting Ethiopia today is the inadequacy of food supply in the face of rapidly growing
population. Although the country has given considerable policy attention for producing enough food for the
growing population, the growth rate of food production is still far below the population growth rate. The food
grain availability of the country is gradually increasing (Figure 28). The increase in agricultural productivity is
an important factor for the gradual increment of cereal availability over the years. Assuming 225 kg of cereals
is adequate food requirement per person per year; Ethiopia’s per capita food availability has been below the
required amount until 2012. Availability of food, in terms of availability of cereals per person per year, has
increased by 12 kg between 2008 and 2016.
The per capita dietary energy supply in kilocalorie increased over the period 2000-2013. Taking 2100
kilocalorie per adult equivalent per day as a threshold point of analysis, calorie supply was increased by 27
kilocalories per person over the period of 2000-2013. Overall, the trend analysis of calorie supply revealed
that the country did not meet the minimum required calorie supply per person per day until 2010. Although
the country had started achieving minimum food supply in terms of cereal availability in 2012, achieving the
minimum recommended daily calorie intake per capita started a year earlier. This probably might be because
in computing food availability, we only included the total grain the country produced by excluding the grain
that was available through imports and aid. This is because land degradation has no impact on food gained
through import and food aid.
3.4.2. Agricultural yield gap
Current rates of gain in crop yields is not adequate to meet expected demand for food, feed, fiber, and fuel
on existing crop land due to primarily physical and chemical land degradations in Ethiopia. Improving crop
yields is essential to meet the increasing pressure of global food demands. The loss of high quality land, the
slowing in annual yield increases of major cereals, increasing fertilizer use, and the effect of this on the
environment all indicate that we need to develop new strategies to increase grain yields with less impact on
the environment. One strategy that could help address this concern is by narrowing the yield gaps of major
crops using improved genetics and management.
Major crop yields are currently not increasing fast enough to meet demands on existing farmland. Ensuring
food security while protecting rainforests, wetlands, and grasslands depends on achieving the highest
possible yields with limited land, if we hope to feed a population of more than 130 million by 2030 in Ethiopia
(Table 8). This yield gap is caused by different factors. Soil fertility and biotic constraints account for more of
the yield gap than farm management practices.

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Figure 28: Yield gap of major crops
Source: Crop research directorate, EIAR 2014

3.4.3. Droughts
Drought remains one of the key drivers of food insecurity in Ethiopia. Since 1950, 12 major drought- induced
food security crises have occurred. The main impacts of droughts include crop damage, loss of pasture and
water sources, loss of animals, hunger, disease outbreaks, asset depletions, malnutrition, and migration.
Droughts can result in sharp reduction in agricultural outputs and related productive activities and
employment with multiplier effects on the monetary economy. In terms of the number of populations, a
substantial number of drought occurrences have affected millions of Ethiopians since 1965. Recent events
include the drought of 2003, which has affected approximately 12,600,000 people in Tigray, Oromia,
Amhara, Somali, and Afar Regions. Similarly, in 2015, over 10,000,000 people in Somali and Afar Regions
were affected. In addition, about 8 million chronically food-insecure people received food or cash assistance
through the Government of Ethiopia-led PSNP. Due to the lingering effects of the 2015-2016 El Niño-induced
drought and poor October to December 2016 and March to June 2017 rainy seasons, an estimated 8.5
million people in Ethiopia required relief food assistance, according to the UN Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
3.4.4. Floods
Both riverine and flash floods regularly cause crop loss, infrastructure damage, farmland degradation, and
loss of life. Significant flood events occurred in 1990, which affected 350,000 people, and in 2006, 450,000
people (Figure 19). The number of deaths due to flooding peaked in 2006.

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 Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

3.5. Response measures

The quality of land and its productivity is threatened by severe land degradation, resulting in significant
reduction in agricultural production. In order to mitigate climate change, erosion and soil nutrient loss, the
Government of Ethiopia has initiated a number of response measures, including the following:
3.5.1. Climate resilience strategy
The Climate Resilience Strategy for Agriculture and Forestry has been developed and launched in 2015. The
Agriculture and Forestry Strategy focuses on agricultural crops, livestock, forestry, food security, and
disaster prevention (MoA, 2013). The most promising options were selected to build resilience in the
agriculture sector against the risks from current weather variability and future climate change. Total annual
investment under this Strategy in agriculture is estimated at approximately 1 billion USD, of which around
40% is government investment through the Ministry of Agriculture. Private sector investment currently stands
at 20% and is expected to rise to over 40% by 2030.
3.5.2. Input supply and distribution
As a response measure to land degradation and low productivity, Ethiopia is working to increase productivity
through investment in intensive use of already existing technologies such as fertilizers and seed. These
technologies have great potential to increase on-farm productivity and enhance food security. The use of
fertilizer and improved seeds remains very low. Promotion of these technologies will require identifying
underlying constraints to their use and opportunities to promote use by farmers.
The quantities of chemical fertilizer had shown increasing trend for the entire period with few irregularities.
For example, the amount of total fertilizer used had increased by 38% in 2012 compared to 2008. Likewise,
the chemical fertilizer used in 2016 is 76% higher than the use in 2012. Looking into the whole range of the
period under consideration, the use of chemical fertilizer in 2016 is 154% higher than the amount used in
2008. The rate of fertilizer application per hectare in 2016 is 36% higher than the rate in 2008. However,
the amount of fertilizer used in the same period was increased by 154%. This shows that the increase in the
rate of application of fertilizer per unit area contributes only to a small part of the total increase in the quantity
of fertilizer used.
Like that of fertilizer, the quantity of improved seed had been consistently increasing. For example, the
quantity of improved seed used in 2012 is 99% higher than the use in 2008. Likewise, the use of improved
seed in 2016 is 85% higher than the quantity used in 2012. When the year 2016 is compared to 2008, the
amount of improved seed used in 2016 is higher by 269%. However, the trend in the rate of improved seed
application had shown small change. For example, the rate of application in 2016 is higher by 14%
compared to 2008.

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3.5.3. Irrigation
The potential irrigable land of Ethiopia is estimated at 5.3 million ha of which surface and groundwater
irrigable schemes are 3.13 and 2.03 million ha, respectively (NPC, 2015). However, by 2015 only 6.2% of the
potential was developed. The trend of small-scale irrigated area had been irregular for the entire period
considered. Irrigated area declined by 9% and 14% in 2009 and in 2010, respectively as compared to 2008. It
again increased by 13% in 2011 as compared to 2008.

The irrigated area further decreased by 5% in 2012 as compared to 2008 and from 2012 to 2013, it
decreased by 12%. However, from 2014 to 2016, it showed an increasing trend although the change is not
significant. In 2016, the irrigated area was 17% and 9% higher than the irrigated area in 2014 and 2015,
respectively. Overall, in 2016 the irrigated area was 9% higher as compared to the area in 2008.

3.5.4. Watershed development

Ethiopia’s community-based watershed development (CWD) program is a national consolidated approach

and guideline for various projects such as SLM, PSNP, and MERET; and other soil and water conservation
activities through mass mobilization. It aims at conserving soil, water, and vegetation; harvesting surplus
water to create water sources and recharge ground water; promoting sustainable farming and stabilizing crop
yields; rehabilitating and reclaiming marginal lands; and enhancing income of individuals particularly the most
vulnerable section of the rural poor. Massive land rehabilitation and natural resource conservation efforts are
carried out in all parts of Ethiopia. According to the GTP II program document, about 20.17 million hectare of
land was rehabilitated during GTP I, through implementing integrated natural resource development,
protection, and utilization and this will be increased to 27.23 million hectares of land at the end of GTP II to
realize sustainable agriculture development and CRGE objectives.

3.5.4.1. Sustainable land management

The Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP) project was initiated in 2008 to address two of
Ethiopia’s most significant developmental and environmental problems: agricultural productivity and land
degradation. The Ministry of Agriculture is the leading institution coordinating the programme from the federal
level down to the regional, woreda, and kebele levels where the program was implemented by regional
bureaus of agriculture and funded by a number of donors. The objectives of the program are to reduce land
degradation, improve agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers, and protect or restore ecosystem
functions and diversity in agricultural landscapes.

The Government of Ethiopia has stressed the need to promote and invest in SLM, taking into account
differences in agro-ecological conditions across Ethiopia (GTP II). In collaboration with the Ministry of
Agriculture, World Bank, GIZ, and other partners, the SLMP targets 937 kebeles in 209 woredas in 6 regions.
The Ministry of Agriculture states that over 30 million people have benefited from the Sustainable Land
Management Program which has been operating in the Regional States of Oromia, Tigray, Amhara and
Gambella, as well as in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples and in Benishangul Gumuz Regions
(MoANR, 2015).

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

3.5.4.2. Productive safety net

The Ethiopian PSNP tackles endemic chronic food insecurity through a program that links food aid to land
and ecosystem restoration projects designed to restore the productive capacity of rural communities. PSNP
is a social protection safety net program of the Government of Ethiopia that responds not only to chronic
food insecurity among the rural poor, but also targets these highly climate-vulnerable populations and
creates productive investments that improve access to natural resources and services, stimulates markets,
and underpins participatory agro-ecosystem and environmental rehabilitation. The PSNP provides cash
and/or food transfers to chronically food insecure households in food insecure woredas in rural Ethiopia. The
program is implemented in Afar, Amhara, Dire Dawa, Harari, Oromia, Somali, SNNP, and Tigray Regions
and covers approximately 7.9 million Individuals in 2016 (Table 10).

The PSNP sustainable public works program involves participatory integrated watershed management
interventions at the watershed level that could be categorized into two broad groups: degraded and marginal
land rehabilitation and reclamation and promoting climate smart sustainable agriculture in smallholder mixed
crop and livestock agro-ecosystems through ISWC and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and
agroforestry systems.

3.5.4.3. Agricultural commercialization

The transformation of the agriculture sector requires transition from a mainly subsistence to a highly
commercial orientation for Ethiopia’s 14 million smallholder farmers. A new response, known as the
Agricultural Commercialization Clusters (ACC), has been introduced to commercialize smallholder
agriculture through an inclusive and environmentally sustainable approach that significantly contributes to
increased income for smallholder farmers, improved access to domestic and international markets,
increased agro-processing and value addition, and creation of off-farm employment opportunities. This
response is also assumed to maintain the sustainability and integrity of the land.

The ACC Initiative is ultimately a nation-wide approach; 31 priority clusters have been identified (Figure 29).
The resulting cluster and commodities prioritized by Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray Regions are
presented below. These first waves of clusters—designed for optimal size to encompass 5-15 woredas each
and reaching an estimated 3.5 million farmers—were selected based on their production and natural
resource potential, access to market, and presence of the private sector around priority commodities.

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Table 10: PSNP clients’ number by clients/ beneficiaries

Clients
Year (EC) Total
Public work Direct support
1997 4,025,553 812,852 4,838,405
1998 5,983,804 1,208,268 7,192,072
1999 5,984,054 1,208,268 7,192,372
2000 6,123,520 1,236,480 7,360,000
2001 6,301,967 1,272,513 7,574,480
2002 6,507,074 1,313,929 7,821,003
2003 6,168,308 1,245,524 7,413,832
2004 6,483,178 1,158,980 7,642,158
2005 5,573,145 1,150,735 6,889,880
2006 4,994,788 1,008,563 6,003,351
2007 4,040,812 1,120,883 5,161,695
2008 6,627,730 1,358,102 7,985,832
2009 6,887,375 1,109,845 7,997,180
2010 6,887,375 1,109,845 7,997,180
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Figure 29: Priority clusters and commodities for ACC in Ethiopia

Source: ATA, 2015

3.5.4.4. Ethiopian soil information system

The Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS) project gathers and analyzes soil samples from each of the
country’s 18,000 agricultural kebeles to develop soil fertility maps and fertilizer recommendations for each
region. In providing up-to-date soil fertility data, the project has challenged the long-standing belief in Ethiopia
that holds that DAP and Urea should be used exclusively and uniformly across varied soils. Instead, it has
demonstrated that tailored fertilizer application can restore the fertility of a variety of soils found to be deficient in
several essential nutrients. The project’s extensive soil sampling work has led to the recommendation on ways
to improve soil health and fertility, including the use of at least 12 different fertilizers, which could be applied with
or without potash, depending on the status of each soil, to address the nutrient deficiencies of soils around the
country.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

Since its launch in 2012, EthioSIS has completed soil sampling and fertilizer recommendations for the
Amhara, SNNP, Tigray, and Harari regions, as well as Dire Dawa City Administration. Regional atlases are
published for Tigray, SNNP, and Amhara that include recommendations, which could improve the production
and productivity landscape of the country. A regional atlas for Oromia is under production. A total of 614
agricultural woredas and 59 confluence points were surveyed in these areas.

The fertilizer-blending project runs parallel with EthioSIS, whose soil fertility maps and fertilizer
recommendations have led to the production of tailored fertilizers to address the nutrient deficiencies in
Ethiopian agricultural soils. These FCU-owned fertilizer-blending facilities are leveraging the data generated
by EthioSIS to identify and produce customized blended fertilizers within Ethiopia. Each blending factory has
an annual blending capacity of 50,000 metric tons of fertilizers.

The resultant high quality soil information will inform policies, interventions, and recommendations developed
across Ethiopia, particularly those involving fertilizer, land use/degradation, and seed varieties. Instead of
assuming soil types that are consistent across large parts of Ethiopia, government officials, the academic
community, non-profit organizations, and the private sector will work towards transforming the agriculture
system with nuance and precision.

3.5.4.5. Land certification

One important encouraging measure taken by the government is the provision of landholding
certificates that guarantee both women and men household heads the right of using the land they
occupy. The GoE launched the first ever land certification program to register farmlands held by
rural households in 1999. Although this “first level” land certification had a number of important
impacts on tenure security and land use, a joint the GoE-USAID assessment in 2004 indicated the
need to improve tenure security by introducing cadastral maps and modern land registration.

Since 2005, USAID has invested a total of $24 million, through three consecutive programs, to
strengthen land rights, build capacity, and map and certify individual and community lands across
much of Ethiopia. The first two programs—the Ethiopia Land (ELTAP: 2005-2008) and the Ethiopia
Land Administration Strengthening Program (ELAP: 2008-2013)—piloted and introduced improved
second level land certification with cadastral maps in select woredas of Amhara; Oromia; Southern
Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples; and Tigray Regions.

Encouraged by the results of these projects, the GoE has expanded second level certification in
partnership with other donors, including the governments of Finland, Sweden, and the United
Kingdom (UK), and the World Bank. While total measured and registered has reached 21.2 million,
the delivered certificates are 11.2 million parcels (Table 11). This has been a good incentive for
farmers to increasingly apply soil and water conservation measures and plant trees on their land.

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Table 11: Number of second level land certification by year

Measured and
Delivered
Year (EC) registered
certificate
(in parcels)
Until 2005 1‚451‚284 475‚178
2006 359‚816 97‚772
2007 1‚908‚170 695‚670
2008 4,393,635 1,252,999
2009 3,867,191 3,045,576
2010 9,219,904 5,632,805
Total 21,200,000 11,200,000
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

3.5.4.6. Large scale agriculture

Around 1.06 million ha of land is allocated for commercial agriculture in Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella, and
lowland parts of SNNPR. These areas were intensively cultivated and are either part of shifting cultivation or
agro-pastoralist systems or part of pastoralist rangeland systems in SNNPR. This land is allotted in three ways:
by the federal government to commercial investors from the federal land bank; by the federal government for
state-run sugar plantations; and by regional governments.

In many regions, record keeping of land investment is poor. Nevertheless, this is gradually changing, as the
federal government and regional land bureau seek to verify land allocations, check on investments, and cancel
leases where necessary.

Monitoring and evaluation of land deals remains a major challenge, given the size of many regions, the
remoteness of investment locations and lack of staff and vehicles. Only a small amount of allocated land is
presumably developed. This is due to the lack of roads, bridges, power and other infrastructure in investment
areas; high costs of land development; poor technical and financial capacity of investors; the security situation
in some regions; and deliberate abuse of land investment licenses or land lease agreements.
Land rental prices are low – as little as US$ 2 per ha per annum in some regions – and in some cases, land
could be taken for speculative purposes or to take advantage of tax and financial privileges. Some land leases
are very large: eight are over 25,000 ha and one is 100,000 ha. Some government officials suggest that these
sizes are unmanageable and that 10,000 ha would be a more realistic upper size limit. They also suggest that
land should be appropriated in blocks of 5,000 ha, with extensions only permitted where land has been
developed effectively.

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 Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

3.5.4.7. Land use policy

Informed by the conclusions and recommendations of studies, the Government of Ethiopia gave the green
light for formulating a national land use policy and for preparing a national integrated land use plan. USAID
provided technical and financial assistance to develop a land use policy and prepare a road map on the
preparation and implementation of a national integrated land use plan. This plan will have multifaceted
benefits. It will facilitate coordination of allocation of land to avoid or minimize sectoral competition and
conflict on land use and create a system that regulates land use in the country. It will align national, sectoral,
and regional demands for land and thereby protect biodiversity and environmental hot spots. The Ethiopian
Government plans to make the national land use plan an integral part of the country’s Third Growth and
Transformation Plan to be implemented in 2020-2024 (MoANR).

3.6. Outlook
A major problem confronting Ethiopia today is the inadequacy of food supply in the face of rapidly growing
population due primarily to land degradation and climate change. Although the country has given
considerable policy attention to producing enough food for the teeming population, the growth rate of food
production is still far below the population growth rate. The food grain availability of the country is gradually
increasing.
The land resource remains the sole supplier of food supply and food security in the country in the face of
population pressure. Insuring food availability in terms of cereal availability indicator—225 kg of cereals per
head per year; requires sustainable land productivity over the years, taking in to account the actual and the
projected population size of the country.
In 2007, the Ethiopian population was 73.8 million and the country was able to produce only 137,169,906
quintals, while the production should have been about 166,050,000 quintals in order to fulfill the food
requirement. This shows that there was a production shortfall of 28,880,094, which is 21% of the actual
produced amount. In this regard, the actual productivity per hectare was data missing
q/ha, while the required productivity was 19.02 q/ha, showing productivity gap of 3.31 q/ha. This deficiency in
food availability from domestic production continued until 2011 and the country was able to fulfill the required
food availability only after 2012. In 2013, the country was able to produce 196,511,515 quintals of cereals
while the required production to fulfill food availability was 193,275,000 quintals, implying a surplus
production of 3,236,515 quintals.
The projected Ethiopian population for 2030 is 139.62 million, which is about 63% increase over the
population in 2013. In this regard, cereal production should be at least 314,145,000 quintals by 2030 in order
to fulfill the food availability requirement. This shows that the required food production, in terms of cereals in
2030, has to be increased by 63% over the production in 2013 in order to keep pace with the boom in
population growth. Therefore, this necessitates substantial increase in the domestic production of food crops.

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 There are two pathways to achieve this required increase in the domestic food production. The first
path way is through cultivation of more land and maintaining the productivity at the current level.
This implies cultivated cropland has to be increased by 5,904, 739 ha or 28 % over the current
level. Such expansion in cropland is not a viable and realistic option to achieve the required food
demand for two reasons. First, the prospect for increasing production through this option is limited
or non-existent as the available potential cropland is already in use. Second, if it could happen, it
would be at the expense of other land use types such as forestland, wetland, and woodland, which
finally results in a serious environmental repercussion.
Therefore, the only viable option is intensification of crop production activities (through increasing productivity
per a unit of land). In this regard, taking the limited land availability for crop production, the crop productivity
level has to be increased to 36 q/ha in 2030 as compared to the level in 2013 (20.5q/ha), which shows a
productivity gap of 15 q/ha. This implies that productivity per hectare in 2030 needs to be increased by 79%
over the productivity in 2013 in order to fulfill the food requirement for the projected population in 2030 (Table
12). However, if the current unsustainable land use system continues, the country will continue to lose the
production potential of agricultural land and unable to fulfill the food requirement of the unprecedented
population size by 2030.

Table 12: Population, food demand and productivity

Actual Actual Required Required Production Productivity

Year Population production productivity production productivity gap gap
(q) (q/ha ) (q) (q/ha ) (q) (q/ha )
2007 73,800,000 137,169,906 15.71 166,050,000 19.02 (-28,880,094) (-3.31)
2013 85,900,000 196,511,515 20.47 193,275,000 20.13 3,236,515 0.34
2030 139,620, 314,145,000 35.98
000
Productivity gap (deficiency) to be filled in 2030 compared 2013(%)

The unsustainable land use practice, coupled with urban encroachment and other development
interventions, make the country lose considerable agricultural land in the years to come. There has also
been unsustainable expansion of agricultural land in the past 10 years at the expense of other land use
types.

Parallel to this, there have been considerable efforts in land conservation that can play a role in sustaining
land productivity. With the right land choices, land policies, land management practices and technologies,
the Ethiopian land resource would have the capacity to ensure sustainable economic development and food
supply in the years to come. However, increase in rural population entails increased demand for agricultural
land and hence land holding per capita is expected to decline unless the increase in agricultural population is
offset by absorption by other sectors.

The ability of the land resource to keep pace with the increasing population and narrowing the food gap
depends on how effectively the policy address the complex mix of drivers, pressures, and risks associated
with the land resource. Therefore, the following interventions may ensure sustainable exploitation of the land
resource in the face of expanding population and overarching economic development envisages:

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

• Decoupling the land resource from unsustainable use; and maintaining and enhancing the
land resource capacity over the years;
• Providing for sustainable land use practices both now and in the future across all
categories of land use;
• Addressing the challenges to land resource through the development of a suite of stronger,
more comprehensive and cohesive land use policies focused on protecting and
maintaining the land capital and ongoing improvements to current land management
arrangements. This requires efficient, collaborative and complementary planning and
decision-making processes with clear lines of accountability;
• Reducing/off-setting the effects of land degradation on agricultural productivity;
• Intensifying agricultural production activities through sustained use of productivity,
enhancing agricultural technologies as the prospect for extensification is limited/non-
existent;
• Reducing dependence of rain-fed agriculture through increased use of irrigation practices;
• Exploring the potential for development of irrigation to reduce the food gap;
• Enhancing agricultural mechanization for sustainable intensification and technology adoption;
• Providing sufficient incentives to farmers for adopting productivity-increasing technologies
(price incentives on the output side and subsidies on the input side).

3.7. Policy considerations

Land, in Ethiopia, is a critical productive asset and with so many livelihoods dependent on it. It is also a vital
resource to accomplishing the goals outlined in the GTP, CRGE and in the overall development vision of the
country to reach a middle-income status by 2025. However, given that the overwhelming majority of the land
in Ethiopia is under pressure from unsustainable use, it is critical that the enormous and peculiar challenges
are tackled. Consideration should be given to reduce land degradation and increase productivity through the
development of irrigation, effective technology generation, and dissemination.
Although the prevailing rural land tenure arrangements are important, first steps to integrating land tenure,
land use with sustainable management of land resource, and the number of obvious vacuums need to be
bridged. Therefore, there is a need to enact and bring into force the land policy in accordance with the
framework detailed in the policy. This would pave the way for enactment of laws that would ensure security
of tenure, equitable access to land, sustainable management of land, and transparent and cost-effective
administration of land.

The security of tenure accorded to different social groups in the land policy needs to translate into reality on
the ground. Further, there is a need to accord land rights to pastoral communities, informal settlement
residents and other marginalized groups. These vulnerable segments of society also need to be trained on
sustainable land management, particularly to reinforce sustainable production and consumption practices. It is
anticipated that these groups would help to bring the development vision of the nation to fruition and ultimately
benefit from the general welfare improvements delivered by the long-term development blueprint.

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 4. Water and Aquatic Resources
Key messages
The state of water and aquatic resources in Ethiopia is characterized by both under
development and substantial quantitative and qualitative degradation. Hence, efforts should
equally be made in both development and protection of these resources to ensure
sustainability. It has to be stated that when lakes and wetlands dry, it is primarily due to
management failure.
Absence of a comprehensive inventory of the health of aquatic resources and unavailability
of systematically organized information has been an obstacle to build the case against
pollution and polluters.
As excessive silt content of rivers is resulting in a rapid decline in the storage capacities of
lakes, reservoirs and wetlands. The current watershed development endeavor being
undertaken through community mobilization needs to be transformed into land husbandry
culture through appropriate land use planning and policy. Buffer zones around lakes and
reservoirs should be clearly demarcated, gazetted and protection enforced.
Uncontrolled urban and industrial pollution joining the water bodies from major towns,
farms, and industries, needs to be regulated. Solid waste, in particular plastic, should be
prevented from joining aquatic resources. This can be achieved by implementing the Urban
Wastewater Management Strategy of MOWIE (2017) recently launched.
Many of the lakes lack institutional arrangements to undertake organized proactive
surveillance for early detection and systematically organized and informed rapid response.
Hence, case-specific institutional arrangement to protect lakes and reservoirs from
sedimentation, unsustainable and unregulated abstraction, water quality deterioration and
aquatic weeds invasion should be in place and institutions should be made accountable for
underperformance.
Sustainability of the growing irrigation investment is challenged with poor irrigation water
management induced secondary soil salinization and premature abandonment of irrigation
schemes. It is, therefore, pertinent to require scheme development initiatives to include soil
salinization risk assessment andmonitoring.
Effort should be made to authorize the use of appropriate and ecosystem friendly
agricultural chemicals in light of their impact on the aquatic resource such as fish, and use
of water for domestic water supply.

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 As water is cross-sectoral, harmonization and integration of all initiatives and active
collaboration with stakeholders is vital to sustainably develop the aquatic resource. Unless
both vertical and horizontal integrations are made, laws and regulations enacted will not
save the aquatic resources.

4.1. Introduction
A healthy and sustainable water resources and aquatic eco-system is essential for economic growth, poverty
reduction, and environmental sustainability. The sole source of water in Ethiopia is endogenous rainfall.
The spatially averaged mean annual rainfall of the country is 848 mm/year or 936.4 billion m3/yr. The spatial
and temporal variability, however, limits the resource availability for supporting the overly subsistence rainfed
agricultural economy of the country. Figure 30 shows the temporal rainfall distribution in the country. Annual
rainfall tends to be generally high (> 2000 mm/year) in the northwest, west and southwest; while it declines
to as low as 200 mm/year in the northeast and southeast. Moreover, the inter-annual rainfall variability,
exacerbated by climate change is high, particularly in semi-arid and arid agro-ecologies, which account over
61% of the landmass and where bimodal rainfall regimes are prevalent.

Figure 30: Rainfall distributions in Ethiopia

Source: Generated from NMA)

The annual renewable water potential of Ethiopia ranges from 122 to124 BCM. According to Seifu (2013),
the total annual renewable surface water and ground water resources of the country are estimated at 120
BCM and 20 BCM, respectively. The 18 BCM of the groundwater is considered an overlap between surface-
water and groundwater. From the 122 BCM surface water, about 96 BCM is estimated to leave the country
as transboundary water (Berhanu et al, 2014).

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4.2. Water resource development and use
For Ethiopia, the nexus between water, food and energy is very strong for two reasons. Ethiopia’s agrarian
economy, that supports 80% of the population, is under the mercy of climate variability. With increasing
population, the number of people affected due to climate extremes increases by the year. Moreover, in
pursuit of its vision to become carbon neutral resilient middle-income economy by 2025 (GOE, 2011),
Ethiopia is constructing a number of hydropower plants. Sustainable development of the water resource,
therefore, has wider and far-reaching implications for national development and societal well-being (Mosello
et al, 2015).

4.2.1. Water supply and sanitation

Despite its poor and largely rural population and a historic legacy of low investment in water infrastructure,
Ethiopia has made a substantial progress (Figure 31) in increasing water supply coverage (NPC, 2015). The
sanitation coverage, however, remains still far below the desired target (Figure 32A, B). In 2000, 14% of
people living in rural areas and 72% of people living in urban areas had access to safe drinking water. By
2014, more than 52 million people were connected to safe drinking water sources (NPC, 2015). The overall
performance of Ethiopia in achieving the Sharm El Sheikh commitments, for accelerating the water and
sanitation goals for Africa (2008), was among the highest (7.78) in Africa (AU, 2015). Despite these modest
achievements, it should be noted that access to safe water supply and sanitation coverage is among the
lowest even by sub-Saharan standard.

For GTP II planning period (2014/15-2019/20), the GOE set targets, based on a revised service norm, to
ensure 25 l/p/day water access for rural households within a kilometer, and 40 to 100 l/p/ day for urban
households within 0.5 km, depending on the size of the city/town population (NPC, 2015). Access is set to
increase to 85% of the rural population and 75% of the urban population by 2020. It is also intended to
reduce non-functionality from 11.2% to 7% and decrease non-revenue water in major cities from 39% to 12%
(NPC, 2015).

Figure 31: Water supply access coverage progress towards MDGs

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A

Figure 32: Trends in proportion of population using an improved drinking water source
(A) And imp (roved sanitation (B) from 2000 to 2014
Source: (NPC, 2015)

4.2.2. Water for irrigation

Development of irrigation for a country like Ethiopia, with ample land and water potential, is of a paramount
importance to increase land and labor productivity for many reasons. That is why the successive
development plans of Ethiopia provided a strong emphasis on irrigation development although change has
been modest. With the present state of technology and field practice, the potential irrigable land of Ethiopia is
estimated at 5.3 million ha of which surface and groundwater irrigable schemes are 3.13 and 2.03 million ha,
respectively (GIRDC, 2018). However, by 2015, only 6.2 % of the potential land was developed, and in 2009,
irrigation contributed only 3.7% of the GDP and 9% of agricultural GDP (Awulachew, 2010). GIRDC (2018)
estimated that about 1.7 million ha under small-scale irrigation (< 200 ha) and approximately 0.3 million ha is
under medium and large-scale irrigation has been developed, and the same report estimated the total
volume of irrigation water abstraction at 16 BCM. The long-term goal is to develop at least 25% of the
irrigable potential by 2025 (NPC, 2015).

Two major environment-related challenges affecting the sustainability of irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are
irrigation-induced soil salinization and waterlogging. These are caused primarily by faulty systems and low
irrigation water use efficiency, which is estimated at 40 %. Although information is fragmented and scheme-
specific, there are a growing number of cases where farmlands are left abandoned because of salinity. The
major irrigation induced salinity problems prevail in Awash Basin. Large area in Awash Basin (Melka Werer,
and Tendaho) and Wabi Shebele Basin (Godie) are abandoned due to salinity. Salinity problems will
continue to rise due to the expansion of large-Scale irrigation schemes for sugar cane production.

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Irrigation-induced salinization can be delayed or averted if drainage systems are given due consideration
upon design, if effective monitoring systems are put in place and efficient irrigation water management
systems are practiced.

The Lake Beseka expansion is a growing threat for the communities, road and rail infrastructure, the
adjacent Metehara Sugar Estate. During the rainy season, the lake overflows and join Awash River
unregulated resulting in substantial water quality deterioration downstream. Although the problem is well
recognized by many, durable solution is yet to come.

4.2.3. Hydropower development

Ethiopia is known to have approximately 45000 MW hydropower generation capacities, which is equivalent
to 260 TWhr annual energy production. However, the source of energy in Ethiopia remains to be primarily
traditional biomass. Access to and per capita consumption in electricity are very low. With only 25% of
households’ connections and 56 % geographic access to the grid, it is among the least electrified country in
the world. The estimated annual per capita consumption of electricity is 100 kWh (2017) per year that is half
compared to the 210 kWhr per capita consumption of sub-Saharan Africa (UNECA, 2018).

The current hydropower generation capacity of the country is 4228 MW. Upon completion of Dawa (236
MW), and GERD (6000 MW), the hydropower generation capacity is expected to exceed 10 thousand MW.
Ethiopia had planned to raise the generation capacity to 14615 MW by 2020 of which hydropower is
expected to account for 11,015 MW. The balance is planned to come from wind (1520 MW) and geothermal
(1270 MW) sources (NPC, 2015). The 2018 hydropower generation is 4230 MW. The probability for the set
targets to be achieved in the set period is now unlikely due to delay in construction.

Hydropower demand is expected to increase at a staggering rate of 14% due to record GDP growth coupled
with 2.3% population growth rate; there is a firm commitment to expedite the generation capacity as shown
in Figure 33.

Figure 33: Hydro-power generation development projection (source MoWIE, 2012)

Environment-related challenges on the sustainability of hydropower plants include sedimentation caused by

the off-site impact of soil erosion, which is aggravated by land degradation and deforestation.

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In this regard, the government of Ethiopia is mobilizing communities to carry out soil conservation for twin
intents – to improve agricultural productivity and to protect reservoirs from sedimentation. Another negative side
effect of reservoirs/dams is their environmental and socio-cultural impact downstream. Although socio-
environmental impacts of reservoirs are prerequisites upon dam construction, implementation of mitigation
impacts tends to be given lesser attention. Consequently, the impact on wetland ecosystems and flood plains
will continue to be unavailable.

4.3. State and trend of water and aquatic resources

4.3.1. Rivers and river basins
In Ethiopia, the drainage system for surface water is divided into four major drainage systems, (Figure 34)
and 12 drainage basins (Figure 35) (GIRDC 2018; Berhanu et al 2014). The four drainage systems are:

 The basins draining into the Mediterranean Sea that include Abbay, Baro-Akobo, Tekeze, and Mereb
basins that cover 32.15.83% of the country’s landmass and contribute about 70% of the total internal
renewable flow;
 The basins draining into the Indian Ocean formed by Wabi Shebele and Genale Dawa Rivers that cover
32.37% of the country and 7.58% of the annual flow;
 The rivers forming closed internal drainage- the Awash, Omo-Gibe, and Central Rift Valley Lakes and
Danakil basins, cover 22.33% of the country and contribute to about 25.52% of annual surface flow.
These consist of a group of independent interior basins extending from Djibouti in the north to the Lake
Turkana in the south; and
 The Northeast Coast (including the Aysha, Danakil, and Ogaden) which are considered as ‘dry basins’
account 13.18% of the landmass and contribute to 0.69 % of the annual flow.

Figure 34 presents the mean annual runoff and drainage coefficient of the river basins. The difference in the
drainage coefficients among the river basins could be primarily by the rainfall distribution (Figure 30), but
rainfall modality may also play a role. Bimodal rainfall distributions are known to have lesser rainfall
concentration index with lesser runoff or drainage coefficient expressed in litter/sec/km2. Table 13 shows
additional hydrologic attributes of the river basins in the country.

The major challenges in harnessing the river systems in Ethiopia, while ensuring their sustainability, include
the inter-annual and inter-seasonal hydrological variability; excessive suspended sediment concentration and
pollution.

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Figure 34: Drainage intensity (l/s/km2) and specific discharge in the river basin of Ethiopia

Table 13: Some attributes of river basins in Ethiopia

Mean annual Runoff

Area Area Surface
Basin (outlet) flow (lit sec-1
(km2) coverage (%) water (%)
(billion m3yr-1) km-2)

Afar-Danakil 74,000 6.5 0.9 0.7 0

Awash 112,700 9.9 4.6 3.8 1.4
Aysha 2,200 0.2 0.0 0.0 0
Baro-Akobo 74,100 6.5 23.6 19.3 9.7
Blue Nile 199,812 17.6 52.6 43.1 7.8
Genale-Dawa 171,050 15.0 5.8 4.8 1.2
Mereb 5,700 0.5 0.3 0.2 3.2
Ogaden 77,100 6.8 0.0 0.0 0
Omo-Gibe 78,200 6.9 17.9 14.7 6.7
Rift Valley 52,740 4.6 5.6 4.6 3.4
Tekeze 89,000 7.8 7.6 6.3 3.2
Wabe Shebele 200,214 17.6 3.2 2.6 0.5
Total 1,136,816 100 122 100
Source: Berhanu, et al. (2014)

Hydrological variability
Inter-seasonal and inter-annual hydrological variabilities are the major challenges that affect the effective
utilization of the river systems in the country. About 70% of the annual flow often occurs during the three
rainy months (Figure 35). Under these types of runoff regimes, water storage infrastructures are mandatory
to improve labor productivity and ensure food security.

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Figure 35: Variability in monthly flow regimes in selected river basins.

As regards the long-term trend, there is neither consistent nor statistically significant evidence that exhibits a
characteristic increase or decrease trend in the annual flow of river systems. This may be partly due to very
high inter-annual runoff variability, which is generally high but more severe in some streams than others.
Figures 36 shows typical long-term rainfall trends for Abbay at Kesie and Awash at Wonji. Generally, basins
with low drainage coefficient have more inter-annual runoff variability basins with higher drainage coefficient.
For instance, the mean annual flow of Awash at Wonji is 111.5 m3/s with a standard deviation of 24.5 m3/s
resulting 22% coefficient of variation. The mean Abay flow at the border is 1558 with a standard deviation of
283 m3/s and 18% coefficient of variation.

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Figure 36: Trends in the hydrological flows of Abbay at the border (a) Abbay at Kessie (b) and Awash at Mojo (c)
Source: Self-Generated

Catchment degradation
Catchment degradation due to deforestation and inappropriate farmland cultivation practices explain the
substantial amount of suspended sediment load and turbidity during the high flow season (Figure 37). The
sources of suspended sediment are cultivated lands with growing contribution from gullies. Haregeweyn et al.,
(2017) found that the amount of sediment that leaves the watershed due to erosion is expected to vary from
237 to 1817 t/km2/year with mean of 909 ±500 t/km2/yr. The high turbidity in the rivers during the high-flow
season, besides its off-site impact on reservoirs, lakes, wetlands, and irrigation canals, makes surface water
treatment for water supply expensive, forcing some treatment plants to close when the river stage is rising. For
instance, water treatment plants that draw water from Awash River in Adama, Metehara, and Awash are forced
to stop drawing water during the early rainy season because of high sediment load that exceeds filtration
capacity of the treatment plants.

b
a

Figure 37: Rivers in Ethiopia are highly turbid (a) because of catchment degradation (b)

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River pollution
River pollution, associated with point and non-point source pollutions from agriculture, industries, and urban
liquid and solid wastes is a growing problem. In this respect, the Awash River is the most affected river system
in the country. It receives water from Akaki River, which passes through Addis Ababa, carrying heavily
contaminated and untreated or semi-treated wastewater and solid wastes, including plastics. Mojo River is
another tributary of Awash River, which receives untreated and semi-treated tannery and textile waste into
Koka Reservoir. In much of the dry season, the Akaki River water is dead water devoid of oxygen. Parameters,
such as different ions, heavy metals, and fecal coliforms, were found to be well above the permissible limit,
making the river unfit for downstream activities, such as irrigation and Aquatic ecosystem preservation (AwBA
2017).

Addis Ababa Water Supply and Sewerage Authority currently supplies about 600-thousand-meter cube of
water to the city. About 80% of this water is expected to flow out as wastewater. In a 2008 study, Addis Ababa
generated an estimated annual volume of 49 million m3 total wastewater from which 4 million m3 was
estimated to come from industries, including tanneries and other medical wastes. Only a small fraction of this
was treated at the Kaliti Wastewater Treatment Plant with a capacity of treating 7600 m3/day liquid waste. The
Kotebe Sludge Treatment Site has 240 m3/day capacity only, exhibiting the fact that much of the water
supplied to Addis Ababa and its environs is left untreated (Yohannes and Elias, 2017).

Rapid urbanization, the proliferation of high-density housing, such as condominium and real state apartments,
and industrial growth are expected to create rapid and disproportionate increase in demand for water supply
with a concomitant increase in wastewater generation. Unless integrated, organized, and sustained efforts are
made to establish appropriate wastewater treatment units, rivers such as Awash, which sustain over 18 million
people, are at risk.

4.3.2. Lakes and Reservoirs

Ethiopia is endowed with numerous lakes with a total surface area of over 7,000 square kilometers (Table 14).
The major ones include eleven freshwater lakes, nine saline lakes, and four crater lakes (Getahun et al, 2018).
Seven of the twelve major natural lakes are found in the Rift Valley. Lake Tana, with an area of 3,156 km2, is
the largest of all the lakes in country with an exploitable water volume of 8.90 BCM. The total exploitable
amount of water from the lakes has been estimated at 12.85 BCM (GIRDC, 2018). Most lakes, except
Abaya, Chamo, Langano, Tana, and Zeway are terminal lakes. Lakes Abijata and Shala are saline and have
concentrations of chemicals used in the production of soda ash (Ayenew, 2012).

In an effort to store water for hydropower, municipal and irrigation water use, dams are constructed across the
country by the federal and state governments. Some of these dams are diversions, but many form waterbodies
that are identified as reservoirs. Table 15 lists the major reservoirs and their characteristics. Although
construction of water harvesting micro-dams and water harvesting ponds have been in progress since 2000,
there has not been systematically collected and organized information on the status of these waterbodies.

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 Box 4.1. Plate to the right shows one
location where both liquid and solid waste
(including plastics) enters lake Hawassa.
Waste from the teaching hospital and
dormitories join the Lake with minimal
detention. Hence, the threat to the lake is
ended severe.

Table 14: Major lakes of Ethiopia

Maximum
Area Average depth Volume
Lake depth
(km2) (m) Million m3
(m)
Abaya 1140 13 9 9.81
Abijata 180 14 8 1.0
Ashenge 20 25 15 0.25
Hawassa 80 22 11 1.36
Bishoftu 0.93 87 55 0.052
Chamo 317 13 10 3.24
Hayk 23 81 38 1.01
Langano 230 48 17 3.80
Shala 370 266 86 37
Tana 3156 14 9 32
Ziway 440 8.9 2.5 1.10

Source: GIRDC (2018)

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Table 15: Major reservoirs and capacities

Completion Dam Reservoir

Dam Latitude Longitude River
year height (m) size (km3)
Aba Samuel 1932 8.788 38.706 Akaki 22 0.035
Alwero 1995 7.860 34.493 Alwero - 0.075
Amerti 2011 9.789 37.269 Fincha 38 0.040
Angereb 1986 12.613 37.486 G/Angereb 34 0.005
Chomen lake 1973 9.561 37.413 Fincha 20 0.650
Dire 1999 9.148 38.934 Dire 46 0.019
Fincha 1973 9.558 37.366 Abbay 25 Na
Gafarsa 1955 8.787 38.706 Akaki 17 0.007
Genale III 2017 4.267 42.017 Genale 110 2.600
Gilgel Gibe I 2004 7.929 37.391 Gilgel Gibe 40 0.920
Gilgel Gibe III 2015 6.844 37.301 Gilgel Gibe 243 14.700
Kessem 2015 9.150 39.883 Kessem 90 0.500
Koga 2008 12.167 36.633 Koga 20 0.083
Koka 1960 8.468 39.159 Awash 47 1.900

Completion Dam Reservoir

Dam Latitud Longitude River
year height (m) size (km3)
e
Legadadi 1967 9.066 38.957 Sendafa 40 0.044

Melka 1989 7.176 39.431 Shebelle 40 0.750

Wakena
Midimar 1996 14.204 38.911 Wari 33 0.010
Neshe 2011 9.789 37.269 Fincha 38 0.150
Ribb 2017 12.031 38.008 Ribb 74 0.234
Tekeze 2010 13.300 38.710 Tekeze 185 9.300
Tendaho 2014 11.690 40.955 Awash 53 1.900
Total existing 33.098
GERD Incomplete 11.214 35.089 Abay 155 74.000
With GERD 107.098
Source: GIRDC, 2018

The per capita water storage of Ethiopia is still among the lowest in the world which is 334 m3/ year
assuming that the total population is 107 million. When the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is
complete, this value could increase to 1000 m3/year/person. Although per capita water storage could be a
proxy indicator in the hydraulic infrastructure improvement, this may not directly translate into water
security as many of these reservoirs are constructed primarily for hydropower generation and are less
available for consumptive uses.

The primary challenge in the sustainability of standing water bodies, such as lakes and reservoirs, is
sedimentation ensued by deforestation and cultivated land degradation. For instance, the average
sedimentation to Lake Tana has been estimated at 24.6 t/ha/year which adds up to be 10 million m3/yr.

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Other threats affecting the well-being of lakes include unsustainable abstraction in excess of the inflow as it
is the case in the dried Lake Haramaya and shrinking Abijata Lakes; point and non-point sources pollution—
as it is the case in Lakes Ziway and Hawassa; and invasive water weeds—as in Lake Tana (Box 4.1), Koka
and recently in Abaya. Moreover, climate change-induced increase in temperature is expected to be a threat
to lakes as it increases surface evaporation from water bodies.

4.3.3. Groundwater
Box 4.2. Water Hyacinth – a
growing menace for water bodies in
Ethiopia

Eutrophication is said to be responsible for

recent water hyacinth bloom in major lakes
in Ethiopia (Asmare, E. (2017). Photo on
right was taken during community
mobilization to remove the weed from Lake
Tana in 2017 which is a reactive response.
Nearly all fresh water lakes are
experiencing similar problem. Organized
management response considering all
available options is pertinent to contain the
damage.
Groundwater, in Ethiopia, is an underlying strategic resource for human and livestock survival, particularly for
arid and semi-arid drought-prone areas across the country. The accessibility of groundwater in traditional
shallow hand-dug wells, springheads, and seepage areas has always controlled the extent of settlement
beyond the major riparian tracts of running and standing waters (MOWIE, 2011).

Estimates show that 80% of the drinking water supply in the country comes from the groundwater (Kebede
and Makarigakis, 2011). Major towns, such as Addis Ababa (68%), Dire Dawa (100%), Mekelle (100%), and
Harar (100%) get their municipality water supply from groundwater (Berhanu et al, 2018). Adama water utility
is exploring groundwater sources due to high treatment cost of Awash River on which over 300,000
inhabitants of Adama town and its environs are dependent.

Groundwater potential estimates of Ethiopia are yet to be consistent due to the lack of complete groundwater
survey that covers the country at the desired scale. The widely referred groundwater potential report of
Ethiopia was that of WAPCOS (1990). In this report, the mean annual groundwater recharge was estimated
at 26 BCM of water which assuming 10% extractable potential the annual groundwater potential is estimated
at 2.6 BCM/year. However, many argue that the report substantially underestimates the groundwater
resource potential of the country (Kebede 2013; MacDonald et al 2012). Kebede (2013) estimated mean
annual usable groundwater potential at 36 billion m3 while that of MacDonald et al (2012) is 12.7 BCM. The
uncertainty in the estimate will continue until groundwater survey at a spatial finer resolution is made
available.

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Challenges to sustainable groundwater use in Ethiopia, for example in Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa, include
both underdevelopment in some aquifers and overexploitation in others; decline in groundwater recharge
due to catchment degradation, excessive fluoride concentration; salinity in the dry lowlands; high water
temperature; and growing groundwater pollution in aquifers.

Excessive fluoride content of groundwater is a series geogenic water quality challenge particular in the Rift
Valley aquifers (Figure 38). Groundwater from several parts of Ethiopia has fluoride concentration higher
than the WHO threshold value of 1.5 mg/l. When high-fluoride drinking water is consumed for extended
period, both dental and skeletal fluorosis occurs which is a frequent incidence among the population that
lives in Rift Valley. The source of high fluoride concentrations in groundwater is primarily associated with the
addition of fluoride by volcanic activities, high water-rock interaction, and low calcium concentration
(Fentahun et al., 2014). Fluorosis is assessed as a risk for the estimated 8.5 to 14 million people in Ethiopia.
Nearly 40% of deep wells and 20% shallow wells of the Rift Valley yield fluoride levels between 2 and 7 mg/l
(Ayenew 2008). Salinity is also a serious problem in much of the lowland aquifers (Figure 39) which renders
the water unsuitable both for water supply and irrigation.

Figure 38: Fluoride concentration map of Ethiopia

Source: Siefu Kebede 2018 personal communication

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 Figure 39: Groundwater salinity prone area
(Seifu Kebede (2018), personal communication)

Two major environmental problems associated to groundwater sustainability are the excessive abstraction
beyond the safe yield and slow but very risky groundwater contamination from faulty septic tanks, wastewater
detention ponds and landfill sites. In order to ensure groundwater sustainability, groundwater recharge
catchments of localized aquifers need to be delineated and protected through appropriate land management
practices.

4.3.4. Wetlands
Wetlands are places where various forms and unique types of aquatic habitats and ecosystems within which
three main components are invariably present, i.e., water, hydric soils, and hydrophytic vegetation (RCS, 2016).
They are geographic areas with characteristics of both dry land and bodies of water. Wetlands are often found at
the interface between land and water.

For many years, the ecological and economic importance of wetlands has been poorly understood (Schuyt,
2016). They were either perceived as wastelands with no useful purpose to society or as a source of disease
and a threat to public health. Instead, wetlands are solutions for several critical challenges around the world
related to water, food, and climate (WI, 2015).

Some of the regulating, provisioning, cultural, and supporting services and functions include source of water for
domestic industrial and agricultural use; water supply to an aquifer; storage for excess water in either the soils or
surface water in lakes, marshes; modulation of downstream flood; protection from natural forces; deposition and
removal of sediments; toxicant removal and socio- cultural significance and maintenance of micro-climate
particularly the local rainfall and carbon sinks.

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Ethiopia is believed to be endowed with different kinds of wetlands, such as swamps, marshes, floodplains,
swamp forests, or peat swamps are distributed in almost all ecological and altitudinal ranges (Figure 38).
Wetlands cover 2% of the country about 50% of which is Lake Waterbody (Getahun et al., 2018).

Wetlands of the country are classified according to their location as follows (Getahun et al., 2018) LakeTana
and associated wetlands including Fogera and Dembia floodplains; Hashange, Hayq,Maybar lakes; wetlands of
the Bale Mountains; wetlands of western highlands which include the Kefa Zone- Gibe and Gojeb, Illubabor;
the Bishoeftu creator lakes include Hora-Arsedi, Bishoftu, Bishoftu-Guda (Babogaya), Zukala, Hora-Hoda
(Arenguade or Green); lakes and associated wetlands of the South West Rift valley – Lakes Ziway, Langano,
Abijata, Shala, Hawassa, Chelekleka, Abaya, Chamo, Chew Bahir; lakes and swamps of the Awash River
system—Dillu Meda and Abasamuel, Gewane, Beseka, Dubti, Afambo, Gemeri lake/swamp complex; lakes of
the Afar Depression—Afdera, Asale, and Dallol depression; western river floodplains Alweroe, Baro, Akobo,
Gilo, Chomen, Fincha, Dabus, Beles swamps and floodplains.

Moreover, there are a growing number of artificial impoundments and micro-dams like– KoKa, Fincha, Melka
Wakena, Gilgel Gibe I, Gibe III, Dawa, and other hydropower dams; municipal and irrigation reservoirs such as
Kessem, Koka, and Rib.

Figure 40: Distribution of wetlands and river networks in Ethiopia

Source: Getahun, et al. 2018

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Wetlands in Ethiopia are in a very fragile state and at a crossroads for the following reasons. First, a growing
number of wetlands are converted to cultivated areas. Regional states strive to drain wetlands for crop
production expansion and promote recession agriculture. Second, invasive species like water hyacinth have
become fast-growing wetland degradation problems. Much of the wetlands tend to be communal areas that
have a little functioning institutional arrangement to control the invasion of weeds. Third, sedimentation due to
catchment degradation and pollution from rapid urbanization with inadequate waste treatment system and
extensive use of fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticides also poses a threat to the wetlands in the country. Fourth,
over-abstraction of water shrinks vulnerable water bodies; for example, the drying of Lake Haramaya and
declining water levels of Abijata created an opportunity for communities to convert buffering wetlands to
croplands and thereby expediting the demise of the lakes.

Wetlands are not mainstreamed as resource in the country. They tend to be lightly mentioned in the
environment and water related polices and strategies. There are no worth mentioning initiatives to protect
wetlands.

4.3.5. Fishery
As an affordable animal source of protein in some of the poorest countries, fish is the primary source of
nutrition, creating a growing demand for this staple (Kawarazuka, 2010). It provides nutrients and
micronutrients that are essential to cognitive and physical development, especially in children, and it’s an
important part of a healthy diet. The per capita fish consumption of Ethiopia is estimated at 0.2 kg/year, very
small compared to the Global (19.7 kg/year), African (9.9 kg/year), Ugandan (12.2 kg/year) and Kenyan (3.7
kg/yr) averages per person per year (FAO 2016). Fish is estimated to contribute to only 0.02 % of the GDP
(2010), equivalent to USD 5,990,000 per annum and 0.1 % of the overall protein supply. The total employment
generated by fisheries is 13,200 while the sector positively impacts up to 40,000 livelihoods. Fish production is
predominantly artisanal in Ethiopia. Efforts to promote fish production in the country have shown a modest
improvement both in terms of total fish production and in terms of revenue generated (Figure 41).

Figure 41: Annual trends in fish production

Sources: Tesfaye and Wolff (2014)

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Reports show that Ethiopia has a substantial fish production potential from lakes, reservoirs, rivers and flood
plains (Table 16) (Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014). Water bodies of the country are estimated at 104,300 km2 (FAO,
2016). The combined length of the rivers for riverine fishery is estimated to be in the order 8065 km long (Janko,
2014). Estimates in the potential yield of fish vary ranging from 89,577 to 99,504 t/year with a mean of 94,541
t/year (Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014). Tables 16, 17 and 18 show the fishery potential of different water bodies.

Table 16: Fishery potential yield of lakes, reservoirs, small water bodies, and rivers

Area or Yield estimates (t/year)

Water body
length
Range Mean
Major lakes (km2) 7740 37,346-41,177 39262
Major Reservoirs (km2) 1447 7,698-8,059 7879
Small water bodies (km 2) 4450 25,678-26,314 25996
Rivers (km) 8065 18,855-23,954 21405
Total 89,577-99,504 94541
Source: Tesfaye and Wolff (2014).

Table 17: Fishery potential and current catch of major lakes in t/ha/year

Altitude Mean depth Area Fishery potential Catch

Lake
(m) (m) (km2) (t/year) (t/year)
Tana 1829 8 3,156 10,00 1,454
0
Ardibo and Lugo 670 37 51 400 330
Ziway 1848 2.5 440 2,941 2,454
Langano 1585 12 230 240 151
Abijata 1578 7.6 180 2,000 500
Shalla 1558 87 370 1,300 10
Hawassa 1708 11 80 611 853
Abaya 1285 7 1,140 600 412
Chamo 1282 6 317 4,500 4,359
Turkana (1.3% of the total 365 33 6,750 750 75
area)
Total 12,714 23,342 10,598

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 Table 18: Fishery potential and catch in reservoirs

Area (km2) Fishery potential Fish catch

Reservoir
(t/year) (t/year)
Koka 255 1194 625
Fincha 250 1330 333
Beseka 39 205 41
Denbi 72 383 77
Melka Wakena 82 454 109
Aba-Samuel 44 234 59
Alwero dam 74 394 79
Hashengie 20 106 21
Small Abya 12 66 13
Wedecha 10 53 11
Total 857 4,399 1,366

About 170 local species freshwater fish species are found in Ethiopian waters. However, only a few of those
species – Tilapia, Lates, Barbus, Bagrus, Clarias, and Labeo – form the bulk of the catch, out of which tilapia is
the major contributor, yielding about 80% of the production (Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014) (Figure 44). Though
preferred by consumers but increasingly becoming scarce, a considerable amount of Nile perch is caught in
large rivers as well as in Chamo and Abaya Lakes. Commercial fishery is concentrated in Chamo (29%), Ziway
(19%), Tana (17%), Abaya (8%) and 7% each from Hawassa, Langano, Koka (Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014).

Figure 42: Composition of commercially important fish species for the average annual catch for the
period 1998–2010
(Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014) F

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 Major challenges in the fish production in Ethiopia are both underutilization and localized overfishing. Water
bodies located in the Rift Valley show signs of overexploitation while those located in remote areas, with poor
infrastructure, which make up the majority of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, remain underutilized.

The trend in increasing fish production due to the growing demand may be challenged, owing to uncontrolled
overfishing in areas where there is active fishing (in Tana and Zeway lakes), and the decline in fish stock as a
result of water pollution. There is now a growing perception that fish in lakes such as Zeway and Koka are
contaminated. On the positive side, however, the construction of reservoirs for both irrigation and hydropower is
expected to improve fishery potential. The challenges, neverthelessn are limited postharvest and transport
facility.

4.3.6. Transboundary water systems

The hydrological systems of Ethiopia are divided into 12 major river basins. Three of these basins are
dry, with negligible surface water potential. The other two, i.e., Rift Valley Lakes Basin and Awash
River Basin, are endorheic drainage systems which are not shared by other countries (Mersha, et al.,
2016). The remaining seven (Abbay, Baro-Akobo, Genal-Dawa, Mereb-Gash, Omo-Ghibe, Wabi-
Shebele, and, Tekeze) river basins are transboundary river basins shared with Sudan-Egypt, South
Sudan, Kenya, and Somalia. About 96.5 BCM of the 122 BCM (79 percent) total annual renewable
surface water potential of Ethiopia leaves the country as transboundary water. These transboundary
water systems comprise (Berhanu, et al., 2014):

 64.6 BCM/yr. flow into Sudan through the Blue Nile and its tributaries (52.BCM/yr), the Atbara river
(4.37 BCM/yr) and the Tekeze River (7.6 BCM/yr);
 13 BCM/yr flow into South Sudan through the Baro-Akobo rivers forming the Sobat river in South
Sudan;
 8.2 BCM/yr flow to Somalia through the Genale and Dawa rivers forming the Juba river (5.9
BCM/yr) and the Shebelle river (2.3 BCM/yr);
 10 BCM/yr flow into Kenya through the Omo river into Lake Turkana; and
 0.7 BCM/yr flows into Eritrea though the Mereb River drainage system.

Dut to the topographic setting and global atmospheric circulation induced precipitation in the region,
the Ethiopian highlands are the sources of recharge to the transboundary aquifers (Abiye, 2010) in the
region. The most important transboundary aquifers are:
• The unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers of Gambella (Upper Blue Nile) and Alwero
Sandstone shared with South Sudan;
• The Bulal Basalt aquifer shared with Kenya;
• The Hanle Graben aquifer shared with Djibouti; and
• The Sedimentary Basin of Ogaden shared with Somalia.

Though the groundwater systems both the country and the region form an important water resources,
primarily for domestic and livestock consumption, there are no management system pertaining to
transboundary aquifers. Transboundary management has rarely been a state level transboundary
issue. On the hand, access to water related conflicts are common phenomena between pastoralists
from Kenya and Ethiopia (GW-MATE, 2011).

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The transboundary nature of the major rivers is regarded as one reason why water resource
development in Ethiopia is limited to the water scarce endorheic Awash River and Rift Valley Lakes
basins. Construction of structures such as dams on major rivers requires substantial investment. The
prerequisite for international finance even for non-consumptive use such has hydropower requires no
objection from riparian countries. As there are no transboundary water use agreements between these,
access to international fiancé has always been serious challenge for Ethiopia. That is the why the
source of finance for many hydro - infrastructure investments in Ethiopia, even like that of the Grand
Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is domestic finance with substantial public contribution and
delayed completion time.
Ethiopia, in its water resource management policy (MWR, 2001) , states the following:
… foster meaningful and mutually fair Regional cooperation and agreements on the joint
and efficient use of transboundary waters with Riparian countries based on “equitable and
reasonable” use principles…,
Yet, there has not been any formal international agreement Ethiopia signed with riparian countries. The
1929 Nile Water Agreement between Egypt and Sudan gave water sharing agreement between Egypt
and Sudan prioritized Egyptian water needs and reportedly gave Egypt the right to veto future hydraulic
projects along the Nile. Sudan and Egypt subsequently replaced the 1929 treaty in 1959, with the
Agreement for the Full Utilization of the Nile Waters, which essentially allocated the entire flow of the
Nile at the Aswan Dam to Sudan and Egypt (Nicol, 2017).
As these agreements did not recognize the water tower countries like Ethiopia, a new Nile Basin
Initiative was launched 1999 to adopt comprehensive permanent legal framework and institutional
arrangement on the management and utilization of the Nile River Basin (NBI). NBI developed a
Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) which was signed by many countries with a notable
absence of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan.
Ethiopia’s move to construct Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) created strong anxiety and
tension among the three countries despite the explicit statement that the Dam will not significantly
harm downstream countries. An International Panel of Experts (IPE) was commissioned by the three
countries to evaluate the impact of the socio-economic and environmental impact of the dam.
Although the findings of the IPE were affirmative, it was not accepted by the government of Egypt in
particular. Instead, an independent consultant was commissioned, and presented its inception report.
In the meantime, Egypt and Ethiopia and Sudan signed a historic high-level declaration of principles in
2015 with respect to the GERD project (Diane, et al., 2016).
Due to absence of effective transboundary cooperation, riparian countries are losing a tremendous
economic, social and environmental benefits (UN-ECE, 2011). First and foremost, lack of trust between
these countries forces them to invest their meager resource on military investment and not so
meaningful proxy conflicts. Some other lost opportunities include: effective utilization of the rivers
where the benefits on investment are maximum; opportunity to generate hydropower which can be on
benefit to these countries and beyond, ensure food security though the expansion of irrigated
agriculture by those that have the land to develop under irrigation; job creation, contain the adverse
effects of land degradation, control of invasive species, expansion of the tourism sector, conservation
of biodiversity, etc. The lasting solution for the transboundary water management is through genuine
coordinated development of the resource base following the international shared water resource
management norms. In this regard, Kenya and Ethiopia are moving in the positive direction, the
relation among the Nile countries seems to be slow and tiring.

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4.3.7. Renewable energy sources
A renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable source which is naturally replenished
on a human time scale (REN21, 2010). Renewable energy often provides energy in four important
areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation and rural (off-grid) energy
sources. The mainstream renewable energy sources include wind power, hydropower, solar power,
geothermal energy, and bioenergy all of which would deliver electricity at virtually zero GHG emissions
(GOE, 2011). Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy outlines a roadmap that
will enable the Country to attain middle-income status by 2025, while building climate resilience and
achieving growth with a zero-net increase in carbon emissions from 2010 levels (Redda & Roland,
2016). This, among others, is strongly anchored to the generation of electricity from renewable
resources.

Ethiopia has substantial renewable energy resources and has the potential to generate over 60,000
MW of electric power from hydroelectric, wind, solar and geothermal sources. This is composed of
45,000 MW hydropower, 1500 – 2000 kWh/m2 solar, 13, 000 GW (> 6.5 m2/s at 50 m) and depending
on the availability of transmission line and access roads), and 7000 MW geothermal (MoWIE, 2019).
Despite the significant low carbon and low-cost energy potential, about 90 percent of the population
still depends on biomass for household energy which drives degradation and indoor air pollution
(Danyo, et al., 2017).

The Country’s current electricity generation installed capacity is 4,300, quadrupled from about 850
MW to 4,300 MW, in about 10 years’ time. It is forecasted that to support the economic development
at an annual growth rate of more than 10 percent, the government is expected to expand electric
power supply at a rate of 14 percent per year (Mondal, et al., 2018) to 19 percent per year (MoWIE,
2019).

Currently electricity generation installed capacity 88.9 percent (less than 10 percent of the potential) is
hydropower, 7.6 percent is wind (<1 percent of the potential), and 0.2 percent (7 MW) is geothermal
which is very soon expected to exceed 1000 MW (ibid). Diesel accounts only 3.3 percent of electricity
generation installed capacity. Africa’s first waste to energy facility, with a generation capacity of 25
MW of electricity, was inaugurated in August 19, 2018 at Addis Ababa. This facility has the capacity to
consume 420,000 tons of trash per year. On the current trajectory, the generation capacity is expected
to exceed 9,000 MW of installed capacity by 2020 and exceed 14,000 MW by 2025 (MoWIE, 2019).
Ethiopia in five years (2011-2015) blended 59.6 million liters’ ethanol with benzene (Mondal, et al.,
2018).

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), expected to be the largest dam in Africa and to
generate 6,450 MW of electricity at full capacity, is reportedly 62 percent completed. The GOE has
prioritized construction of the GERD, which is intended to serve as an engine for industrialization and
economic development. Ethiopia exports electricity to Djibouti (up to 100 MW) and to Sudan (up to
100 MW) and has concluded power export deals with Kenya and South Sudan. Construction of an
Ethio-Kenya-Tanzania transmission line is expected to be completed in 2019. Ethiopia has plans to
export up to 400 MW of electricity to Kenya and 400 MW to Tanzania.

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The primary challenge with renewable energy sources, particularly hydropower, is the vulnerability to
climate extremes specifically drought. Recognizing this, Ethiopia is striving to diversify (USAID, 2018)
the generation mix with other sources such as solar, wind and geothermal sources. Investments in
developing these resources are particularly being promoted under private public arrangements.

4.4. Drivers of aquatic resources degradation

The DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, Sate, and Impact Response) framework is widely used to assess the
state of the environment. The state of water and aquatic resources based on this framework is
summarized as shown in Figure 43.

Figure 43: DPSIR framework for water and aquatic resource in Ethiopia

Among many possible growing human needs that drive aquatic resource degradation in Ethiopia, the
following are the major ones: First, there is a rapid population growth, which is estimated at 2.5% per
annum, resulting in a significant and proportionate decrease in the per capita water availability (Figure
43). Second, Ethiopia is experiencing a rapid rate of urbanization. The per capita water consumption
of high-density of urban population is much higher than rural population as it can be witnessed in the
GTP II targets. Third, Ethiopian economy, over the last couple of decades, is growing fast. This
translates into GDP and improvement in the standard of living, the consequence of which is a growing
demand in the per capita water consumption. Fourth, Ethiopia is pursuing economic transformation;
thus, promotes the establishment of textile, leather industries, and flower farms. As there has been a
lull in the control of wastewater quality from these industries, water quality degradation has become a
growing problem in a number of rivers/streams and lakes. Fifth, growing demand for food to feed the
growing population, including those of sugar and cotton has required the development of irrigation
schemes. Unless, wisely managed, expansion of irrigation schemes are abstraction of water from the
systems, which reduces water availability for downstream riparian communities, and ecosystem
functions/services.

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 Figure 44: Decline in per capita water availability driven by population growth alone.
Source: self-generated

Sixth, climate change induced climate variability is another driver that threatens the aquatic
ecosystems. Climate change is demonstrated through temperature increase, frequent extreme floods
and drought with the ever-increasing extent and severity.

One important initiative that can have significant potential in light of the new developments is the
establishment of the River Basin High Council (Proclamation No. 534/2007) and River Basin
Authorities for the three basins, Abay, Awash, and Rift Valley Lakes Basin. These institutions are
expected to promote and monitor the integrated water resources management processes in the river
basins, falling under their jurisdictions, with a view to using of the basins’ water resources for the
socio-economic welfare of the people in an equitable and participatory manner, and without
compromising the sustainability of the aquatic ecosystems. Although these institutions are still young,
they have started to play important role as custodians of the water resources in the river basins.
Harmonization of federal and state regulations, development, use, and management activities and
promoting inter-state collaboration remains to be a major challenge in translating good intentions of
basin organization establishment.

Weak hydraulic infrastructure development due to limited capital, technical and institutional capacity,
has been affecting Ethiopia’s development. Ethiopia’s economy has been hostage to hydrological
variability. DFID (2009) reported that Ethiopia’s GDP fluctuates with rainfall, and because of the lack
of water storage, growth potential is estimated to be curtailed by one-third.

Some of the human activities or pressures that are responsible for the degradation of aquatic
resources include catchment degradation; wastewater; nonpoint source fertilizer and pesticide
pollution; degradation of wetlands; open access and unregulated fishery (Gebregiorgis 2017).

4.5. Impacts and Responses

Impacts of aquatic resource degradation on society and the environment are multidimensional as
there is no sector or activity that will not be affected by water insecurity. This is particularly important
for Ethiopia, as the country is pursuing a water-centered economic. The health of aquatic resource
systems enables economic growth, societal well-being, and environmental sustainability.
A seamless nexus on water-food-energy and ecosystems can only be possible when quantitative and
qualitative degradation of the aquatic resources is tamed. Though Ethiopia has made substantial
progress towards ensuring universal access to water and sanitation and electricity, the population

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without access to improved water supply and basic electricity is among the lowest in the world by all
standards. The country’s development strategy documents CRGE, GTPs and sectoral strategies
recognize these quagmires and extensive effort is underway to achieve the national and global (SDG)
goals and targets set in due time.
The impact of pollution to the aquatic resource and its user communities is clear. Addis Ababa and its
environs are responsible for much of the anthropogenic water quality problem in Ethiopia. Although
effort is underway to mitigate the impact of pollution from Addis Ababa, there is a long way to go and
some time to wait before Addis Ababa becomes a clean city for itself and not polluting the very
important water resource downstream.
Ethiopia is now pursuing a policy of concentrating industries in industry zones where they are provided
with centralized services, one of which is center for wastewater collection and treatment. This is a
huge opportunity for the country to protect possible pollution of rivers and aquifer systems. This will
enable a much easier monitoring and use of highest possible wastewater technology to reduce the
burden on the industries themselves.
As dependence on groundwater increases, particularly with efforts to provide cities and towns with
improved water service norms, groundwater water table is bound to decline unless aquifers are
managed carefully, including contributing catchment management.

4.6. Major risks to the water and aquatic system in Ethiopia

Risks associated to water and related aquatic ecosystems may be different for different water bodies
as no two water bodies face exactly the same types of hazards, exposure and levels of vulnerability.
According to EWLNHS&WI (2018), threats to aquatic ecosystems are grouped into the following four
categories: over abstraction, climate changed induced extremes, pollution, habitat alteration, and
invasive species. The impact of each threat needs to be evaluated to a specific waterbody using risk
framework developed for the specific eco-system. The following, however, cuts across different water
bodies.

i. Flood and drought

The primary water related hazard in Ethiopia is associated with rainfall extremes such has flood and
drought. The extent of exposure to the two extremes is growing due to increase in the population in the
vulnerable areas, construction of industrial activities in flood prone areas, and growing frequency and
severity of the extremes due to climate change. Ethiopia adopted its Country Program Paper for the
“Drought Resilience and Sustainability Initiative" in 2012. In 2015/16, Ethiopia experienced its most
severe drought in terms of its spatial extent and intensity of the impact. Nevertheless, an organised
effort by the government and international community managed to contain the famine.

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ii. Pollution
Pollution is a growing risk in the country. This is primarily attributed to rapid urbanization, limited
capacity of the regularity institution to enforce pollution prevention, and underdeveloped urban
wastewater systems. The most vulnerable water bodies are small lakes such as Hawassa, Zeway, and
Koka. The Akaki and Majo Rivers are highly polluted rivers in the country and are responsible for
Awash river pollution (Yohannes & Elias, 2017). In the future also, these two tributaries of Awash and
many other water bodies nearby large industries are at risk for unintended chemical spills. Efforts to
contain such inadvertent chemical spills are rare (Yohannes & Elias, 2017).

iii. Lakes and Reservoirs Siltation

The storage capacity of many lakes and reservoirs is fast decline due to siltation. The problem is
particularly serious in smaller water bodies (e.g., Lake Haramaya). Such similar small water bodies
including reservoirs will continue to disappear before the current extensive afforestation and degraded
land rehabilitation campaign through community mobilization brings the desired change.

iii. Over abstraction

Many freshwater lakes and smaller rivers are over abstracted for irrigation. Lake Abijata is fast
disappearing due to Bulbula river flow decline. This decrease in the flow is attributed to over
abstraction from Lake Zeway. Such vulnerable water bodies need to have management plans
embraced by users and enforced by institutions. Unless such actions are taken, there is no guarantee
that other lakes will not face the fates of Lakes Haramaya and Abijata.

iv. Invasive species

Fertilizer use to improve agricultural productivity is highly promoted. Due to poor land management,
however, much of the fertilizer is washed out of the farmland. Subsequently, the nutrient content
increases particularly in lakes and wetlands creating favorable environment for invasive weeds such as
water hyacinth and blue green algae. Lake Tana and Abaya are now grappling particularly with water
hyacinth problem. Many other water bodies are also at risk. To avert the risk, among others, farmers
should be supported to adapt field practices that contain much of the fertilizer on site.

iv. Conflict
Access to water and water scarcity has been source of conflict at different scales and different times.
That is why enduing indigenous water management institutions in many ethnic groups in Ethiopia (e.g.
the Borana, Oromia). Nevertheless, with growing demand both for domestic and agriculture use,
access to affordable technologies for water abstraction and financial capacities, water related conflicts
will likely be growing water related risks at different scales unless institutional capacity to manage
conflict is developed.

V. Implementing policy and enforcing regulations

Ethiopia has endeavored to develop national polices, strategies, regulation, etc. to sustainably develop
and use its resources. However, the translation of policy into practice has been limited among others
due to lack of capacity of implementation and enforcement. If this weak performance continues, many
aquatic resources such as lakes and aquatic animals will disappear.

4.7. Outlook and Policy Implications

The 2007 State of the Environment report of Ethiopia considers four scenarios (EPA 2007). The four
development reform scenarios were market reform, policy reform, the Fortress World and Sustainability
First reform. Water is first a social by implication a political good before it becomes an economic good,
and has to be governed by ‘sustainability first’ policy reform. The CRGE and GTPs are expected to
guide the overarching development goal of Ethiopia, i.e., to become a middle-income country, following
the green growth trajectory are evidences that Ethiopia will pursue ‘sustainability first’ development
scenario.

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To this end, Ethiopia will continue to invest a considerable amount of resources to harness its
aquatic resources; continue to fine-tune the enabling (policies and regulations) environment;
enhance the sustaining environment (institutional capacity), and enforce management instruments.
Of course, Ethiopia has to endeavor the demanding task of ensuring water security, i.e., availability
of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods, ecosystems, and production,
coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks to people, environments and economies
(Grey and Sadoff 2007) for all uses and purposes. This requires a proactive engagement of the
government to guide water resource initiatives. With this background, the following comprises key
water and aquatic resources related outlooks.
 In the short-term, degradation in the water quality of lakes, because of point and nonpoint
source pollution, will be a major problem. It takes a while for cities and towns to establish
organized waste disposal systems. Nevertheless, some of the damages, like the impact on the
aquatic resource systems could be irreplaceable unless vulnerable water bodies are identified,
management plans developed and implemented. MoWIE (2017) has developed Urban
Wastewater Management Strategy. When this is fully implemented, the pollution into the rivers
and lakes is expected to reduce substantially.
 Reservoir siltation will continue to be a problem and storage capacity of both small and large
dams will quickly decline unless the land husbandry practice is transformed guided by
appropriate land policy and planning. The current watershed development through community
mobilization campaign should be transformed into a land husbandry culture applied to every
parcel of land by the landowner by following the conditions set in the land use right of
landowners.
 In aquifers where recharge or storage capacity is limited, a decline in groundwater is likely to
be a problem. Groundwater contamination from agriculture and industrial wastes could likely
make some aquifers unsuitable for use. Hence, when groundwater is to be developed
sustainable yield should be carefully looked into, and recharge areas identified and treated.
Increased fertilizer use induced eutrophication and growth of aquatic alien waterweeds will
continue to be a growing treat unless institutional set up is in place for early detection and rapid
response when evasion is at an early stage;
 Wetlands remain resources at a crossroads. It seems inevitable that small sized wetlands will
be drained and converted to agricultural lands. The construction of dams stops rainy season
floods resulting in the total demise of riparian wetlands formed from seasonal flooding.
Consequently, the changes in wetland ecosystems will be inevitable.
 Irrigation, both smallholder and large-scale commercial, is set to expand in Ethiopia. As there
are not corresponding initiatives to protect salinization, growing number of schemes will be
abandoned due to salinity.
 Most of Ethiopian river systems are transboundary and boundary in nature. Development of
these resources will create tension with the neighboring countries unless organized and
concerned effort is made to engage riparian states for collaborative basin development
following international norms.

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Based on the findings reported, following key areas require the attention of policy-making for
sustainable water and water-related aquatic resource use and management.

Polices and regulations: In light of the current economic activity, existing policies and strategies on
aquatic resource degradation prevention are weak and outdated. Mandate overlaps between sectors
and between federal and regional states are yet to be clarified, inter-sectoral collaboration at all
levels is lacking. Hence, policies need to be updated and institutions established to manage the
water resource be strengthened. Ethiopia also deserves an imminent Water Resources Research
Institute (NWRRI) to provide continuous scientific backstopping for monitoring, protection,
management, and development of the water and aquatic resources of the country and engage in
transboundary related research and policy issues.
On rivers: Building from the lessons learned in the country, investment on hydraulic infrastructure
should continue, as opportunities that come with water storage are substantial. Water should be
developed at scale of ponds for household water security, community reservoirs for community
water security; large reservoirs for hydropower generation and largescale irrigation have to be
developed. However, careful social and environmental impact assessment and risk management
that come with the development of dams and reservoirs should be given due consideration.
Furthermore, careful planning, design and implementation of hydraulic infrastructures needs to be
fundamental prerequisite for development as cost effective and timely commissioning of the
infrastructures is costing the country tremendously.
On lake and reservoir sedimentation: Efforts to transform catchment management, from its current
‘campaign’ approach to a ‘natural resource management culture’ should be made by engaging
landowners and communities through appropriate policies, strategies and institutions. The urban
wastewater management strategy be implemented no liquid and solid waste be allowed to reach
rivers systems before it passes threshold level set in the regulations. Wastewater reuse
technologies like the ‘Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) treatment unit used in Hawassa Industrial Zone
is promoted. As regards solid wastes, effort should be made to ensure that at least plastics should
not reach lakes and reservoirs. All leather and textile industries should be required to have a
properly functioning tertiary wastewater treatment unit.
On invasive aquatic weeds: The first line of defense for the protection of aquatic resources
invasion by invasive weeds should be early detection and rapid response. This can be possible of
there is an institution accountable to make surveillance and lead control initiatives. Hence, the
specific organization named to lead the protection and management should be technically and
financially capacitated.
On over abstraction: State of lakes and rivers needs to be monitored and utilization be prioritized
following agreed, established water rights. All vulnerable aquatic resources should have a
management plan developed through comprehensive stakeholder consultation.
On groundwater: Groundwater development should be promoted, but it should be well guided with
good hydrogeologic information. The knowledge on the groundwater quality should be
strengthened.

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 Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Through proper risk assessment, vulnerable groundwater systems need to be identified, recharge
catchments responsibly developed and used. Groundwater information (location, volume and safe
yield, water table dynamics, etc.) should be captured in an organized way. High volume water
abstractors should be required to collect and data should be made available to the national or basin
database. Study on the groundwater potential should continue with finer spatial resolution.
On wetlands: EFCCC, perhaps in collaboration and consultation with MoWIE, MoA, Basin Authorities
and respective bureaus in regional states, should have a clear position that recognizes wetlands as
vital resources that need to be protected. Buffer zones need to be demarcated and protected.

Finally, every aquatic resource system should have a custodian who should be accountable for its
sustainable development and utilization. Communal use should be guided through the establishment
of a carefully crafted institutional arrangement. Established river basin authorities should be
strengthened and supported to discharge their duties effectively and authorities should be established
for the remaining ones.

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Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

5. Forest

Key messages

• In the last few years, Ethiopia conducted a national forest inventory following a
standard methodology and generated a wide range of data sets including forest
area, forest stock, biome-based biomass, and carbon among others. On top of that,
nation-wide identification of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation
and the strategic options to address these drivers were analyzed and consulted in
the course of the national REDD+ strategy development. These key data sets need
to inform the national forestry planning processes and the decisions in prioritizing
actions.
• The rising demand for wood and non-timber forest products will partly be supplied
from existing forests (natural and plantations) through uninterrupted access to
existing forests. In the near to medium term, striking a balance between the demand
and supply of forest products will remain a challenge for policy and decision makers.
• Ethiopia needs to make a concerted effort to ensure that policies, that directly
and indirectly affect forest development, are coherent, and there is sufficient
institutional capacity at various levels to translate policies, strategies, and plans into
effective action that can deliver results.
• The absence of an integrated land use policy and plan is perhaps at the core of the
problem that drives the loss of forest resources. Implementing integrated land use
policy and plan is central in informing land-based economic activities and to
synergistically promote environmentally sustainable, socially sound, and
economically viable land uses, directing economic activities to where they are most
suited while avoiding conflicts between land use. Ethiopia should finalize the
national land use policy and plan and implement it to provide a guiding framework
for sustainable land use.
• Avoid fragmentation and ensure coherence, integration, complementarity, and
synergy among various strategies and plans directly and indirectly related to the
forest sector.

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5.1. Introduction

Ethiopia’s Environmental Outlook, published in 2007, estimated the total high forest area to be 4.07
million ha—3.56% of the total area of the country. Woodland and shrub land cover 29.2 and 26.4
million ha, respectively. The report shows Oromiya, SNNP and Gambela Regions comprise 95% of
the total high forest area.

The main threats to forests, highlighted in the 2007 report, were deforestation exacerbated by high
population growth and a growing demand for crop and grazing land, forest products, particularly fuel
wood, charcoal and construction wood; and encroachment, resettlement, and recurrent droughts
because of extreme weather conditions.

Furthermore, the environmental outlook highlighted the following issues and constraints, concerning
forest conservation and development:
• Poor valuation of forest and woodland resources;
• Under-development of non-timber forest products;
• Ineffective monitoring of forest resources;
• Limited involvement of local people in the management of forest and woodland;
resources, Lack of off-farm employment opportunities;
• Gap between sustainable yield supply and demand of forest; products, Weak policy and
regulatory frameworks; and
• Inadequate institutional arrangement and capacity.
The future scenario with regard to forests and woodlands highlighted in the 2007 report are
presented in Table 19.

In recognition of the threats and issues, the government realized the need for a new management
strategy to guide efforts aimed at protecting the remaining forests and promoting reforestation. In
view of emerging climate change risks and the need for a national action, the government has
initiated a number of climate change mitigation/adaptation strategies/plans that integrate forestry
actions. More specifically, the Government of Ethiopia invested in the following actions to reverse
the rate of deforestation and forest degradation:

Decentralized forest management with a focus on the participation of people living within
and around forests, and those depending on forest products for their livelihood;

Promoted the integration of forestry with other land uses, and facilitated sectoral integration
for sustainable development FDRE, 2007);

Formulated the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia, the Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan, and
the National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and promote the development and
proper utilization of forest resources;

Developed and implemented programs and plans for sustainable use and development of
forest resources; Developed policies to encourage and attract private investment in the
forestry sector (FDRE, 2007);

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Strengthening national capacity and institutional framework to reduce GHG emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation, and access potential benefits from a future
international REDD+ mechanism (R-PP, 2011);
Building a climate resilient economy through support for adaptation at sectoral, regional and
community levels; including improving agricultural productivity and livelihood diversification,
crop and livestock insurance mechanisms, grain storage, and renewable energy. (EPACC,
2011);
Protect the country from the adverse effects of climate change and help realize its
development goals through building of a green economy across sectors including the
protection and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services as well as
carbon stocks (CRGE, 2011);
Implementation of sustainable land and water management practices, reducing GHG
emissions from land use change, and increasing carbon stocks in biomass and organic soil;
reduce land degradation and improve land productivity in selected watersheds in targeted
regions in Ethiopia (SLMP I, 2008 and SLMP II, 2013); and
Reducing GHG emissions with actions that includes among others, the use of renewable
energy resources; implementation of agro-forestry practices for livelihood improvement and
increased carbon sequestration and forestry projects targeted at reducing deforestation and
forest degradation and increasing carbon sequestration through reforestation of degraded
areas and sustainable management of existing forests (FDRE, 2010, NAMA).

Over the past 10 years, the status and trends of Ethiopia’s forests have been influenced by several
policy/strategy instruments like Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA, 2010); Ethiopia's
Program of Adaptation to Climate Change (EPACC, 2011) and the implementation of Ethiopia’s
CRGE strategy. The CRGE strategy identified forestry as one of the pillars of the strategy and
institutional streamlining, particularly the creation of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change. These developments have been instrumental in bringing increased emphasis to
the forest sector through formulating and reviewing policies; increasing investment in institutional
capacity building; improving community-based management of forests; conducting comprehensive
studies and developing plans that guide forest development in alignment with international
conventions; and attracting external assistance to augment the Government’s efforts.

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Table 19: Scenarios for forests and woodland

Best case scenarios Business as usual (BAU)
Increased demand for forest products will drive Deforestation and forest degradation
afforestation; resulting in increased forest cover. will continue; demand for forest
Increased interest in ecotourism will be an incentive products will increase and the expansion
for sustainable forest management through a of plantations will displace indigenous
community-based approach; and will result in species with detrimental effect to
reducing the rate of deforestation. biodiversity.
Expansion of commercial farms will be
in conflict with sustainable forest
management objectives.
High demand for wood will trigger expansion of Dependence on biomass energy will
agroforestry; efficient wood stoves and alternative remain high.
sources of energy will increasingly be used (solar,
Expansion of crop and grazing land will
hydropower, thermal, wind).
continue; the cost of forest protection
will increase; internal migration to
Rehabilitation of degraded land will be expanded forested lowland areas will continue and
and carbon trading will be significant. conflict between the local people and
regulatory agencies will intensify.
Limited institutional capacity will
constrain forest development and
management.
Natural forests in sacred locations will be
protected and better managed, and strict
measures will be enforced to protect priority
forest areas.
There will be improved community awareness
and empowerment through participatory forest
management approach; commercial plantations
will expand and private sector investment will
increase.
Scenarios for forests and woodland
Source: EPA, Ethiopia Environmental Outlook 2007

In the following sections, the progress made since 2007 will be assessed against the actions the
Government of Ethiopia has taken, the issues and constraints identified and the outlook
considered for the forestry sector.

5.2. State and trends of forests

5.2.1. Forest types
Ethiopia is endowed with diverse agro-ecological zones, ranging from temperate and moist tropical
highlands to hot and arid lowlands, which support diverse forest types and livelihood systems. Figure
45 shows the potential vegetation classes of Ethiopia adopted from Sebsebe and Fris (2009) and
Figure 46 presents a map of forests aggregated into four biomes. A detailed account of each forest
type is available in the State of Environment 2007 report, and the Fifth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity, issued in 2014, and provides a description of similar ecosystems
(Table 20). In addition, a description of forest, woodland, and dry land ecosystems can be found in
the 2015 Ethiopian Panel on Climate Change report on biodiversity and ecosystems, and in the
2015-2020 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

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Figure 45: Potential vegetation map of Ethiopia

Source: Sebsebe and Fris, 2009

5.2.2. Potential Aggregated Forest Types

Driven by the CRGE strategy and as part of Ethiopia’s REDD+ program implementation, Ethiopia’s
forests were aggregated into four biomes. The aim of this classification is, to better represent
reliable carbon stock estimates based on homogenous carbon contents of the different forests and
woodlands, (Figure 46 and Table 20) by building on the potential vegetation map of Ethiopia
released in 2009 and 2010 (MEFCC 2016a).

Figure 46: Aggregated biomes

Source: MEFCC (2016)

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Table 20: Aggregated biomes and vegetation types

Biome stratum Vegetation

Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bush land (ACB); Acacia wooded

Acacia-Commiphora grassland (ACB/RV);
Desert and semi-desert scrubland (DSS)

Combretum- Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland (CTW); Wooded

Terminalia grassland of the Western Gambela region (WGG)

Dry evergreen Afro-Montane Forest and Grassland complex (DAF) Afro-

Dry Afromontane
Alpine vegetation (AA); Ericaceous Belt (EB);
Moist Afromontane Moist Evergreen Afro-Montane Forest (MAF);Transitional Rain Forest (TRF)
Source: MEFCC (2017)

A description of the characteristics of species and the state of human disturbance in natural forest
vegetation of Ethiopia—based on the aggregated biomes—is found in MEFCC (2017). MEFCC
(2017c) identifies high forest, dense woodland, plantation, bamboo and riverine as the forest
classes of the country.

5.2.3. Forest Cover

Over the past 10 years, the status and trends of Ethiopia’s forests have been influenced by the
following factors: institutional streamlining; internal capacity-building at the federal and regional
levels; high staff turnover; development and implementation of polices, programs and laws; socio-
economic, bio-physical and climatic conditions; livelihood strategies and outcomes; planned
economic growth and development initiatives; and relentless deforestation and forest degradation.
Efforts made and results achieved in the forest sector are shown in Table 20. The following account
is based on the factors highlighted above.

FAO’s (2010) global forest resource assessment (FRA), based on country reports (though the
comprehensiveness of these reports is debatable) and analysis of global forest resources with its
own methodology, puts Ethiopia’s forest cover at 12.2 million ha—11% of the total land area. FAO’s
assessment further shows that the forest cover declined by 2.65%, from 15.11 million ha in 1990 to
12.2 million ha in 2010, resulting in severe land degradation and loss of biodiversity. Unlike FRA’s
estimate, it was in 2013 that a comprehensive national forest inventory was initiated by MEFCC with
technical support from FAO. The national forest inventory result in 2015 indicated that Ethiopia’s
forest cover is 15.5%. It should be noted that the forest definition used in FAO’s forest resource
assessment and the methodological approach (even its comprehensiveness) and that of MEFCC’s
are different and thus the results of the two agencies cannot be directly compared.

Table 21 presents achievements in rehabilitating degraded land and attempts made in increasing
vegetation cover between 2011 and 2015. This was made possible by undertaking, among others,
the following activities: rehabilitating degraded land; developing and implementing forest
management plans; and planting multipurpose trees; and distributing tree seeds.

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Table 21: Achievements of the forest sector during GTP1

Baseline Achieved
Activity Planned
(2011) (2015)
Increase rehabilitation of degraded land 3.21 million ha 10.21 million ha 13.4 million ha
Increase the coverage of designated lands
700,000 ha 2.2 million ha 5.1 million ha
with management plans

Increase the land coverage of

6.06 million ha 16.21 million ha 15.5 million ha
multipurpose trees
Collect and distribute tree seeds NA 4,808.43 q 25,515 q
Source: MEFCC (2015)

The reported achievements in Table 20 show outputs, not outcomes, for example in terms of the
survival rate of seedlings planted or the extent to which the various rehabilitation activities and outputs
have brought lasting improvements (impact). In this regard, a shift needs to be made from a focus on
outputs to measuring outcomes and impact. This is essential for demonstrating the effectiveness of
forest development interventions and achieving lasting improvements in the state of forests and in the
livelihood of people who depend on forest resources.

5.2.4. Legal and Technical Definitions

The definition of forests varies according to the purpose for which it is designed. This could be
based on considerations such as administrative, legal, land use planning, forest cover monitoring,
biodiversity conservation, and carbon budgeting (Morales-Barquero et al. 2014).

In Ethiopia, one can consider a legal and technical definition of forest. The legal definition of forest
as provided in the Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation (Proclamation No
1065/2018) states “forest” means trees, plants and other bio-diversity accumulation at and in the
surrounding of forest lands, roadsides, riversides, farms and grazing lands as well as residential
areas or parks that grow naturally or develop in some other ways.” In 2015, MEFCC adopted a new
technical definition for REDD+ MRV purposes of forest, which states, “Land spanning more than
0.5 ha covered by trees attaining a height of more than 2m and a canopy cover of more than 20% or
trees with the potential to reach these thresholds in situ in due course” (MEFCC 2017c). Ethiopia’s
definition of forest (meant for REDD+ -MRV purposes) is different from the one FAO uses and
remains to be ratified by the Government from the definition used for international reporting to the
Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) and from the one used in the NFI. Both applied a
definition with the threshold of 10% canopy cover, a 0.5 ha area and a 5 m height.

The reason for adopting a new technical definition is to capture dry land forests with trees attaining 2
to 3 meters of height, and include woodlands, which in effect increased the forest cover to 15.5% of
the total land area of the country. More specifically, the reason for lowering the tree height from 5 to
2m is to capture Termilania-Combretum dense woodlands found in Gambella and Benishangul
Gumuz Regional States. In their primary state, such woodlands are composed of trees reaching a
height of 2-3 m.

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It is noted that the revised forest definition (for REDD+-MRV excludes shrub lands estimated to be
26.4 million hectares covering 23.1% of the total land area in the country (MEFCC 2017c).
However, the fact that the legal forest definition in the new forest proclamation is expected to
provide a legal protection against the conversion of these shrub lands to other land uses. This is
important in preventing further deforestation and forest degradation and conserving the associated
biodiversity and ecosystem services of these shrub lands.

5.2.5. Forest Resource Base

Ethiopia’s forest resources, including high forests, riverine forest, ericaceous vegetation,
woodlands, and trees on farms provide goods and services that have economic, ecological, and
social value. Furthermore, forests are important for maintaining the health of protected areas and
thus for the conservation of biodiversity. The total land area of Ethiopia is 1,104,300 km2 of this,
the total high forest area was estimated to be 4.07 million ha, 3.56% of the land. The woodland
was estimated to cover 29.24 million ha, 25.5% of the total land area, and shrub land 26.4 million
ha, covering 23.1% of the total land area (EPA/UNEP, 2007).

MEFCC recognizes that there is lack of consistent and reliable data on the area coverage, standing
stock, growth rate, production, and productivity of forest resources. Since the WBISPP assessment
in the 1990’s, there was no comprehensive forest resource inventory in Ethiopia for more than a
decade. For so long, Ethiopia has no standardized forest inventory system in place and no
information about the growing stock and increment rates of the remaining forests (Yitebitu et al.,
2010). Later in 2013/14 with the emergence of the REDD+ program, Ethiopia has initiated a
process for the establishment of a National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS). In the subsequent
years, the country concluded a national forest inventory following a standard procedure and put
in place a system for subsequent monitoring in the future. Consequently, estimates of forest area,
growth rate, total volume, etc. from different sources vary considerably. MEFCC (2017) estimates
the current forest cover to be 17.35 million ha (Table 22).

The discrepancy of forest area estimates could vary because of differences in technical definitions
used (MEFCC 2017); the variety of tools and instruments used to estimate forest area; data
sources; measurement techniques used in forest inventory; inaccessibility of the natural forests;
institutional instability in the forest sector and loss of data; absence of consistent system for
monitoring forest cover change and measuring biomass stock. Furthermore, limited capacity at the
Federal and Regional levels, to conduct regular inventory and measurement of forest resources, is
an important constraint, which limits the generation of regular data concerning forest resource
base. Furthermore, despite the plethora of information concerning the rate of deforestation and
forest degradation, there is a dearth of accurate and reliable data on the area of land replanted with
trees and the survival rate of seedlings planted in various tree-planting campaigns.

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Table 22: Estimate of forest resources

Forest types Area (ha)
Natural Forest 5,266,419
Dense Woodland 10,739,286
Plantation 1,000,000
Bamboo 519,124
Total 17,524,829
Source: MEFCC (2017a); World Bank (2016)

About 95% of the natural high forests are found in Oromia, Gambella, SNNPRS, Amhara, and
Benishangul-Gumuz Regional states. Oromia, SNNPRS, Amhara, and Tigray hold most of the
industrial plantations and woodlots. The largest commercial plantations are located in Oromia,
Amhara, and SNNPRS. Amhara Region also has the largest privately owned woodlots. Oromia,
SNNPRS, and Amhara together contain 93.5% of the total plantation resources in the country.
Woodlands are found in Gamabela, Benishangul-Gumuz, Somali, Afar, Tigray, and Amhara regions
(MEFCC 2017).

A study by the International Bamboo and Ratan Organization (INBAR) published in 2018, based on
a remote sensing-based inventory, shows that Ethiopia has an estimated total area of 1.47 million
ha of land covered with highland and lowland bamboo (Yushania alpine and Oxytenanthera
abyssinica), respectively. It needs to be noted that the INBAR study used Landsat imagery (30 m x
30 m resolution), limited to capturing 900 m2 with a minimum canopy of cover of 50%. This means
small bamboo patches less than 900 m2 have not been included in determining the area covered
with bamboo. This coupled with planned development, particularly large-scale commercial farming,
stock loss following flowering of bamboo, wildfire and unsustainable use may have caused the
decline in the bamboo population. This calls for conducting a ground data to verify the available
resource, plan development intervention and appropriate management action.

Table 23 Bamboo Resource of Ethiopia (million ha)

Benishangul-Gumuz Region 0.94
Amhara Region 0.31
Oromia Region 0.21
SNNR 0.005
Gambela Region 0.009
Total 1.47
Source: International Bamboo and Ratan Organization (2018)
In 2013, the woody biomass, contained in natural forests and woodland, was 362 million and 404
million cubic meters, respectively. Large amounts of trees were harvested from natural forests for
timber and wood fuel; plantations were the most important source of timber, and woodland is the
most important source of wood fuel (MEFCC, 2017b).

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Plantation forests
Plantation forests, comprised mainly of exotic tree species, include woodlots industrial and peri-
urban stands used for the production of fuel wood and poles. Based on data from Oromia Forest
and wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) and Amara Forest Enterprise (AFE), species composition in
plantation forests shows 54% Eucalyptus, 31% Cupressus and 15% other species (pines and
hardwoods) (FDRE, 2015), With the decline of industrial wood production from natural high forests
and the increasing demand for wood products, the importance of plantation forests has grown. The
oldest industrial plantations were established mostly during the 1970s and 1980s and most of them
are over-mature.
The total area of plantation forests in Ethiopia is estimated to be 1,000,000 ha with an estimated
potential short-term wood flow of 4.8 million m3 per year for industrial wood consumption (World
Bank 2016). Out of this, about 19% is commercial (industrial) plantation owned by the State
through its regional forest enterprises and natural resources bureaus. Farmers and communities
own the bulk of plantations (eucalyptus woodlots). Private woodlots are rapidly expanding and
are making significant contribution to annual wood production. After natural high forests, they are
the major sources of domestic wood production and supply, particularly wood used for fuel, poles,
scaffolding, and furniture.

A characteristic feature of plantation forests is their poor quality and low productivity due to poor
management (Bekele 2011). Proper and regular thinning and pruning are not conducted. Some of
the plantations were established on degraded and unsuitable lands. In addition, most plantation
forests serve as buffer zones to protect natural forests.

5.2.5.1. Wood demand and supply

Ethiopia’s ambitious economic growth drive, population growth, infrastructure development,
urbanization, and increased demand for housing have increased the demand for wood and other
forest products. MEFCC (2017) reports that in 2015, demand for wood, measured by the volume of
wood consumed in the country, (production + import-export) was approximately 130.3 million m3;
comprising 92.3% wood fuel and 7.7% industrial wood. In the same year, 120.4 million m3 round
wood was harvested from natural high forests, woodlands and area enclosures, and plantations. A
total of 115.024 million m3 was used as firewood and 5.408 million m3 was converted into
charcoal. It is estimated that only 32.1 million m3 of wood fuel can be sustainably supplied from
natural forests and woodlands. The balance, 79.74 million m3 of fuel wood, needs to be supplied
from forests and woodlands. This possibly explains Ethiopia’s widespread and unabated
deforestation and forest degradation. In the same vein, a recent study on Ethiopia’s Forest Sector
Review (FDRE, 2015) analyzed the country’s round wood demand and supply in the base year
(2013) and projected the demand and supply scenario in 2033. Accordingly, it was projected that
with the growing demand for wood in the construction, furniture and other sub-sectors, there would
be a gap of 4.4 million m3 of round wood by 2033. The study recommends that addressing this
gap requires establishing an additional plantation area of around 310,000ha while an additional 2
million m³ of timber can sustainably be extracted from ca. one million ha of natural forest currently
under PFM arrangement.

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5.2.5.2. Non-timber forest products

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) contribute to food security, and maintain rural livelihoods for
millions of households. NTFPs, including wild coffee, honey, gum and resin, spices, and forage
provide huge economic benefits to a considerable number of people. Fodder from forests
provides 10% and 60% of the livestock feed during wet and dry seasons, respectively. Similarly,
many edible wild plants serve as supplementary sources of food during times of critical food
shortage. For example, in Benshangul Gumuz region, edible wild plants contribute 30-40% to
food security in normal and during times of food shortage (Institute of Biodiversity 2015).

NTFPs are usually overlooked in determining the monetary value of forests, compared to timber
production, and their value largely depends on the existence and survival of forest resources. For
example, it is not possible to separate the highly sought after and valued Ethiopian organic coffee
from the existence and survival of the countries high forests located in the south and southwest of
Ethiopia. In addition, gum and resin are produced from Acacia, Boswellia, Commiphora
woodlands. The productivity and quality of traditional and modern beehives is influenced by the
type, composition, density, and canopy of vegetation.

The NTFPs, obtained from Ethiopia’s forests, include forest coffee, honey, bees wax, spices, wild
food, traditional medicinal plants, gum and incense, bamboo, fodder, firewood, charcoal, farm
implements, and climbers. The production and monetary value of selected NTFPs is shown in
Table 24.

5.2.5.3. Forest-based coffee

Estimates indicate that 26 to 30% of the total coffee production in the country originates from wild
and semi-managed coffee forests. The value of wild coffee is estimated to be 130 million USD per
year (Mulugeta Lemenih 2009; cited in Institute of Biodiversity 2015).

Table 24: Production and export value of some NTFPs

Export Value
NTFP Year Production (t)
(t) (USD)
Honey 2007-2015 391,338 5,227 17,480,390
Natural gums and
resins 2007/8-2015/16 65,400 33,087 94,285,013
Forest coffee 2007-2014 1,249,817 720,930 2,755,939,219
Beeswax 2008-2015 29,900 2,951 19,112,867
Total value 1,736,455 762,195 2,886,817,489
Source: MEFCC (2017)

5.2.5.4. Medicinal plants

Raw materials for traditional health care are harvested from plants, and animals. About 1,000
species of indigenous plants, most of which are wild plants, have been recorded as having herbal
medicinal applications. It is estimated that 56,000 tons of medicinal plants are harvested and used
annually in Ethiopia. In 2013, the annual pharmaceutical value of Ethiopia’s forests and woodlands
are estimated at 2.6 billion Birr (MEFCC 2017).

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However, a study on small and medium forest enterprises estimates the annual commercial value of
herbal plants to be USD 216 million (Abebe et al. 2009).

5.2.5.5. Spices and condiments

Commercial spices such as Aframomum angustifolium (Korerima), Piper capense (Timiz) and
ginger are found as indigenous wild species in the moist tropical forests of Sheka, Kaffa, Bench
Maji, South Omo, and Gamo Gofa. In 2010, the export of spices reached 15,000 tons valued at
USD 18.6 million (MEFCC 2017).

5.2.5.6. Fodder
Woodlands and shrub lands are major grazing sites and sources of fodder for Ethiopia’s livestock
population. Forests and woodlands provide 15% and 60% of total feed requirements for livestock
during summer and winter, respectively, for the estimated 35 million TLU, which is equivalent to 70
- 80 million herds in Ethiopia. Assuming a six-month dry and rainy season and an average of 3 kg
of dry matter per TLU per day, the total fodder obtained from forests and woodlands of Ethiopia is
equal to 14.2 million tons of dry matter per year.

5.2.5.7. Wild food

More than 450 species of wild trees and shrubs are recorded as important traditional food sources
in Ethiopia, most of which are forest plants. About 72% of the species contain edible fruits and/or
seeds, and the remaining vegetative parts and tubers/roots are eaten (MEFCC 2017).

5.2.6. The Contribution of Forests to the National Economy

Ethiopia’s national GDP accounting system does not sufficiently reflect the contribution of the
forestry sector (CEEPA 2010). This is because aggregate data on the production and monetary
value of forest products and services are fragmented and inadequate. In addition, the existing
system of national accounting lacks indicators that capture the value of Ethiopia’s forest ecosystem
services. Moreover, some of the goods obtained from the forestry sector, such as forest coffee, are
included in the agricultural sector. Therefore, there is a need to revise the existing national
accounting methods related to the sector by integrating indicators that value the ecosystem services
provided by the country`s forest resources. The contribution of forestry to the total GDP is
estimated to be 3.3% in FY2014/15 (MEFCC 2017). However, a number of studies suggest that the
figure does not fully capture the full contribution of the forest sector to the economy. For example,
UNEP (2016) reports that, in FY2012/13, Ethiopia’s forests generated economic benefits in the form
of cash and in-kind income equivalent to USD 16.9 billion, or 12.9% of the measured value of GDP
considerably higher than previously calculated (Table 24). Of this, 6.09% of GDP is attributed to
forest industries. The contribution of forest ecosystems to other sectors, particularly to agriculture,
is valued at 6.77% of GDP. In addition, USD 0.36 billion was attributed to non-market benefits
based on Ethiopians’ willingness to pay to maintain forests. With regard to generating employment,
in 2013, 66,600 persons were employed in 6,192 wood production and processing companies.

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Table 25: Contribution of forest-derived products to national Income, 2012-13

Billion Share of
Product Remarks
USD GDP %

Wood fuel 5.9 4.5 Undervalued due to an incomplete accounting of subsistence use by households

Livestock fodder 4.5 3.5

Too low due to incomplete accounting for illegal/unreported round wood production
Round wood production 1.9 1.5
and household subsistence use
Forest-derived coffee 1.8 1.4
Honey/beeswax, wild medicinal plants and thatch for
0.53 0.4
roofing on traditional houses

Gums and resins, spices, wild meat and edible plants, civet
0.17 0.1
musk, silkworm cocoons, and dyes and tannins

Forest regulating services

Control of soil erosion on cropland
Pollination of agricultural crops by forest insects 0.99 0.8
0.75 0.6

Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Not estimated based on available data. moFed does not estimate the value of any of
Forest water-flow control service and sedimentation
these services directly in GDP, though their values are implicitly included in the value
control in reservoirs
added to the agriculture and utility industries that use them.

Cash income flowing to the hotel and restaurant, travel and communications, and
Cultural and recreational services (tourism) 0. 13 0.1
public administration industries
Value of preserving Ethiopia’s forests as a source of well-
0.36
being for its citizens
Total 16.9 12.9
Source: UNEP (2016)

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5.3. Drivers and pressures

5.3.1. Deforestation and forest degradation
A distinction is commonly made between proximate (direct causes) and underlying (indirect causes)
of deforestation and forest degradation. Proximate causes (pressures) are human activities or
immediate actions that directly impact forest cover and loss of carbon. These causes can be
grouped into categories such as agriculture expansion, infrastructure expansion, and wood
extraction.

Underlying causes are complex interactions of fundamental social, economic, political, cultural, and
technological processes that are often distant from their area of impact. These underpin the
proximate causes and they operate at the local level or have an indirect impact from the national or
global level. They are related to international, i.e., markets and commodity prices; national, i.e.,
population growth, domestic markets, national policies, and governance; and local circumstances,
i.e., change in household behavior.

Figures, concerning deforestation, are not consistent. For example, reusing (1998) estimated the
annual loss of high forests (between 1973-1990) at 163,000ha, which in fact closely agrees with the
estimation (150,000 to 200,000 ha annually) of EFAP (1994). On the other hand, based on the data
from WBISPP (1990) and adopting a different forest classification and definition, FAO (2010)
projected an annual forest loss of 0.93% between 1990 and 2010 (Bekele et al., 2015). Following a
similar methodology, FAO (2015) states that the annual forest loss in Ethiopia between 1990 and
2015 was 104,600 million ha. The same report shows that the loss of vegetation cover in other
wooded land was 160,800 ha/year and forests expanded by 3,000 ha in 2010. These
inconsistencies in forest loss data are mainly due to the absence of regular country-wide forest
assessment and the data source is often based on site-specific assessment and equally important
is that different data sources are based on different methodological approaches (e.g. forest
definition) (Bekele et al., 2015). Thus, it is not only misleading to make any sensible comparisons
between data sources but it is also difficult to show a reasonable trend in the forest resource extent
of the country.

It was in 2014 that MEFCC conducted a countrywide forest inventory, which also analyzed the
forest cover change (based on a new forest definition) between 2000 and 2013 using a combination
of ground data and remote sensing data. According to this study, the gross forest loss is
approximately 92,000 ha/year and the gain 19,000 ha/year with a net deforestation of ca. 72,000ha
per annum (MEFCC, 2017). This indicates the huge imbalance between the rate of deforestation
and reforestation in the country.

A detailed analysis of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation across the country is
provided in MEFCC (2017). The direct and underlying causes of deforestation and forest
degradation are presented in Tables 26, 27, and 28. The complexity of underlying causes and their
linkages to a number of social, economic, policy and cultural factors makes it difficult to rank them
with regard to their impact.

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The direct causes include the expansion of smallholder and large-scale farms, fuel wood collection
and charcoal production, free grazing by livestock, seasonal wild fires (largely human-induced), and
illegal harvesting of poles and timber. Large-scale commercial farms have been causes of significant
pressures in Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, and Afar Regional states. In Ethiopia-Somali and Afar
Regional States, almost all rural households produce charcoal as one of the core income sources
(MEFCC, 2018). Free grazing of livestock is undergoing change in many parts of Ethiopia because
of increased practice of stall feeding; attributed to the degradation and decreased availability of
pastureland. Largely, free grazing affects the plains and lowland woodlands of Afar and with a
moderate impact in parts of SNNP and Oromia Region (MEFCC, 2018).The underlying causes of
deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia include population growth, limited governance and
monitoring capacities of institutions; , insecure land tenure, unclear or absence of benefits/income-
sharing mechanism, poor law enforcement, inadequate coordination among sectors and seasonal
unemployment, and/or underemployment.

Financial incentives that appear more profitable than farming and forest conservation—regular
income from the sale of fuel wood and charcoal—could accelerate the rate of deforestation. For
example, the conversion of forestland to coffee, tea, sugarcane plantations, bio-fuel plants, and rice
fields causes rapid deforestation (Tigabu 2016; EBI 2015). To meet the target set for the growth of
agriculture between 2010 and 2030, it is estimated that agricultural land will need to expand by 3.9%
per year (EBI 2015).

Insecure land tenure, unclear ownership and user rights, weak law enforcement and unclear or
absence of benefit-sharing mechanism increase the vulnerability of forests to an undesirable
situation of ‘open access’ and ‘tragedy of the commons’, creating a disincentive to jointly or privately
invest in forest management and development. The lack of guidelines and implementation
procedures for implementing federal and regional forest proclamations exposes forests to illegal
wood harvesting and extraction of other forest resources. The absence of tools, standards,
directives or guidelines for determining the timeliness, reliability, predictability, and appropriate level
of benefits, that need to accrue to local communities, engaged in participatory forest management,
contribute to low outputs and poor outcomes of forest development initiatives.

In the long-term, an invariable process of deforestation exposes smallholder peasant agriculture to

drought and eventually to significant reduction in the productivity of livelihood systems. This in turn
creates underemployment and/or unemployment. Under such circumstances, people living in and
around forested areas resort to illegal woodcutting for producing timber, fuel wood, or charcoal to
augment their income. Consequently, a vicious cycle of natural resource degradation, food
insecurity, and poverty is set in motion, causing increased vulnerability to extreme weather
conditions and climate variability and change.

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Table 26: Direct causes of deforestation and forest degradation

Drivers Description
Small-scale agriculture Permanent and shifting cultivation in high forest and woodland areas
Promoted and expanded to increase food production and export. In some
Large-scale
areas, this planned drive aggravates deforestation in the high forests and woodlands.
agriculture
Biomass energy accounts for more than 90% of the total domestic energy demand.
Fuel wood extraction
Still significant proportions of urban households use charcoal for cooking. The high
and charcoal
biomass energy consumption, along with inefficient utilization, aggravates
production
deforestation, biodiversity loss and land degradation.
State forest enterprises carry out logging in some natural forests. Private
Logging (legal and wood-based industries carry out timber extraction. Squatters and trace- passers also
illegal) for timber and carry out illegal logging in high forests. Such practices are not guided and regulated
lumber production because of weak law enforcement, and thus result in forest ecosystem degradation.
Coffee trees are planted after removing the forest undergrowth in the
Forest coffee lower strata (only leaving the high canopy shades) cause significant loss of
plantations biodiversity, disrupt the ecosystem functions, services, and reduce the forest
productivity.
Increasing livestock population and continued shrinking of grazing lands promoted
Free grazing of increased use of forestlands as grazing areas. Less than 10% of state forest boundaries
livestock are officially mapped and boundary demarcation can be fraught with conflict.

Deposits of mineral resources are buried under dense vegetation of high forests
Mining (small and large and woodlands. For instance, Gold mining, coal mining, other industrial minerals
scale) mining are currently important drivers of deforestation in the high forest and
woodland forest ecosystems.
Ethiopia has embarked on an ambitious economic growth drive. The road and rail
Infrastructure network expansion, power infrastructure and industrialization are some of the
development important planned drivers of deforestation in high forest and woodland ecosystems.

Deliberate fire is used as a management tool in rangeland ecosystems. Wild and

Fire (wild and human deliberate fires commonly rage in woodlands and high forest areas. In all cases, fire
caused) causes degradation by affecting the diversity and composition of species, structure,
and primary productivity of the forests.
Droughts affect vegetation diversity, composition, and structure. Extreme dry
Droughts climate causes fires, exposes the soil to erosion, and culminates in ecosystem
degradation.
The experience in Ethiopia shows that there are very few incidences of pests and
Pests and diseases
diseases on forests.
Source: MEFCC (2018)

Table 27: Underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation

Causes Description

Commodity prices for major cash crops, such as coffee, khat and oil seeds affect local
Commodity market
production systems and trigger land use changes at local level – high commodity prices
could encourage deforestation and forest degradation.
Favorable policies for agricultural and industrial investments are attracting foreign direct
investments and boosting domestic investments; increasing the demand for large tracts
Investment
of land. This trigger clearing of forests in high forest and woodland areas.

Extreme fragmentation of land in rural areas is causing increasing rate of

unemployment. The rural unemployed youth migrate to urban centers, resort to forest
Unemployment
resource extraction for living, or engage in deforestation to claim arable land.

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Charcoal, fuel wood, timber and non-timber forest products are main sources of
Livelihoods livelihoods for people living in Afar, Somali, and Oromia Regions. People living in around
forests heavily depend on the forest resources and exploit the resources; resulting in
deforestation and degradation.
Women in rural Ethiopia are disadvantaged and resources ownership is entirely in the
Gender male domain. Thus, women tend to rely on free access resources such as forests for their
income.
The Ethiopian population is growing at a faster rate, which is more than 2.9 % per
Population growth annum. This exerts pressure on the forest resource to claim more land to produce the
required food. In many rural areas, population growth is driving deforestation.

In the border areas, the woodlands are suffering extreme deforestation from migrants
Migration of neighboring countries. The south and southwest forests are under pressure from
internal influx of people.

At the national level, land use policy and forest policy are not fully implemented. Lands
that are not suitable for cultivation are still being used for crop production. There is no
national land use plan, which is critical for defining and allocating land according to its
Policy (land and capability and suitability. This has hampered forest development. The forest policy lacks
forest) implementation guidelines. The proclamations decree private forest ownership but in
practice, the private sector is not involved in forest development. Investment policy
encourages forestry development, but due to the risk and long time, it takes to get
meaningful rate of return, private investment in forestry is limited.

At different levels (Federal and regional), there remain weak cross-sectoral and sectoral
Inadequate sectoral integration and horizontal coordination between and among line ministries and agencies
coordination/ involved in the development of forest, energy, agriculture, mining, etc. In some cases, there
overlapping mandates exist overlapping of mandates between ministries, which may reduce the desired synergy
and sometimes leading to conflicts.
Source: MEFCC (2018)

Table 28: Ranking of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in terms of impact
Causes of deforestation Level of impact
Expansion of traditional smallholder agriculture in forest areas driven by population growth
High
of communities around forests
Expansion of large-scale commercial agriculture and other development activities,
including road networks and mega development projects such as hydroelectric dams High

Population growth because of internal migration to forested lowland areas High

Increased extraction of wood and other forest products following massive
population growth and the resultant demand for biomass to produce domestic energy Medium

Forest fires related to raising livestock and making charcoal, due to poor incentives to
local communities for sustainable forest use and weak forest protection. Medium

Source: Bekele et al. (2015) and MEFCC (2017)

5.3.2. Contextualizing deforestation in view of spatial variation

In Ethiopia, analyses concerning drivers of deforestation and forest degradation have largely been
based on aggregated data from assessments and/or projections undertaken at the national scale.
The exceptions are the state of environment reports the Environmental Protection Authority had

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issued in 2011 for the Abiijjata and Shala Lakes’ Basin, Gilgel Gibe-I Wetlands, the Abaya and
Chamo Lakes Watershed, and Chifera and Mille Rangeland (EPA 2011a-d).

Notwithstanding the above, agricultural expansion (small scale and commercial farming) and other
types of pressures (described below) have been identified as the key drivers of deforestation
(Melese, 2016; Birhanu, 2014). However, drivers of land use change vary at different scales and
are context specific. For example, Girma (2014) has found that in the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPR), access to credit and markets, topography and
road density influence the conversion of forests and shrub lands to agricultural land. In another
study, proximity to urban centers, expansion of wood markets in rural areas, lack of alternative
energy sources and size of land holding and family size are found to be important drivers of
deforestation (Enbakom, Feyssa, and Takele 2017).
Unlike the above site-specific studies, the national REDD+ strategy outlined a more complete
description of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation across regional states based on a
nation-wide field study complemented with a series of stakeholder consultations (MEFCC, 2018).
Accordingly, while small scale agricultural expansion is common across all forest regions, large-
scale agricultural investment schemes– both private and state owned- are becoming increasingly
important mainly in the regional states of Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, Afar, and to a limited
extent in SNNP and Oromia. In the same vein, forest fires (human induced) are rather common in
the lowlands of Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz (mainly for traditional shifting cultivation) and
with moderate intensity in Tigray, Afar, Somali and SNNP Regions (MEFCC, 2018). The cultivation
of coffee and khat (a stimulant shrub with importance in generating significant cash income) are
important drivers of forest degradation in parts of Oromia and SNNP Region. Additional drivers of
forest degradation are livestock free grazing with high impact in Afar and limited impact in SNNP
and Oromia regional states. Though less conspicuous, other drivers including legal and illegal
settlement (Benishangul Gumuz, SNNPR, Oromia) and wood extraction by refugees in the
woodlands of Gambella, Tigray and Somali Regions have been identified (MEFCC, 2018).
In some areas, the level of households’ reliance on the sale of forest resources to augment their
income, and their ability to cope with shocks and stresses (drought, crop failure or currency
devaluation) could determine the rate of deforestation, which may be attributed to high demand for
fuel wood in towns and urban centers. A study conducted around Arsi Forest (Oromia) shows that
mean household income from the sale of fuel wood as a percentage of mean cash income
increased in proportion to a household’s wealth rank attributed to the size of land and livestock
holdings. Accordingly, income from the sale of fuel wood accounted for 85% for very poor, 65% for
poor, 28% for medium and 37% for wealthier households; with a weighted mean income of 42%.
Other studies in central Ethiopia, northern Tigray, and Bale have found income from the same
sources to be 39%, 27%, and 34-53%, respectively (Guillozet and Bliss, 2013).
A study by Moreaux (2013) conducted around Lake Tana (Zegie and Tara Gedam) identified
specific causes and effects of deforestation. The same study highlights the difference between
local peoples’

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perceptions and expert views concerning the causes of deforestation. While the perception of local
people focuses on underlying causes, experts’ views underscored direct causes. In this regard,
assessing land use and land cover change at regional, district or community level could be better
to identify and explain the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. In addition, the
similarities and differences in perception between local people and experts need to be important
considerations for policy formulation and/or review, and the design and implementation of
sustainable forest development programs and interventions, focusing on the promotion, support,
and protection of forest dependent livelihoods.

Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Various Forest Areas

Bale Mountains Eco-Region:
Direct causes: (planned policy-driven actions and unplanned human activities) including:
expansion of agricultural activities (small-holder farming, market driven crops and livestock rearing)
into forest lands, unmanaged fuel wood and construction wood collection from the forest, and
growing incidence of forest fires.
Underlying causes: policy implementation gaps, legal and institutional weakness, demography,
market system, poverty, inappropriate land management practices, and capacity gaps.
Impact: Loss of biodiversity, acceleration of soil erosion and flooding, decline in quality and
quantity of several other ecosystem services including GHG emission are some of the
consequences.
Response: policy and institutional development reforms, establishment of Oromia Forest and
Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE); addressing capacity and resources limitations; creating a sustainable
financing mechanism to fill critical resource gaps and build the capacity of government and local
communities to bring meaningful changes in the management of natural resources and forests in
the Eco-region.

Belete-Gera Forest
Direct causes: Conversion of natural forest to coffee plantation by planting coffee inside the forest
(understory), cutting trees to expand crop fields, tree ringing, charcoal production, encroachment,
and over exploitation.
Underlying causes: Increasing population growth in and around the forest and rising global
demand for premium certified forest coffee—especially for organic coffee.

Sheka, Kefa, and Bench-Maji Zones

Underlying causes: natural increase in local population, in-migration, increased demand for bio-
fuels and wood products, lack of off-farm employment opportunities, poverty and lack of credit
availability, inappropriate emphasis on annual crops to the detriment of root crops, which are better
suited to high rainfall areas, breakdown in traditional institutions that promote environmental

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protection and control access to natural resources (Kobo system); the lack of coordination in
implementing sectoral policies; the model for allocating government budget based on population
size limits access to goods and services, which in turn forces people to resort to other sources of
income to meet their needs for social services that are not available locally, inappropriate crop and
livestock production systems cause land degradation and increase demand for land, which in turn
leads to deforestation.
Direct causes: increasing land requirements for annual crops, perennial crops, grazing land and
settlement, expansion of managed coffee forest.

Komoto Forest, East Welega Zone

Underlying causes: poverty (measured in landholding size), institutional failures, access to
roads, the perception of corruption among regulatory and low enforcement personnel, regular use
of kerosene, and the purpose for which forest products are used. The rate of deforestation
depends on the size of land holding, purpose, and perception of corruption.

Libo-Kemkem District, South Gonder

Direct causes: expansion of cultivated land, fuel wood, and charcoal production, tree cutting for
farm implements and construction, livestock, and interventions to rehabilitate degraded land and
government programs.
Underlying causes: Increases in population, and regime change.

5.4. Impacts
Livelihood provisioning services
Forest–farm interface is a home to rural households with unique livelihood characteristics and
benefit claims to forest resources that distinguish them from other agricultural households.
Households in Ethiopia’s forest–farm interface tend to be highly dependent upon forest resources
for fuel wood, livestock grazing, and building materials are at greatest risk of livelihood loss
resulting from deforestation (Guillozet K. and Bliss J.C. 2013).
Deforestation and land degradation impede the capacity of forests and land to contribute to food
security and to meet fuel wood and fodder needs (Beyene 2011). Deforestation is a major driver
of soil erosion and land degradation, with potentially long-term negative consequences for land
productivity. Soil erosion, in particular, leads to the removal of fertile topsoil, the reduction of soil
moisture and groundwater storage capacity, and the exacerbation of flooding, as runoff is
concentrated spatially and temporally (Daley 2015). This situation results in reduced agricultural
productivity and livelihood insecurity; affecting subsistence smallholder farmers and pastoralists
who depend on agriculture and forests to earn a living. For example, Beyene (2011) has found that
soil erosion, mainly due to deforestation, depletes the productive capacity of farmland, reduces
income, and forces resource-poor farmers to adopt copping strategies such as reducing the
frequency, quantity, and quality of meals per day, withdrawing children from school, and resorting
to marginal land cultivation. In addition, a study by Tadesse (2015) conducted in Bale, Goba
Wereda, found out that deforestation causes:

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Decline in the supply of forest products;

Decrease in HH income;
Reduction in crop yield and livestock productivity;
Increase in distance to access forest products, which would have been spent on other
income-generating activities or taking care of household chores. This particularly increases
the burden on women who are traditionally responsible for collecting firewood; and
Decrease in social cohesion – limits opportunities for meeting under the shade of trees and
prevents people from marking traditional ceremonies under sacred trees.
Forest resources have been providing significant socioeconomic benefits to the people of Ethiopia.
Despite the various services forests provide, their contribution to livelihood security and the
national economy has not been accounted for. This is because outputs are not recorded. Most
forest products are sold informally and the aesthetic value of forests is difficult to measure and
convert into monetary value because of technical and methodological limitations. In 2011, the
forestry sector contributed USD 893.7 million to the economy, approximately 3.2% of the GDP
(FAO, 2016). However, (UNEP 2016) reports that in FY2012/13, forests contributed USD 16.9
Billion, or 12.9% of GDP. While there is expectation for the forest sector to contribute more to the
GDP, continued deforestation and forest degradation will significantly reduce the intrinsic value and
economic contribution of forests.
In 2013, Ethiopia consumed roughly 124 million cubic meters of wood and will continue to consume
more each year. With population growth and economic development projections, total wood
product demand will increase by about 27% over the next 20 years, reaching an annual
consumption of 158 million m3 by 2033. Wood (fuel wood and charcoal) will continue to be the
main forest product consumed. This is estimated to be over 100 million m3 each year, with roughly
a third of consumption from unsustainable use of forests and woodlands (MEFCC 2017b). Naritaet
al. (2017) reported that deforestation is associated with future flow of benefits estimated to be 14.3
billion ETB. At the current exchange rate of ETB 27.2 to 1 USD, the amount is equivalent to USD 5
billion. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) including honey, spices, forest coffee, bamboo, gums
and resins play an important role in the livelihood of rural people and bring in foreign currency
earnings.
Despite the on-going efforts to restore forest cover, unabated deforestation and forest degradation
will have negative effects on the livelihood security of people in rural areas. For example, Enbakom
et al. (2017) have shown that in three farmers’ associations (Arba Minch Zuria woreda, Gamo
Gofa Zone), with a total population of 164,529, food production has consistently declined because
of deforestation, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility. They also showed that 6.8% of the people
depend on the sale of charcoal and firewood as their main source of income. This demonstrates
that food insecurity could force people to resort to generating income from the sale of forest
resources in combination with other livelihood activities.
In general, the mismatch between the rising demand for wood and the volume supplied from
existing forests (natural and planted) will make deforestation inevitable, which will in turn contribute
to livelihood insecurity among people living in the forest-farm interface.

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Regulating Ecosystem Services

Deforestation and forest degradation reduce the carbon sequestration service (the absorption and
retention of carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas) forests provide. In 2010, greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission from the forestry sector, mostly attributable to deforestation and forest degradation, was
estimated to be 37% (FDRE, 2011). The adaptive capacity of forests to climate change will be
reduced because of deforestation and forest degradation. Unabated GHG emissions, in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2), cause the declining of crop yields and intensify natural disasters from
extreme weather (Narita et al. 2017). The same authors equate the unit cost of deforestation with
the social cost of carbon, i.e., an estimate of the global economic damages associated with a unit
increase in CO2 emissions in a given year. Unless deforestation and forest degradation is
controlled, the value of forests in mitigating soil erosion, controlling sedimentation, reducing crop
productivity loss, protecting watersheds, rehabilitating land, ensuring food security, promoting and
expanding ecotourism, conserving biodiversity, and retaining soil nutrients will not be realized. In
addition, deforestation will be detrimental to the positive influence of forests on water quantity
and quality, their potential for reducing flood frequency and damages, the services they provide as
habitats for pollinators, their contribution in regulating air quality. Gebru (2016) provides further
description concerning the impact of deforestation on the atmosphere, water cycle, soil, and
ecology.

Importance of Vegetation Cover

It is widely recognized that Ethiopia is reputably the water tower of Africa and aspires to be the
energy and economic powerhouse of the continent in the medium term by harnessing its potential
for hydroelectric power, increasing irrigation, and food production (Yitebitu and Eyob, 2014).
According to MEFCC (2017a), the abundance of vegetation cover contributes to increase water
availability and improve quality by increasing groundwater recharge and keeping the flow of water
from rivers, streams, and springs that are relatively stable. Deforestation and removal of vegetation
(reduced ground cover) accelerate soil erosion, decrease the flow of rivers during the dry season,
limit irrigation, and adversely affect agricultural production and thus food security. In addition,
deforestation and the absence of and/or reduced vegetation cover drive the process of siltation and
sedimentation in natural and man-made water reservoirs. For example, Hayal et al. (2017) show
that decreased vegetation cover due to deforestation has resulted in siltation and reduction in the
water level of Lake Ziway.
MEFCC (2017a) further states that, if properly managed, forest resources and other vegetation,
which provide protective cover from the erosive forces of water and wind, have enormous potential
to protect hydroelectric dams from siltation and to increase the useful lifetime of power generation
facilities. Several dams, streams, and lakes have already dried and many others are in the process
of drying. Deforestation and the absence of vegetative ground cover increases surface run-off and
reduces the amount of rainfall infiltrating into the soil and eventually percolating into groundwater
aquifers. Poor infiltration leads to low ground water recharge, which leads to low water availability
during dry seasons, affecting human and livestock access to water throughout the year. This, in
turn, leads to higher peak flows in streams and rivers, causing greater flood damage during the
rainy season. The frequent power shedding, practiced by the Ethiopian Electric Power.

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Authority, is driven by insufficient accumulation of water in dams constructed to generate

electricity. The impact of forest resource depletion and degradation, manifested in the drying up of
tributaries and thus reduced river flow, affect the livelihoods of millions of Ethiopians and people in
neighboring countries.

Cultural Services
Deforestation causes harm to tourism, amenities, spiritual and existential values, cultural heritage,
and community/group identity. The loss of forests destroys the beauty of landscapes, makes an
area not conducive to wildlife, and reduces the attractiveness of natural areas to tourists (Narita et
al., 2017). In some parts of Ethiopia, religious ceremonies, traditional rituals, and initiation
procedures are held inside or around sacred trees and/or forests belonging to churches,
monasteries, or mosques. In some cases, the same functions could take place on the banks of
lakes, rivers, in valleys or on mountain or hilltops, which are surrounded by patches of trees or
forests. The continued provision of cultural services is important to maintain and transfer
indigenous knowledge, concerning traditional medicine, which in turn contribute to in situ
conservation of biodiversity.

Biodiversity Conservation
Fifty-eight National Forest Priority Areas (NFPAs) were identified back in 1990, of which only 42 of
these priority areas were demarcated (EFAP, 1994). The 58 NFPAs are critically important for in
situ conservation of biodiversity. Although little or no information is available on their status, a huge
change in the social, political and economic realms of the country should have impacted these
forest priority areas. These impacts may include forest clearance and land use conversion for
small holder agricultural expansion, promotion of large- scale commercial and state development
investments in forest frontiers, illegal extraction and collection of forest products, planned human
settlements in forest areas, forest fires and increasing development of infrastructure and road
networks inside and the proximities of forests (MEFCC 2017a).

Protected Areas
MEFCC (2017a) states that the Protected Areas (PA) system in Ethiopia, covering 14% of the
country, includes national parks, wildlife reserves, NFPAs, biosphere reserves and community
conservation areas. A large part of these areas are in-situ conservation sites managed by Ethiopia
Institute of Biodiversity and other institutes like the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
(EARO) and Regional Agricultural departments (Kebebew & Balcha, 2004).

Over the years, the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Agency (EWCA), in collaboration with Regional
Governments, has designated several PAs, including Semien-Gibe and Garameba community
conservation area in SNNP Region; Bakussa national park and Menz Guassa community
conservation area in Amhara Region; and Dati Wolel and Arsi Mountains National Parks in Oromia
Region. Furthermore, surveillance has been completed for other potential conservation areas such
as Wof Washa, Guna, and Weleka Abay, and the Amhara Regional State is interested in
establishing the Choke Mountains Eco-Region. In this regard, discussions are planned to take
place with local communities to confirm their bye-in and to facilitate their active participation in the
management of the new PA.

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Ethiopia has five biosphere reserves; Yayu (Oromia Regional State), Kafa and Sheka (SNNPRS),
Majang (Gambella Region) and Lake Tana in the Amhara Region.
Alas, the PAs remain threatened because of the combined effects of the drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation outlined in section 3 (see Box 4). Their future protection and improved
management will depend on the establishment of clear boundaries through a consultative and
consensual process, the development, and implementation of management plans, sufficient
investment to meet financial, technical, and logistical needs, and a concerted effort to enforce the
law. In addition, planned programs aimed at advancing the country’s economic growth agenda need
to address the negative socio-economic and environmental impacts of large-scale commercial
farms, infrastructure development (roads and hydroelectric dams), resettlement programs,
increased extraction of wood and other forest products and forest fires.

The state of protected areas

The state of the country’s PAs depends largely on the policies and strategies of the government,
institutional arrangements, and capacity of the organization responsible for the conservation and
development of PAs. The EWCA, responsible for managing PAs, is subjected to nine institutional
restructuring over the past several decades. However, no significant differences or changes were
made in addressing the complex human activity- related problems and the causes that expose
wildlife to danger, death, and disappearance in certain PAs.
Today, some National Parks (NPs) exist only in name, and their state hardly guarantees their
continued survival. These NPs include Abjiata Shalla, Awash, Bale Mountains, and Babile Elephant
Sanctuary. For example, in Awash NP invasive plants destroy the grassland (an important grazing
area for Oryx), strangle, and kill trees. More specifically, Parthenium hysterophorus L. caused a
decline in stand density of herbaceous species by an average of 69% (Etana et al., 2011). Another
invasive species Prosopis juliflora aggressively invades and destroys natural pasture, reduces
livestock production and productivity (because of the loss of dry season grazing areas), and
displaces native trees (Admasu 2008; Kefelegn, 2014). On the other hand, there are a few, albeit,
controversial reports on the impact of government-led development projects on Ethiopia’s NPs and/
or PAs. It was reported that large-scale agricultural investments took parts of the territory of formally
designated NP (Gambella NP) and PA (Babile Elephant Sanctuary), while other investments were
established in areas which effectively block or interfere with transit corridors, and the migration
routes of the wild animals (Rahmato, 2011). In the same line, a report by the Oakland Institute
(2013) revealed that the original plan for the Kuraz Sugar Development Project (KSDP) would partly
cover a significant part of the Mago and Omo NPs.
With regard to Bale Mountains NP, boundary demarcation has been completed and the NP has
been granted a temporary recognition by UNESCO. Despite this achievement, a document
providing a full description of the NP remains to be written up. In advance of this, a buffer zone
needs to be established and to this effect, negotiation has been underway concerning the adjoining
forest next to the NP.
Overall, while Walia and Gelada Baboons are in a stable condition, giraffe, elephant, lion, and
cheetah are under threat. Rhinoceros were present in Omo and Mago NPs up to the end of the
1970s, but have disappeared since the early 1980s. This has led observers to conclude that Rhinos
no longer exist in Ethiopia. In general, it is estimated that there are 2,000 elephants, 200 giraffes,
1,000 lions, 100 jackals, and 100 cheetahs.

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Since 2000, PAs have been given renewed emphasis and new policies and strategies have been
developed to improve their management. In 2010, a national wildlife conservation and development
plan has been prepared to provide a roadmap for ensuring that people living around PAs benefit
from NPs.
One of the important challenges for the future development of NPs remains institutional. Currently,
EWCA is under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MCT). It is not clear if the MCT has the
experience and competency related to the conservation and management aspects of PAs. It seems
the only reason for putting EWCA under MCT is the fact that tourists visit PAs. Going forward, the
appropriateness of this institutional arrangement needs to be carefully considered. The question
that arises from this is would it be better to put EWCA under MEFCC? Another policy consideration
might be to make EWCA a strong and viable institution in its own right.

5.5 Response
5.5.1 Reforestation and Limiting Forest Cover Loss
Since the establishment of MEFCC in 2013, the Government of Ethiopia is focusing on reinforcing
the forest sector; rehabilitating degraded lands, increasing vegetation cover, and limiting the rate of
deforestation in line with its CRGE (MEFCC, 2017a). In this regard, Ethiopia has committed to
sustainably manage 4 million hectares of natural forest, afforest 2 million hectares and reforest 1
million hectares. While contributing to the sustainable forest management (4,000,000ha) and
afforestation/reforestation (3,000,000ha) goals, the Ethiopia’s national REDD+ Strategy (2016-
2030) further aims at increasing timber supply through community and private plantation on
1,500,000 ha and promotion of area closure through the rehabilitation of degraded lands covering
10,000,000ha (MEFCC, 2018). Ethiopia is also committed to contribute to the African Forest
Landscape Restoration Initiative, the Bonn Challenge, and the New York Declaration on Forests by
restoring 15 million hectares of degraded and deforested land within the same timeframe (MEFCC,
2016a).
Even a more ambitious goal (2016-2030) is set in the national REDD+ Strategy. The strategy aims
at putting in place 4,000,000ha of natural forest under sustainable forest management; enhance
afforestation/ reforestation by communities and private holders on degraded lands covering an area
of 3,000,000 ha; increasing timber supply through community and private plantation on1,500,000 ha
and promotion of area closure through the rehabilitation of degraded lands covering 10,000,000ha
(MEFCC, 2018).
In addition, the National Tree-Based Landscape Restoration Potential and Priority Maps is the
first step in planning Ethiopia’s large-scale, coordinated forest restoration efforts. The maps show
where more trees could be planted, which tree-based landscape restoration options could be
implemented, and where to prioritize cross-sectoral implementation. The potential maps show
that there are many opportunities to increase the number of trees in Ethiopia’s diverse
landscapes. Based on the criteria and data used in this work, a total of 82 million hectares is
deemed as having potential for tree-based landscape restoration (MEFCC, 2016a).

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More specifically, the following activities were undertaken through large-scale tree planting
campaigns and water shade conservation activities, through area closure and biological soil
conservation to enhance the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation and expansion of tree
farms as cash crops around farms and homesteads. Accordingly, 7 million ha of degraded land
were rehabilitated between 2009 and 2013. In the same period, soil and water conservation
activities were carried out in 57,000 community-based watersheds that cover 13 million hectares
of land. Multipurpose trees, shrubs, and grasses were planted on biological soil and water
conservation structures. Additionally, forest management plans have also been prepared for 1.4
million ha of natural forests, and about 2.9 million ha of land were planted with 16.8 million
seedlings of indigenous and exotic tree species in various parts of the country (Institute of
Biodiversity 2015).
Most of the progress was made during the tree planting campaign undertaken to mark the
Ethiopian Millennium in 2008. During the campaign, Oromia, SNNPR, Amhara, and Tigray
regions planted a total of 2.21 and 4.4 million seedlings in 2009 and 2010, respectively (Tadesse
et al., 2012).
On-going efforts of the government and local communities include establishing new PAs in
Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP Regional States, protecting and managing forests in sacred sites,
introducing new energy efficient stoves, rehabilitation of forests, afforestation of gullies, river
banks and unproductive land, reforestation and area enclosures through participatory forest
management approaches and practices (Tigabu, 2016). During the GTP II period, MEFCC has
planned to enclose 5 million ha of land, rehabilitate 1 million ha of degraded forest, conserve 2
million ha of natural forest, facilitate the management of indigenous natural forests located in and
around 2,000 religious institutions, protect four biosphere reserves (Kefa, Sheka, Yayu, and
Tana) composed of one wetland and three forest areas (MEFCC, 2015b).
In an effort to make forestry a viable economic sector, the Oromia Regional State has established
the Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) in 2009. The OFWE manages all state forests and
protected areas, and generates revenue from forests and parks. It also manages priority natural
forests through participatory forest management arrangements by enlisting the cooperation of
people in and around forests. In the same vein, the Amhara Regional State established a Forest
Enterprise in 2011.

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In general, there is recognition and effort to protect and sustainably use the remaining natural
forests and plantations for their economic, environmental, esthetic, and cultural values. At the
same time, the rising demand for wood and non-timber forest products, which could be supplied
from existing forests (natural and plantations), call for uninterrupted access to extract forest
resources. In this regard, striking a balance between the two competing intentions is a challenge
for policy and decision makers (Moges, et al., 2010).

Entoto Natural Park: Rescuing the Vulnerable “Lung” of Addis Ababa

Among the people living in the surroundings of Entoto, there are many whose livelihood is linked
with Eucalyptus. Many women collect and sell twigs and leaves to support their family. For those
women, Eucalyptus provides them with income, wood for construction and fuel for cooking and
heating.
Considering the harmful effects of Eucalyptus (soil erosion and loss of biodiversity), the Ethiopia
Heritage Trust (EHT) started to replace Eucalyptus with indigenous tree species a little over two
decades ago. Out of the 1,300 ha under Entoto Natural Park (ENP), 500 ha is covered with
indigenous tree species including: Hygenia, Juniperous, Podocarpous, Acacia, Olea, etc. EHT’s
Head of Heritage Development and Conservation, Mulugeta Hirpa says: “the park’s diverse natural
cycle links humans and animals in a natural chain. Underscoring the need for conserving the
natural environment, Mulugeta refers ENP as the “lung” of Addis Ababa.
At 3,200 meters above sea level, ENP has diverse plant and animal species, which are important
for the survival of Addis Ababa (ENP provides the city with a “lung” for breathing fresh air). To
ensure the provision of this regulating service, EHT signed an agreement with the Addis Ababa
City Administration for 100 years. So far, it has planted indigenous tree seedlings and has
constructed terraces to conserve the soil.
Initially, EHT started its work by removing Eucalyptus trees and preventing regeneration through
debarking tree stumps. Prior to EHT’s intervention, Eucalyptus was the dominant plant species–
birds and other wildlife disappeared, the soil was exposed to severe erosion and the area was
exposed to flooding. After the area was rehabilitated, the diversity of plant species increased,
indigenous seeds (which stayed dormant for many years) revived and germinated when the
condition for growth became favorable. In addition, there has been a re-emergence of wildlife
(including Menlik Bushback, Warthog, Serval Cat, Colobus Monkey, etc.) because of the shelter
the vegetation provides. This shows that the survival of wildlife is linked to the well-being of forests.
Moreover, the soil is protected from erosion and 13 natural springs, which dried up before EHT’s
intervention, have been organically rehabilitated; allowing people to collect water from natural
springs, increasing the accumulation of ground water and preventing flooding. This has resulted in
EHT and Addis Ababa Water and Waste Disposal Authority reaching an agreement for the ENP to
be used as a natural water reservoir. Out of the 124 bird species found in the ENP, five are
endemic to Ethiopia and 11 are only found in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

People living inside the ENP expand the boundaries of their land, breed livestock and let them to
graze freely in the Park – resettling people outside the Park remains a huge undertaking.
Visitors and those collecting water from natural springs dispose waste, including plastic water
bottles, containers and other harmful materials.
Recognizing the importance of Entoto as a source of clean air and water, the development and
implementation of a plan for the protection and management of the escarpment needs to be given
the attention it deserves.

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5.5.2. Policies and Laws

The Government of Ethiopia has taken various policy, legislative and institutional measures. In
2013, the Ministry of Environment, Forest Development, and Climate Change was established.
The policies that have been put in place prior to 2007 to direct sustainable forest development
and management with wider implications for improved environmental management, and
reducing the effects of climate change include the following:
The Ethiopian Constitution (1995) provides the rights to clean and healthy environment
as fundamental rights of citizens (articles 43 and 44).
Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997) is the overarching policy for managing the
environment and natural resources.
National Action Program to Combat Desertification (NAP, 1998) the GoE ratified the
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1997 and subsequently undertook
the formulation of a NAP.
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP, 2005) the GoE developed the
NBSAP to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and to provide for
the equitable sharing of the costs and benefits, arising from them and contribute to the
well-being and security of the nation.

5.5.2.1. Polices, strategies and plans

Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy (2007) has been
formulated and implemented to meet public demand for forest products and foster the contribution
of forests in enhancing the economy of the country through appropriately conserving and
developing forest resources. The proposed actions of the policy and strategy as stipulated in the
specific objectives include: rendering technical assistance to farmers, pastoralists, investors and
institutions engaged in forest resource development; enhancing the production of forest resources;
identifying, rejuvenating, multiplying and distributing tree species that have multiple benefits; and
maintaining the natural ecological balance by preventing threats, conserving and developing forest
resources.

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CRGE, 2011: this is Ethiopia’s most recent and ambitious climate change initiative. The CRGE
aims to reduce emissions and vulnerability in order to build a climate-resilient green economy
with zero-net carbon emissions by 2025, providing up-front support and ex-post payment for the
preparation and implementation of wide-ranging reduction interventions. One of the four pillars,
which form the basis for Ethiopia’s green economy plan, is “Protecting and re-establishing forests for
their economic and ecosystem services, including as carbon stocks.” In addition to agricultural initiatives
aimed at reducing pressure on forests, the CRGE prioritizes the following strategies that could help in
developing sustainable forestry and reducing fuel wood demand:
Reduce demand for fuel wood through the dissemination and use of fuel-efficient stoves
and/or alternative-fuel cooking and baking techniques (such as electricity, LPG, or biogas
stoves), leading to reduced forest degradation;
Increase afforestation, reforestation, and forest management to increase carbon
sequestration in forests and woodlands. These initiatives would result in an increased
storage of carbon in Ethiopia’s forests, provide a basis for sustainable forestry, and even
allow the forestry sector to yield negative emissions, i.e., store more carbon in growing
forests that are emitted from deforestation and forest degradation; and
Promoting area closure via rehabilitation of degraded pastureland and farmland, leading to
enhanced soil fertility and thereby ensuring additional carbon sequestration (above and
below ground).

The National Forest Sector Development Program (NFSDP 2017): The goal of the country-driven
NFSDP (2018-2027) is to provide the master plan that serves as the roadmap for future forestry
actions; considering the mandate of National Regional States for natural resources management
and other stakeholders. The core pillars of the NFSDP are enabling environment and institutional
development; sustainable forest production and value chains; forest environmental services;
forests and rural livelihoods; and urban greening and urban forests.
The National REDD+ Strategy (2018): The primary goal of the National REDD+ Strategy is to
address the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by strengthening governance and
development of local capacities and putting in place an enabling environment for sustainable
forest management while implementing targeted interventions to reduce deforestation and forest
degradation and enhancing forest carbon stock by promoting conservation and restoration of
forest ecosystems (MEFCC, 2018).The strategic period for implementation of the planned activities,
under the national REDD+ strategy, is divided into short-term (2016-2020), medium-term (2021-
2026) and long-term (2026-2030) phases.

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Multi-Sector Investment Plan (MSIP) for Climate Resilient Agriculture and Forest
Development 2017-2030 identifies an investment need of approximately US$4 billion and has five
activity groups. The forestry activities include climate resilient forest and landscape development;
conservation and utilization, such as strengthening the resilience of the forest sector by expanding
forest resources and improving their management; reducing pressure on landscapes from
extension of the agricultural frontier; reducing forest degradation due to fuel wood harvesting;
reducing pressure on landscapes from grazing-related land clearance; reducing the vulnerability of
people through livelihood diversification; and improving land and water management to deliver
economic growth in agriculture, forestry and livestock production.
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of Ethiopia (2015): Based on Ethiopia’s
intention to limit greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 to 145 Mt CO2e or lower and the recognition
that the quantity of emission from deforestation and forest degradation is expected to be 55 Mt
CO2e (37% of the total), the country will reduce dependence on wood for fuel by promoting
the use of efficient stoves; expand forest cover by more than 7 million ha with continued
involvement from local communities; and improve and diversify economic opportunities from
agroforestry and sustainable afforestation of degraded forest areas. Overall, Ethiopia intends to
undertake adaptation initiatives to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change by
building adaptive capacity and resilience.

National Adaptation Plan 2017 (NAP-ETH): Building on ongoing efforts to address climate
change in the country’s development policy framework, including CRGE strategy and the GTP II,
NAP-ETH aims to strengthen the integration of climate change adaptation in Ethiopia’s long- term
development pathway, supported by effective institutions and governance structures, finance for
implementation and capacity development, strengthened systems for disaster risk management, and
coordination among different sectors.

One of the 18 adaptation options ‘enhancing sustainable forest management’ will “[…] create
enabling situations for sustainable management of forest resources and its contribution to the
livelihoods of forest dependent communities in particular and the national economy at large [to
enhance] the adaptive capacity of forests and forest landscapes and [improve] forest-based incomes
and the national economy. It is imperative to promote value added commercialization of timber and
non-timber forest products along with payment for ecosystem services. In particular, the contribution
of forest resources to other production sectors, mainly energy, agriculture, and industry will be
acknowledged and mainstreamed. Commercial afforestation and reforestation practices will be
promoted. Wide-scale promotion of forest health activities will be planned and implemented.
Furthermore, participatory forest management and community-based rehabilitation of degraded
forests will be implemented.”

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Other adaptation options that will indirectly contribute to increase forest cover include: enhancing
food security through improving agricultural productivity in a climate-smart manner; improving
ecosystem resilience through conserving biodiversity; enhancing alternative and renewable power
generation and management. Enhancing food security will reduce unemployment/
underemployment, particularly in rural areas endowed with forests and minimize the tendency of
smallholder farmers to resort to the sale of wood to augment their income. Improving ecosystem
resilience will provide for the conservation of ecosystems, including dry forests, tropical high
forests, and rangelands. The use of alternative energy sources will reduce dependence on
fuelwood and charcoal, thereby, decreasing the rate of deforestation and forest degradation.

5.5.2.2. Proclamations
Proclamation 803/2013 established the Ministry of Environment and Forest by amending the
proclamation on the definition and powers and duties of the executive organs of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This was an important milestone in re-establishing the
importance of forestry in view of the significance of the sector for achieving the objectives of
the CRGE. It is to be noted that one of the pillars of the CRGE is to increase afforestation,
reforestation, a n d forest management to boost carbon sequestration in forests and
woodlands. It is expected that the establishment of the Ministry will create long -term stability in
the forest sector that has been repeatedly afflicted by restructuring, loss of institutional
memory, and the demoralization of foresters.
Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation 1065/2018: is expected to
play a crucial role to halt environmental, social, and economic problems caused by forest
degradation; introduce community and association forest development; classify forests into
productive, and protect forests based on their environmental, social, and economic significance;
enhance environmental, social, and economic benefits; and support the establishment and
organization of research, educational, investment, trade, and information systems.
Proclamation to Establish Forest Fund: the objective of the fund is to ensure the climate
resilience green economy development through securing sustainable forest development,
conservation, and utilization; promote forest development, conservation, and utilization through
enhancing investment; and grant long-term loans based on the principle of cost recovery.

5.5.2.3. Key Challenges

There is a mismatch between the demand for wood products and supply. Population and
economic growth increase the demand for and consumption of wood. In 2013, Ethiopia
consumed roughly 124 million m3 of wood and will continue to consume more each year. In 2015,
the total demand for wood was approximately 130.3 million m3. In the same year, 120.4 million m3
round wood was harvested from natural high forests, woodlands and area enclosures and
plantations. It is estimated that only 32.1 million m3 of wood fuel can be sustainably supplied from
natural forests and woodlands. The balance, 79.74 million m3 of fuel wood, needs to be supplied
through unsustainable use of forests and woodlands.

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This explains Ethiopia’s widespread and unabated deforestation and forest degradation. In 2015,
Ethiopia imported 3 million m3 of various industrial wood products worth USD 182.53 million, and
the trend is increasing. In fact, it has more than doubled between 2007 and 2015 (MEFCC 2017a).

Ethiopia’s forests are increasingly under threat, as the growing population requires more agricultural
products, which leads to farmland expansion. Road, energy, and water infrastructure construction is
also accelerating deforestation and forest degradation. Weak regulation and enforcement of
Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and other safeguard tools in the course of
initiation and implementation of major project types with significant impact on forest resources was
identified as one of the key challenges (MEFCC, 2018). The national REDD+ Strategy clearly
outlines the gap in this regard and recommends a system of ‘Strategic Environmental Assessments
(SEAs) that assess the potential impacts of policies, plans and programs should be in place and
integrated through linking the approval of EIAs to compatibility with relevant policies and plans, for
which SEAs have been successfully completed.

• Most of the protected areas are not yet demarcated and registered in the official gazette. The
quality and quantity of skilled human-power in the forest sector is critically low.

• The Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (WBISPP) in the 1990’s was
the only comprehensive and reliable source of data on the country’s forest resources for the
last couple of decades. No national level forest resource assessment was conducted in the
ensuing years until recently. In 2014, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate
Change, MEFCC (currently Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission) initiated
a national forest inventory with the technical support from FAO. The NFI is finalized and
validated in 2017. The absence of periodic and national level forest resource inventory and
data on the same not only contributed to uninformed natural resources management and
development planning but also created a critical gap in determining the contribution of forests
to the national economy. In this regard, the recent study by UNEP (2016) is an important step
in filling the data gap and informing the national level development decision and redefining
the contribution of the forestry sector to the national GDP. It is important that the data is made
accessible to address the dearth of up-to-date data on the forest resource base of the
country.

• Delay in putting in place an integrated land use policy and plan: the absence of an integrated
land use policy and plan is perhaps one of the key underlying drivers of deforestation and
forest degradation and this is well noted in the National REDD+ Strategy of Ethiopia
(MEFCC, 2018).The absence of integrated land use policy and land use plan not only
contributes to forest loss but also reinforces unsustainable land use and land cover
changes at large, which is detrimental to sustainable economic development of Ethiopia.

To this end, the preparation and effective implementation of a national framework for an
integrated national land use plan (currently under preparation and led by the Prime Minister’s
Office) should be finalized to address Ethiopia’s persistent land management issues.

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Ensuring coherence and complementarity between various forest development plans and
programmmes (National Appropriate Mitigation Action, National Adaptation Plan, Intended
Nationally Determined Contribution to limit net GHG emissions, Forest Reference Level
Submission, REDD+ Program, National Strategy and Action Plan for the Implementation of the
Great Green Wall for the Sahel and Sahara Initiative). While the various plans and programs are
worthy, they need to be aligned to the national forest sector development program and must
complement each other to ensure coherence and synergy to optimize their outcomes and impact.
One of the recommendations of the Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) for
the Implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia states: “There is a clear gap in cross-sectoral
coordination, joint planning and implementation of projects and programmmes. This needs to be
seriously looked at and synergy coordination office should be established and be accountable to
a higher level of government.” (MEFCC 2017e).

• Deforestation and forest degradation have spatial variation (Tigabu et al. 2014). Analysis of
the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are aggregated at the national level and
do not reflect variations in drivers determined by space, forest ecology, local economy, and
livelihood system. Hammond (1998) states that [contextual] differences powerfully
constrain not just what the critical problems are but also, how the problems are perceived
and how solutions must be sought. Thus, [contextual] differences must play a central role
in explorations of [forest development opportunities]. As shown in this report, there are
emerging studies describing drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in various
parts of the country, and such undertakings need to be encouraged and supported.
• More and continued effort needs to be made to incorporate lessons learnt and to build on
the momentum established by various projects (EFAP, Strategic Woody Biomass Project,
etc.).
• Institutional stability, coordinated and coherent policy implementation need to be
maintained to ensure sustainable forest development.
• The forest sector has a great potential to contribute to sustainable economic development
through creating green jobs, supporting the bio-economy and fostering climate change
resilience, by promoting high-value activities such as commercial plantations, NTFPs and
sustainable agricultural and grazing practices. The forest sector needs to position itself to
take advantage of the opportunities outlined above.

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5.5.3. Outlook
In view of the analysis presented in this document, the outlook for the forestry sector is
described below. It needs to be noted that the establishment of MEFCC in 2013 was an
important milestone in the country’s troubled forest history.
The actions MEFCC has taken since its establishment has revived the state of forests and
some of the best-case scenarios outlined in the environment outlook issued in 2007, and have
been realized in some form and shape. However, because of the challenges outlined above,
the business as usual situation, described in the introduction of this report, may hamper the
progress and constrain potential successes in forest development in the future.
5.5.4. Deforestation and Forest Degradation
In view of continued population growth and rapid economic growth drive, demand for wood
and wood products will grow. The total wood product demand in 2015, measured by the
volume of wood consumed in the country (production +import -export), was about 130.3 million
m3. Of this, about 92.3% was wood fuel, and 7.7% industrial wood. In the same year, Ethiopia
imported 3 million m3 of various industrial wood products worth about USD 182.53 million.
MEFCC (2017a) states that with population pressures, annual wood fuel consumption is
expected to rise by 65% between 2010 and 2030, outstripping current supply and leading to
forest degradation of more than 22 million tons of woody biomass.

If business as usual continues, extraction of wood from forests will be unsustainable; driving
further deforestation and forest degradation. A net deforestation rate of 0.54%, about 72,000
ha (gross deforestation 92,000ha) every year (MEFCC, 2017c, MEFCC, 2018); will impact
negatively the wealth of forest resources and the associated environmental services. In the
same vein, this loss will result in wood crisis, which will force the country to import more wood,
with a significant implication on foreign currency reserves (MEFCC 2017a).

5.5.5. Sustainable Forest Development

The increased demand for forest products, including timber and non-timber forest products,
because of population and economic growth, coupled with existing and emerging management
challenges, will strain the functioning of the natural forest eco-system. The resulting shortage
of forest products to meet the demands of a growing economy, address basic human needs,
and the inability of the forest ecosystem to respond increased pressure will threaten people
with a high degree of risk and increased vulnerability. In addition, unabated deforestation and
soil erosion will continue to negatively affect rural livelihoods.
To address the above-mentioned environmental problems, the forestry sector plans to achieve
the following targets in 2019/2020 under the auspices of GTP II, the CRGE and the REDD+
Investment Plan (RIP).

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Rehabilitate 22.5 million ha of land;

Put 41.4 million ha of land under community-based watershed development;
Reduce pressure on forests by providing green economy technologies to 100,000 people;
Reduce GHG emission by 147 million tons of CO2e;
Increase the forest sector contribution to GDP from 4% in 2014/2015 to 8%;
Increase forest cover from 15.5% to 20%;
Reduce dependence on fuelwood by increasing access to electricity by 90%. and,
Putting 660,000ha of natural forests in the south-west forest block under PFM arrangement.

Notwithstanding the above, there will be increased demand for utility poles because of the
planned increase in access to electricity. A growing economy means increasing demand for
housing, which in turn requires increased supply of construction wood. As the share of the
manufacturing industry in the GDP increases, opportunities will be created for the expansion of
wood-based industries.

Further to the sustainable forest development targets, the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
Actions (NAMA) plan for the forest sector includes the following (NAMA 2015):
Sustainably manage 2.8 million ha of natural high forest to reduce GHG emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation;
A total of 434,000 ha of deciduous forest land sustainably managed to reduce GHG
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation;
A total of 6 million ha of national parks sustainably managed to reduce GHG emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation;
A total of 19 million ha of existing forests that are providing non-timber forest products
to be maintained as a buffer area to mitigate desertification; and
Five million ha of forest in exhaustion or production forests established and sustainably
managed for sequestrating carbon
The above plans, which have different sets of targets, and other plans that have incoherent targets
will make coordination, harmonization, the creation of complementarity and synergy, needed to
meet key national targets (CRGE and GTP II) and achieve impact, extremely difficult.

5.5.6. Vulnerability of Forests to Climate Change and its Impact

In view of Ethiopia’s vulnerability to climate change, temperature increases and decreases in the
pattern and distribution of rainfall may lead to the disappearance of certain types of forest; for
example, montane and lower montane wet forest and subtropical desert scrub, as well as shifts in
the climatic zones suitable for forestry. These changes may have significant impact on the
production of timber and non-timber forest products and ecosystem services such as water, soil
catchment management, flood protection, and availability of wood-fuel (MEFCC 2017a).

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Ethiopia’s adaptation plan to climate change issued in 2017 states that forests will be exposed to
the risks of increases in temperature, flood, landslide, frost, and extreme weather events, including
heat waves, and storms. If business as usual continues, it will result in the expansion of tropical dry
forests and the disappearance of lower mountain wet forests; increased biodiversity loss; increased
loss of indigenous species and decline in natural regeneration; expansion of toxic weeds; increased
prevalence of forest fires; increased emissions and accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere;
increase in diseases and pests; and severe land degradation, leading to desertification.

In response to the risks, the adaptation option for forestry will focus on sustainable management
of forest resources and its contribution to the livelihoods of forest dependent communities.
Furthermore, the contribution of forest resources to other production sectors, mainly energy,
agriculture, and industry will be acknowledged and mainstreamed. Commercial afforestation and
reforestation practices will be promoted. Wide-scale promotion of forest health activities will be
planned and implemented. In addition, participatory forest management and community-based
rehabilitation of degraded forests will be implemented.

Success in implementing the adaptation options and demonstrating results will depend on soliciting
the support of local communities, enhancing their capacity, jointly developing a benefit-sharing
mechanism, attracting private investors and providing them with targeted support and
strengthening inter-sectoral coordination.

5.5.7. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission

Ethiopia has embarked on an ambitious green (low emissions) economy strategy, which has made
forestry one of the pillars of the Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) growth and sustainable
development path. The CRGE (2011) states in 2010, the estimated Green House Gas (GHG)
emission from forests (because of human activities) amounted to 55 Mt CO 2e. Forestry emissions
are driven by deforestation to expand agricultural land (50% of all forestry-related emissions) and
forest degradation due to fuelwood consumption (46%) as well as formal and informal logging (4%).

Forestry emissions are projected to grow from 55 Mt CO2e in 2010 to almost 90 Mt in 2030. In
fact, these figures from the CRGE strategy appear to be an overestimation of the GHG emissions
from the forestry sector considering the recent submissions of Ethiopia’s Forest reference level
(FRL, 17.9Mt CO2e) to the UNFCCC (MEFCC, 2017c).

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Over the next 20 years, the main drivers of GHG emission will be deforestation for expand ing
agricultural land, degradation from fuel wood consumption and logging. The cropland needed
between 2010 and 2030 to achieve food security and poverty alleviation targets will be 27 million
ha with an annual growth rate of 3.9%. This means, if significant changes are not made to
intensify crop production and increase crop yield, the total area of deforested land will increase
over the next 20 years. This will particularly affect the woodlands more than the high forests
(CRGE 2011). The recent expansion of commercial farms in low land areas has resulted in the
clearing of vast areas of Combretum-Terminalia woodland and contributed to the largest share
of national GHG emissions (MEFCC, 2017c). Ethiopia’s remaining high forests are largely
inaccessible. There will be less incentive to invest in large crop production projects by clearing
high forests. However, high forest areas will continue to be under pressure from small-scale
farmers who will need more land for crop production and grazing livestock and GHG emissions
from these forests is reported to be significant (MEFCC, 2017c).

The CRGE strategy identified Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
(REDD+) and the associated activities will help capture the GHG emission mitigation potential from
forestry that has been estimated to be up to 130 Mt CO2e in 2030.To this end, a REDD+ program
(led by MEFCC) was launched back in 2013 and the first phase of the program implementation
(readiness phase) has been running since then. Ethiopia compiled its R-Package in June 2017 after
putting in place a national REDD+ strategy, a REDD+ safeguard instruments, forest reference
emission level (FREL) and a national measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) system for
REDD+ performance (MEFCC, 2017f).Accordingly, the national REDD+ strategy outlines a phased
(short-term, medium and long-term) implementation of REDD+ policies and measures (PAMs) in
realizing the objectives of the forestry sector’s potential contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
(MEFCC, 2018).

In 2013, the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) projected the population of Ethiopia to be 94 million
in 2017 (CSA 2013). However, the Population Reference Bureau, in its 2017 World Population Data
Sheet, estimates the population of Ethiopia to be 105 million. Based on CSA projections for 2010-
2030 (at an average growth rate 2.62% per year), the population of Ethiopia is expected to be 103
million in 2020 and 134 million in 2030.The increase in population will result in woody biomass
degradation from 14 million tons in 2010 to 23 million tons in 2030.This will lead to a rise in GHG
emissions from 24 mt CO 2e to 41 mt CO2e in 2030. Logging is expected to undergo a similar
growth; increasing GHG emissions from around 2 mt CO2e in 2010 to 3.5 mt CO2e in 2030.

To abate the above situation, Ethiopia plans to afforest 2 million ha of pastureland and reforest 1
million ha degraded land to achieve a sequestration rate of 10.75 Mt CO2e/ha/year. In addition, 2
million ha of high forests and woodlands each will be managed to attain a sequestration rate of
3.24 mt CO2e/ha/year. Over all, Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy aims to meet
half of its target reduction in carbon emissions by adding 5 million hectares of forests by 2020 and
restoring 22 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030.

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5.5.8. Priority Forests, Protected Areas and Communities’ Traditional Access Rights
Increasing unemployment and/or underemployment attributed to dwindling income, because of
unsustainable natural resource use (forests, expanding crop and pasture land) driven by population
growth, competition from other land use types other than small-scale farming, limited off-farm
employment opportunities, will force communities to express strong voice; demanding the ir
traditional rights to access forests and protected areas.
In a study by Chibssa and Flinta (2017) conducted between 2008 and 2016 in the Bale Mountains
Eco-Region, they identified key community concerns about actions taken and/or to be taken by
local government authorities, officials of the Bale Mountains National Park and other stakeholders.
The actions that are under contention include; enclosure of a wet season grazing area; leasing
traditional pasture to investors; planned demarcation of the Bale Mountains National Park without
consulting local communities and the intention to exclude livestock from grazing inside the park; and
restrictions on traditional access to forest resources put in place by the Oromia Forest Enterprise
(OFE) despite the claim that OFE supports community-based participatory forest management;
thereby creating a feeling of marginalization and a perception among local people that the measure
will destroy their livelihoods.
Conflict between local people, government officials responsible for the protection, conservation
and management of forests and protected areas could be triggered because of one, or a combination
of the following factors:
Planned development programs (commercial farms, roads, dams, resettlement schemes,
etc.) that are implemented without consulting concerned communities and/or failure to
pay compensation to people affected by development interventions;
To lease communal land to investors and not ensuring investors to only use land allocated
for them;
Failure to promote, support and improve local livelihood systems;
Failure to recognize traditional grazing areas and not providing alternative livelihoods for
people who solely rely on resources extracted from forests or protected areas to secure
their livelihood;
Strong feeling among local people that forests are inherited resources from their ancestors,
and a mismatch between such a view and the interest of the Government;
Weakness in ensuring projects implemented by local governments and other stakeholders,
meant to benefit local people becoming harmful;
Perception that there is official bias toward crop production demonstrated by limited
extension services provided to pastoralists;
Limited effort in adopting a landscape/watershed development and management approach
based on land and other natural resources use across a wider area;
Land tenure insecurity at the household and community levels – while the government

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issues land title certificates to individuals, communally owned land (used for grazing) is not
registered and certified;
Not providing official recognition to traditional pastures alternatively used for dry and wet
season grazing and leasing pasture to be converted to commercial farms with the pretext
of putting land to ‘better productive use’; and
Increased formalization and exclusive control over access to traditional pasture used by
several communities/groups.
Going forward, the following actions could be useful in addressing some of the issues outlined
above.
Promoting the development and implementation of locally adopted binding bylaws (rules
and regulations) for the management of forests and protected areas, including regulating
and controlling traditional pastures and improved rangeland;
In some parts of priority forest areas or protected areas, adopting a landscape/watershed
development and management approach based on land and other natural resources use
across a wider area to limit the unanticipated negative impacts of exclusion by focusing on
smaller intervention zones;
Building consensus and seeking a win-win solution for local government and communities;
Participatory and inclusive land use planning involving all land users at Regional, Zone,
Wereda and community levels;
Carefully assessing the implications of an intervention on other areas and how best
successful practices can be disseminated or how negative impacts could be mitigated; and
Enlisting the cooperation of people (including those living around forests who depend
on forest products for their livelihood) to manage high forests and woodlands better,
reducing the negative effects of climate change and boosting development prospects for a
population of over 100 million will be a critical challenge.

5.5.9. Land Tenure Security and Forest Resources Management

Land tenure security, defined as “the assurance that land-based property rights will be upheld by
society” is a critical determinant of forest resources management outcomes that slow deforestation.
Land tenure security is generally associated with less deforestation (Kissinger, Herold, and De Sy,
2012).
The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995), Article 40 (3), states:
“The right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all natural resources, is exclusively
vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Land is a common property of the Nations,
Nationalities, and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or to other means of
exchange.”
Legal proof of land rights (certificate of land ownership) is an essential incentive for smallholder
farmers to commit resources for improving natural resources management. For many farmers,
possessing a certificate of land ownership may not provide the full guarantee they need to
transfer the land to their children or to use it as collateral for a loan. In this regard, the
possibility of land appropriation and distribution could be a huge impediment to investment
in improved land management.

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Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP) aimed at restoring degraded lands by building
conservation structures like terraces, water retention pits, trenches and gullies that slow down the
flow of water and reduce soil erosion, could benefit from security of land tenure. Restoring degraded
land needs to be combined with security of tenure for Ethiopia’s farmers to better manage the country’s
natural resources. In Ethiopia, usufruct right and landholding certificates are used as incentives to get
people to help restore degraded land.
So far, over 266,000 households have been issued with legal, individual landholding certificates.
About 15,000 youth, some of them single mothers, have been issued with legal, communal land
tenure certificates. Through the second phase of the SLMP2 program (2013–2019), about 266,000
households have received landholding certificates legally. This number is projected to increase to
500,000 by the end of 2018 and is expected to reach over 2 million by 2019/20 (4% of the country’s
total parcels of land).

Forest ownership in Ethiopia is invested in the state. The Federal Forest Development,
Conservation and Utilization Proclamation (1065/2018) recognize private and state ownerships.
Oromia Forestry Proclamation (72/2003) and the SNNPRS Rural Land Administration and Use
Proclamation (No110/2007) provide for community forest ownership and devolve rural land user
rights and enable communities to register communal land, including forests.

Clearly, the policy environment has evolved from centralized regulatory approach to one that aims to
engage communities and the private sector in forestry management, which importantly allows
communities to benefit from forestry. Notwithstanding this, some of the criticisms concerning policy
formulation and implementation include more secure and more stable forest user rights and ensuring
that long-term returns are required to motivate communities to protect forests; conflict between
policies aimed at protecting forests and those which promote agri-business; and the overlap
between the Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation and the Forestry Proclamation causes
confusion and they need to be harmonized.

Ensuring land tenure rights could change the role of government in the management of forest
resources. Under the current land tenure regime, smallholder famers and pastoralists use land
based on the livelihood system adoptable to their specific agro-climatic zone (natural environment).
Usually, the Government drives natural resource management initiatives. However, when land
tenure rights guarantee full ownership of the benefits from improved natural resource management,
landowners will have the incentive to invest in enhanced land management practices to increase
production and profitability, and the government’s role will largely be limited to facilitation and the
provision of technical support. This will not only reduce the dependence of smallholder farmers on
the government for improving land management, but will also decrease public investment in
community mobilization, provision of inputs, and technical assistance.

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5.5.10. Implementing Policies, Strategies and Plans

Ensuring coherence and synergy and adding value to on-going complementary initiatives, building
capacity to develop and maintain capacity for implementation—allocating adequate financial
resources and strengthening existing institutions at various levels; and maintaining institutional
stability with regard to the historical instability of the forestry sector will remain a challenge. In
addition, positioning decision makers and practitioners to possess a very good understanding of
the policies they are expected to interpret and execute will be an on-going endeavor. This is
important because formulating and issuing polices is a means not an end.

The strategic environmental analysis the Swedish International Development Authority (Sida)
conducted in 2003 states that “Ethiopia’s extensive natural resources have been both degraded
and underutilized. The underlying causes for this state of affairs lie, by and large, in policy and
institutional issues, which include poor governance, violent change of governments, lack of
continuity, inappropriate policies, frequently changing and ineffective legal and institutional
framework, poor implementation of policies, misuse of human resources and ineffective
bureaucracy resulting in low implementation and management capacity over the past several
decades.”

Over the past two decades or so, the Government of Ethiopia has issued several policies that have
had important implications for environmental and natural resources management. In this regard,
one of the most important developments has been the Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy
and the establishment of the MEFCC. Going forward, it would be important to reflect on the above
quoted statement from Sida’s analysis and gauge where the state of affairs concerning policy and
institutional issues are; to pave the way for improving further environmental and natural resources
management. Some of the policy issues that need to be addressed include the delineation of authority
and responsibility between MEFCC and the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources with
regard to the management of natural resources; the Ministry of Culture and Tourism concerning the
protection and management of protected areas; and the identification and demarcation of Federal
forest reserves and protected areas—federal priority forest and protected areas; recognizing the
rights of regional governments to benefit from natural resources in their States.

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Key messages

Ethiopia’s progressive achievement in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use

is confronted by limited capacity, awareness and policy gaps. The limited technical
and financial capacity remained undermining efforts to study and characterize the
country’s biodiversity resources at gene, species and ecosystem levels (Example:
lack of sufficient laboratory facilities to make genetic characterization and enhance
bio-prospecting).
The level of awareness on biodiversity varies among different segments of the
society including decision makers and the public. This contributed to ineffective
implementation of policy measures in biodiversity and eventual loss of natural
habitats and species.
Biodiversity related policies and legal frameworks are neither sufficient nor fully
implemented hampering effective implementation of national strategies and targets
therein.
Cognizant of the role of biodiversity and ecosystem services for economic and
social development, Ethiopia has prepared and entered into the ambitious strategic
Plan 2015-2020. On the other hand, Ethiopia’s ambition to achieve middle-income
status by 2025 is likely to exert pressure on biodiversity resources unless the
Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy goals are successfully achieved.
This calls for harmonizing the NBSAP targets with CRGE goals, and addressing the
capacity, policy and awareness gaps on biodiversity to enhance ecosystem services
and ensure sustainable development.

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6.1. Introduction
Given the diverse and highly variable macro- and micro-climatic conditions of Ethiopia, seasonality
and variability of rainfall distribution and amount and wider temperature variations may favour
adaptive diversity within the population and endow the country with diverse ecosystems that
are inhabited by amazingly great diversity of animal, plant and microbial genetic resources (FAO,
2001). Ethiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world (WCMC, 1994), and
hosts two of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely, the Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of
Africa hotspots. It is recognized as the center of diversity and endemism in the horn of Africa for
several plant species, and one of the major Vavilovian centers of origin and diversity of crop plants
(Vavilov, 1951). Ethiopia has become a member of the Like-Minded Mega Diverse Countries
(LMMC) since 2016. It has also a rich avifauna and harbors 68 Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
(BirdLife International, 2001). Ten ecosystems have been described and reported by several
authors in Ethiopia (Friis 1992; IBC 2009). However, following a similar approach Friis et al. (2010)
have recently revised the previous classifications into 12 potential vegetation ecosystem types with
some of the ecosystems being classified into different vegetation types and other ecosystems
redefined in the recent classification. Classification of these ecosystems is based on vegetation
types, which describe dominant plant species composition. These ecosystems are geographically
located in different altitudes, and harbour unique and diverse biological resources. They were
characterized based on the potential vegetation types. The vegetation types in turn depend on
several factors such as topography, climate and soil conditions.

Biodiversity plays key roles in economic, ecological, and social sectors in Ethiopia. Agriculture is
the dominant economic sector, providing employment for about 83% of the population. It
contributes 90% to the country’s export value and 45% to the GDP. Earnings from coffee alone
contribute 4 to 5% to the GDP, 20% to the government revenue and 60% to the total foreign
exchange. Livestock sector is a source of livelihoods and income, mainly for the rural and peri-
urban communities. The sector contributes about 25% to the country’s GDP. Valuation studies on
the contribution of the forests of Ethiopia showed that they generate economic benefits in the form
of cash and in-kind income equivalent to USD 18.1 billion (120.7 billion Ethiopian Birr) in 2012/13
(MEFCC, 2016). The same study estimated contribution of the forest sector to the GDP to be 6.1%,
which is nearly twice the current official statistics of the sector’s contribution, i.e. 3.8% (MOFEC,
2015). Moreover, through the provision of several ecosystem services, the forest sector is
contributing about 7.9% of the GDP to other sectors particularly agriculture. Both combined, the
forest sector is estimated to contribute 14% of the measured value of GDP in 2012/13 (MEFCC,
2016). This report on the state of biodiversity presents the current state since 2008, the drivers and
pressures, impact, response, outlook and way-forward using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-
Response (DPSIR) framework (Figure 47). The information and data for the analysis is obtained
from desk review of official reports, policy and strategy documents, and consultations with relevant
experts.

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Response measures
Drivers • Mainstreaming biodiversity into
• Demographic changes various sectors
• Poverty • Conservation
• Restoration of degraded landscape and Outlook
• Low level of awareness species • Addressing capacity,
• Weak implementation of • Management of illegal trade in wildlife and policy and awareness
policies and laws their products gaps on biodiversity
• Policies, strategies and legal frameworks

Pressures
• Agricultural expansion
 Over exploitation Impacts
 Invasive species • Habitat fragmentation
 Climate change  Reduction of species populations

 Replacement of landraces/breeds

 Pollution

State
• Habitat conversion
 Increased species vulnerability

Figure 47: The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- Response framework for state of biodiversity in Ethiopia

6.2. The State and Trends of Biodiversity

6.2.1. Ecosystem diversity
Although 10 ecosystems were recognized to exist in Ethiopia (IBC 2009,), Friis et al. (2010)
identified 12 vegetation ecosystems, the majority of which more or less overlaps with the
ecosystems as described below.

6.2.1.1. Afroalpine and Subafroalpine Ecosystem

This ecosystem type is situated in areas of highest mountains that peak approximately between
altitudinal ranges of 320 to 4620 m. Bale and Simien Mountains, Menz-Guassa, and Mount Guna
are major mountain ranges of this ecosystem. It is characterized by five distinctive life forms that
include giant rosette plants, tussock grasses (and sedges), cushion plants, acaulescent rosette
plants and sclerophyllous shrubs. However, the upper and lower zones of this ecosystem are also
covered by giant herbs, small herbs and grasses, and by small trees and shrubs and shrubby
herbs, respectively. The most common plant species include Lobelia rhynchopetalum,
Helichrysum citrispinum, and Erica arborea. A number of wild animals including endemic species
exist in this ecosystem. Some of the unique mammals include Ethiopian Wolf, Gelada Baboon,
Walia Ibex, Mountain Nyala, Abyssinian grass rat, etc. Characteristic avian species of this
ecosystem include Blue-winged Goose, Wattled Ibis, Thick-billed Raven, White-collared Pigeon
and many others (IBC, 2005).

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According to Friis et al. (2010), this ecosystem is classified into the Afroalpine belt and Ericaceous
belt vegetation ecosystems. The ecosystem is under pressure from growing human and livestock
populations of the surrounding areas and subsequent expansion of agricultural and grazinglands.
A case study in Bale Mountains Eco-region by Nune et al. (2016) showed a 10% decrease each in
the proportion of the area under afroalpine and Erica-dominated land use/land cover types
between 1985 and 2015. Efforts are emerging to improve the status of some areas of this
ecosystem. Notable examples include demarcation, legalization, and development of management
and business plans for the Bale Mountain National Park (BMNP), re-demarcation of Simien
Mountains National Park (SMNP) and maintaining its world heritage status. The community-
managed Menz-Guassa and Abune Yoseph are legalized PAs.

6.2.1.2. Montane grassland ecosystem

Montane Grassland Ecosystem occurs on the uplands of central, north and western Shewa, Arsi, Bale and
Borena highlands, western and eastern highlands of Hararge and Gojam, Southern and Northern highlands
of Gonder and Wello, and eastern highlands of Tigray, Sidama and Gamo Gofa highlands between 1,500
and 3,200 meters above sealevels. Dominant trees and shrubs in this ecosystem include Acacia abyssinica,
A. negrii, A. pilispina, Acokanthera schimperi, Allophylus abyssinica, Buddelja polystachya, Calpurnia aurea,
Carissa spinarun, Celtis africana, Croton macrostachyus, Dovyalis abyssinica, Draceana afromontanum,
Erythrina brucei, Euclea racemosa, Juniperus procera, Maesa lanceolata, Maytenus arbutifolia, Millettia
ferruginea, Myrsine africana, Olea europaea, Podocarpus falcatus, and Rosa abyssinica. Grass species
such as Andropogon, Cymbopogon, Cynodon, Eragrostis, Hyparrhenia, Panicum, and Pennisetum are
reported from this ecosystem. It is also recognized for its high diversity and endemicity of birds in Ethiopia
(IBC, 2009). Montane grassland ecosystem is known for harboring many endemic species of Ethiopian
small mammals. The major threats to this ecosystem include agricultural expansion, overgrazing and over
harvesting of selected species. There are measures being undertaken such as integrated watershed
management and area closure to mitigate degradation in this ecosystem (EBI, 2015).

6.2.1.3. Moist montane forest ecosystem

The vegetation in this ecosystem is mostly characterized by closed canopy that may reach to the height of 30
to 40 m and where wild coffee is found growing as a forest understory shrub within the altitudinal range of
between 1500 and 3000m and in areas receiving an annual rainfall between 700 and 2000 mm. It mainly
occurs in western highland areas. Harena Forest, in the southern slope of the Bale Mountains also belongs
to this ecosystem in southeast Ethiopia. Similar to the transitional rain forest ecosystem, this ecosystem is
also floristically moderately diverse mainly consisting of broad-leaved tree species in different canopy layer.
The frequently observed woody species are Podocarpus falcatus, Albizia sp., Sapium ellipticum, Ficus sp.,
Croton macrostachyus, Euphorbia sp., Olea sp., Schefflera abyssinica, Prunus africana, Coffee arabica, and
Syzygium guineense. Numerous epiphytes and highland bamboos are also commonly found in this
ecosystem. The moist evergreen Afromontane forest is home to a number of wild animals. Larger wild
mammals living in this ecosystem include Lion, Leopard, Serval Cat, Common Jackal, African Wild Dog, Wild
Cat, Bush Pig, Giant Forest Hog, and Common Warthog, Bushbuck, Olive Baboon, Grey Duicker, and
several species of Bush Babies.

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There are also bird species characteristic to this ecosystem. Large parts of the moist evergreen
Afromontane forest with wild coffee have become increasingly disturbed and fragmented due to
forest conversion to settlements and agricultural land, and forest modification by timber extraction
and wild coffee management interventions (Reusing, 2000; Schmitt et al. 2009). PFM is being
implemented in most of these ecosystems to safeguard the forest resources from such disturbances.

6.2.1.4. Dry evergreen montane forest and evergreen scrub ecosystem

This ecosystem represents the largest and complex ecosystem in Ethiopia. It is found in different
regions of the country between the altitudes of 1500 and 3200 m. It possesses extensive
grasslands rich in legumes on heavy black clay soils, shrubs, different sized trees, and closed
forests. The main tree species representing this ecosystem are Podocarpus falcatus, Juniperus
procera, Olea europea, Croton macrostachys, and Ficus sp. It also includes Carissa spinarum,
Celtis africana, Ekebergia capensis, Euclea divinorum, Euphorbia ampliphylla, Mimusops kummel,
Prunus africana and Rosa abyssinca. The common grass genera in this ecosystem are
Hyparrhenia, Eragrostis, Panicum, Sporobolus, and Pennisetum. Wild mammals found in this
ecosystem include Mountain Nyala, Leopard, Menelik’s Bushbuck, Common Warthog, Bohor
Reedbuck, Olive Baboon, Grey Duiker, and Spotted Hyaena. Common bird species include
Harwood’s Francolin, Blue-winged Goose, Yellow-fronted Parrot, Prince Ruspoli’s Turaco,
Nechisar Night Jar, Abyssinian Catbird, Abyssinian Long Claw, Black-headed Siskin, Yellow-
throated Seedeater, and Ankober Serin. This ecosystem is under severe threat from habitat
conversion caused by deforestation for wood products (especially for fuelwood), fire, agricultural
expansion and overgrazing.

Studies have shown that originally, large parts of northern, central, and southeastern highlands of
Ethiopia were covered by dry evergreen montane forest and evergreen scrub ecosystem, but has
been considerably reduced and remnants are situated on some isolated mountain chains.
Importantly, this ecosystem is colonized by majority of the Ethiopian population for long and
represents a zone of sedentary cereal-based mixed agriculture, which has enhanced their
degradation (Friis, 1992). As a result, the forest vegetation was diminished in area and replaced by
bushland in most areas and the soils have become shallow because of intensive soil erosion. In
response, the regional governments are taking various measures to improve the management
status of this ecosystem mainly in the form of establishing participatory forest management (PFM)
(Mulugeta et al., 2015).

6.2.1.5. Combretum-Terminalia woodland ecosystem

This is the dominant ecosystem occurring along the western escarpment of the Ethiopian
highlands. In this ecosystem, small to moderate sized trees with large deciduous leaves of the
genera, Combretum and Terminalia are characteristic species. Besides, important and dominant
species are Boswelia papyrifera, Anogeisssus leiocarpa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Piliostigma
thonningi, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Oxytenanthra abyssinica, and others. Moreover, the grass
stratum is dominated by species belonging to the genera Hyparrhenia, Panicum and Pennisetum
that are widely found in lowland areas and western escarpments of Ethiopia. Floristically, this
ecosystem is also moderately diverse, comprising high proportion of unique species. It occurs
between 500 and1900 m. The vegetation is highly susceptible to frequent burning during the dry
season because of the perennial grasses.

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Wild mammals, including Swaynes’ Hartebeest, Tiang, Grant’s gazelle, Greater Kudu, and Lesser
Kudu, Gerenuk, Lion, Leopard, Giraffe, African Bush Elephant, African Buffalo, Cheetah, and Oryx
species, are found in this ecosystem. Characteristic bird species of this ecosystem include Fox
Kestrel, Ostrich, Red-pate Cisticola, Green-backed Eremomela, Bush Petronia, and Black-rumped
Waxbill. Encroachment and expansion of small and large-scale agriculture for crops such as sugar
cane, cotton, sesame, rice, and bio-fuel plantations are aggressively undertaken in the
Combretum- Terminalia woodland ecosystem. Furthermore, overgrazing and shifting cultivation are
deteriorating the ecosystem. Consequently, many wild animals including Lion, Cheetah, Giraffe,
and Buffalo and unique plants such as Vitellaria paradoxa, Oxythanthera abyssinica, and Boswellia
papyrifera are under threat. To address the threats, different efforts, including plantation
establishment, implementation of PFM, awareness raising, demarcation and designation of PAs
such as Alitash and Kafta Sheraro National Parks are made in this ecosystem.

6.2.1.6. Lowland tropical forest ecosystem

This vegetation ecosystem is characterized by a tall grass stratum that burns annually, herbaceous
flora and a canopy layer of trees and clumps of different Acacia species such as Acacia seyal, A.
nilotica, and Balanites aegyptiaca. Palms such as Hyphaene thebaica and Borassus aethiopum
occur in this vegetation. Species of Echinochloa, Setaria, Hyparrhenia, Cymbogon, and Sorghum
are found at the grass stratum. Floristically, this vegetation ecosystem has low diversity and limited
number of unique plant species even if the description of the floristic diversity in this vegetation
type is no yet exhaustive. The ecosystem occurs in Ethiopia only in western part of Gambela
region and areas of South Sudan border. The characteristic plant species of this ecosystem are
Baphia abyssinica and Tapura fischeri. Other plant species include Alistonia boonei, Antiaris
toxicaria, Celtis gomphophylla, C. toka, C. zenkeri, Diospyros abyssinica, Lecaniodiscus
fraxinifolius, Malacantha alnifolia, Milicia excelsa, Trichilia prieureana, Vepris dainellii, and
Zanthoxylum lepreuri. Characteristic wild animal species include white- eared kob, Nile lechwe,
Africa elephant, buffalo, Roan antelope, giraffe, hippopotamus, crocodile, Lelwel hartebeest, and
Tiang. Shoe-billed stork and black-winged pratincole are the characterstic bird species of the
ecosystem. It is facing pressures emanating from settlement and agricultural expansion.
Furthermore, indiscriminate fire, shifting cultivation by land clearing, which is commonly performed
through slush and burn system, has contributed to the shrinkage of this ecosystem. Consequently,
many wild animals, including large mammals such as antelopes are under threat. Conservation
measures being undertaken include formulation of forest legislations, preparation of management
plans and establishment of conservation areas.

6.2.1.7. Acacia-commiphora woodland ecosystem

This vegetation ecosystem is found in large areas of dry lowlands of eastern and southern part of
Ethiopia and to the east of the highlands in the Rift Valley between 400 and 1900 m. It is
characterized by drought-resistant trees and shrubs, either deciduous or with small evergreen
leaves. The vegetation composition is physiognomically different and has several unique species.

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As a result, it is floristically the most diverse, comprising the highest number of species compared to other
vegetation ecosystems. The trees and shrubs that form this ecosystem are Acacia bussei, A.
drepanolobium, A. ogadensis, A. prasinata, A. reficiens, A. tortilis, Boswellia spp., Commiphora spp.,
Combretum spp. and succulents, Euphorbia awashensis, E. monacantha, E. burgeri; and other endemic
Euphorbia species.

Characteristic wild mammals such as Swayne’s hartebeest, lesser kudu, greater kudu, African wild ass,
Grevy’s zebra, waterbuck, serval cat, African bush elephant, African buffalo, dibatag, gerenuk, gazelle
species, long-necked antelopes, and oryx species inhabit this ecosystem. Characteristic bird species
include ostrich, hunter’s sunbird, shining sunbird, golden-breasted bunting, Salvadori’s seedeater, yellow-
throated seedeater, Ruppell’s weaver, white-headed buffalo weaver, golden- breasted starling; white
tailed swallow, and Stresemann’s bush crow.

Expansion of large-scale commercial agriculture for sugar cane, cotton, and bio-fuel plantations are
the major development activities taking place in Acacia-Commiphora woodland ecosystem.
Introduction of crop cultivation into this ecosystem, especially in semi-arid rangelands, is a recent
development, contributing to land degradation and loss of biodiversity. Furthermore, intensive
firewood collection and charcoal production, expansion of invasive alien species such as Prosopis
juliflora and Lanthana camara, have contributed to the loss of species diversity and habitat
degradation of the ecosystem. Similarly, in the Borena lowlands, the increase in both density and
cover of indigenous woody plants has crossed the critical threshold and entered encroachment.
As a result, the ecosystem is deteriorating, leading to habitat loss that directly affects species
diversity. In response, measures are being taken to minimize the invasion especially from Prosopis
into the rangelands. Efforts are also made to designate some PAs. Re-demarcation activities for
Awash and Abijata-Shalla National Parks are the other activities that are carried out to ensure
effective management. The state of disturbance of these PAs varies from low to moderate.

6.2.1.8. Desert and semi-desert scrubland ecosystem

The vegetation cover in this ecosystem is scarce and is mainly composed of drought tolerant
species. Due to external influences, such as human and animal trampling around watering points,
the land can locally be completely devoid of vegetation. Some areas are bare, for example, the
saltpans in the Danakil depression in the northern part of the Afar floristic region are nearly
completely devoid of vegetation. This ecosystem is also found distributed around the Ogaden,
Lake Chew Bahir, delta of the Omo River and in extreme lowlands of Bale, Sidama and Harar
floristic regions. The area lies below 400 m altitude in eastern Ethiopia. It is characterized by the
presence of small trees, shrubs and herbs, which may be succulent, geophytic, or annual. The
characteristic species of trees and shrubs include Acacia ehrenbergiana, Boswellia ogadensis,
Commiphora erosa, C. longipedicellata, Gyrocarpus hababensis, Kissenia arabica, Ziziphus
hamur, etc. Succulent plant species include Euphorbia doloensis, E. ogadensis, E. quadrispina,
Aloe bertemariae, and A. citrina. The major drought tolerant grass species are annuals such as
Dactyloctenium aegyptium and perennials such as Panicum turgidum.

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Wild mammals in this ecosystem include Soemmerring’s Gazelle, Greater Kudu, Lesser Kudu,
Grant’s gazelle, Gerenuk, Lion, Leopard, Cheetah, and Oryx species. Characteristic bird species
include Ostrich, Kori Bustard, Arabian Bustard, Black-headed Plover, Temminck’s Courser, Two-
banded Courser, Tawny Pipit, Chestnut-bellied Sand Grouse, Lichstenstien’s Sand Grouse,
Singing Bush Lark, and Masked Lark. Overgrazing, bush encroachment and invasive species such
as Prosopis juliflora and Acacia drepanolobium in eastern and southern lowlands of Ethiopia are
among the factors threatening the Desert and Semi-Desert Scrubland Ecosystem. Furthermore,
expansion of small and large-scale agriculture such as palm tree, sugar cane, and cotton are major
activities taking place in this ecosystem. Widespread firewood collection and charcoal production
have also contributed to the deterioration of this ecosystem.

6.2.1.9. Wetland ecosystem

Wetland ecosystem consists of areas of swamps, marshes, flood plains, peat land or water, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. Plant species characteristic to the wetland ecosystem
include aquatic macrophytes, tree species such as Acacia polyacantha, Celtis africana, Diospyros
mespiliformis, Ficus sycomorus, Kigelia africana, Mimusops kummel, Phoenix reclinata, Syzygium
guineense, and Tamarindus indica. Wild mammals such as Hippopotamus, Otters, and other vertebrates and
invertebrates are common in this ecosystem. Bird species common in this ecosystem include spot-breasted
Plover, Blue-winged Goose, Rouget’s Rail, White- winged Flufftail, Wattled Crane, Corn Crake, Shoebill,
Black-winged Pratincole, Great Snipe, and Lesser Flamingo.Wetland ecosystem is threatened by conversion
into agricultural lands; especially for rice production, over exploitation of wetland resources, deforestation,
soil erosion and land degradation, siltation, settlement, climate change and pollution. For example, Fogera
and Chefa wetlands in Amhara national regional state are highly affected by excessive use of the swamps
and flood plains for cultivation of rice and other horticultural crops. The Gambella Wetland Ecosystem also
harbours different species of fishes and birds (EBI, 2015).

6.2.1.10. Aquatic ecosystem

Rivers, reservoirs and lakes are included in the aquatic ecosystems. The big rivers and their
tributaries forming the drainage systems of the country support riverine forests.The vegetation in
this ecosystem consists of taller trees and riparian woodlands along flowing water in areas below
1800 m (Friis et al., 2010).The dominant woody plant species in riverine forests of this ecosystem
are Trema orientalis, Oncoba spinosa, Diospyros mespiliformis, Uvaria sp., Mimusops sp., Celtis africana,
Salix substrata, Syzygium guineense, Tamarindus indica, Tamarix nilotica, Hyphaene thebaica, Phoenix
reclinata, etc.The riverine forests most often form a shrub layer. Lianas and vascular epiphytes also
occur in this ecosystem (Friis et al., 2010)).

Aquatic ecosystems in Ethiopia harbour various species of mammals such as Hippopotamus, and
birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and invertebrates. Similarly, numerous species of planktonic
and benthic fauna are reported from different rivers and lakes of the country. Several
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa also exist in this ecosystem. This
ecosystem also serves as a feeding and breeding site for a large number of resident and migrant
birds such as Flamingos, Ducks, and Pelicans.

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The ecosystem is under threat from anthropogenic factors such as pollution, overexploitation of
fish stocks, invasive species such as water hyacinth, deforestation, soil erosion, and land
degradation (Figure 48). Despite this, conservation efforts towards safeguarding aquatic
ecosystems of Ethiopia are minimal (EBI, 2015).

Figure 48: Threats to ecosystems in Ethiopia

(Source: EBI, 2015)

6.2.2 Plant Diversity

The diversity of vascular plants in Ethiopia is estimated at 6,027 species, of which 10% are
considered to be endemic (Ensermu and Sebesebe, 2014). Woody plants constitute about 1000
species (IBC, 2012). Out of the 12 vegetation ecosystems identified in Ethiopia, six are categorized
as forest vegetation.

6.2.2.1 Cultivated Plants

Ethiopia is one of the Vavilovian centers of origin and diversity for various crops (Vavilov, 1951).
The farming communities are engaged over the millennia in crop domestication and hybridization
to suit local tastes and cope with the effects of climate change. Majority of the crops have their
primary center of origin in Ethiopia. Some of these include coffee (Coffea arabica), Tef (Eragrostis
tef), enset (Ensete ventricosum), noug (Guizotia abyssinica), Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica),
Ethiopian potato, chat (Catha edulis), Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata), and godere
(Colocasia esculenta). Ethiopia is also a center of diversity for food crops such as wheat, barley,
sorghum, and peas; industrial crops such as cotton, castor bean, and linseed; a number of
important forage and pasture crops such as clovers, oats, and a multitude of food crops of
localized or regional importance such as finger millet, cowpea, chickpea, and lentil. Besides, it
harbors important gene pools of crop wild relatives for at least 197 species of crops, including
grains, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, tubers, fruits, spices, stimulants, fibers, dyes, and medicinal
plants (EBI, 2016).

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The major cultivated crops in the country include cereals, pulses, oil crops, root and tuber crops,
vegetables, stimulants, spices and industrial crops. The major cereal crops include different
species of tef, barely, wheat, sorghum, oat etc. Similarly, there are endemic species for barely and
oat. Most of the crop wild relatives are found growing as weeds on marginal fields, traditionally
managed agricultural lands and in disturbed habitats such as roadsides. The natural populations of
many species of crop wild relatives are increasingly at risk. They are threatened primarily by
habitat loss, land degradation, and fragmentation. Climate change is posing significant impacts on
species distributions by reducing suitable habitat and increasing the rate of habitat fragmentation.
Apart from these, there are wild and semi cultivated plant species such as forest, forage, medicinal
and edible wild plant species in the country.

In order to conserve and promote sustainable utilization of the plant genetic resources, the
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute has conserved different crop species mainly cereals, pulses, oil cops
and spices in their cold room. There are also field gene banks and community gene banks to
complement the ex situ in the cold rooms. To promote on-farm conservation activities, about 30
community seed banks are established. Majority of the horticultural species are conserved in situ
on farm. Currently, over 6,720 accessions of coffee, spices, and root and tuber crops are
conserved in the field gene banks. Similarly, EBI has established ex situ conservation sites in
representative areas of the country, including Wondo Genet and Bale-Goba medicinal plants field
gene banks.
6.2.3 Animal Diversity

6.2.3.1 Domestic animals

In terms of livestock population, Ethiopia stands first in Africa and 10th in the world. Because of its
diverse ecology, Ethiopia is regarded as a center of origin for most of the domestic animals. Farm
animals of the country are categorized into mammals, birds, and honeybees. Cattle, sheep, goats,
camels, donkeys, horses, and mules are the major farm animals under the mammalian category.
Under the avian category are chicken, ostrich, and turkey. However, the latter two avian species
are not widely used in the country. Within species, the number of breeds in each species
represents diversity of domestic animals. Accordingly, the number of identified breeds are 28 for
cattle, 9 for sheep, 8 for goat, 6 for camel, 8 for donkey, 2 for horse, 7 for mule, and 7 for chicken
(EBI, 2016). These numbers may show temporal variation as the breed characterization and
identification works are not exhaustive in the country. For example, there are five geographical
races of honeybees (Apis mellifera monticola, A. m. jemenitica, A. m. bandasii, A. m. scutellata,
and A. m. woyi-gambela), which are economically important in the country. In domesticated
mammals, the hump of the Zebu and the tails of fat-tailed and fat-rumped sheep are striking
examples of selection for fat deposition. Within species, differences to extreme environments also
exist. Great variation in the hair and coats of most domestic animal species is observed. For
example, sheep and goat breeds in alpine regions have particularly thick woolly coats, while
breeds in the lowland have stunted wool/hair. The environment also selected coat and plumage
coloration, with light colored animals being more adapted to hotter environments and dark coloured
animals to cooler environments.

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Information on identification and characterization of the livestock resources of Ethiopia is not

exhaustive. As a result, breed level data is far from complete and up-to-date for most of the breeds
and making determination of the status and trends difficult. There are, however, some indigenous
breeds, which are found at different threat levels. For example, Sheko—the only taurine breeds in
East Africa; and Fogera cattle appear to be highly threatened because of interbreeding with other
local breeds and changes in the production systems. In addition, Begait, Irob, Ogaden, Afar, and
Borena cattle breeds; Sinnar donkey, and Afar, Menz, and Gumuz sheep breeds are also facing various
degrees of threat. Ever increasing demand for export market of cattle, goats, sheep, and camels
seems to threaten the resources. The large proportion of young and breeding animals supplied to
the market (IBC, 2009) can demonstrate this. Generally, the domestic animal genetic resources are
threatened by feed shortage, overgrazing, encroachment by invasive species and expansion of crop
cultivation into grazinglands and marginal areas. Additional threats emanate from crossbreeding,
interbreeding, diseases and parasites, shortage of water and poor housing. Particularly, the gene
pool of indigenous chicken breeds is under pressure from replacement by pure exotics and their
hybrids (IBC, 2012). Furthermore, vegetation loss, diseases and pests, predators, and pesticide
and herbicides (IBC, 2005; 2012) threaten honeybees. In response, some activities such as semen
collection and conservation and on-farm collection are underway to conserve the domestic animal
diversity.

6.2.3.2 Wild animals

Ethiopia encompasses a broad range of ecosystems with great varieties of habitats contributing
to the occurrence of high faunal diversity. Data on the diversity of wild fauna as a whole are not
yet complete. The Ethiopian wild fauna is comprised of 320 mammals, of which 55 are endemic.
Their number is increasing from time to time as a result of new findings, 926 birds, of which 16
are endemic, 242 reptiles, of which 17 are endemic, 73 amphibians, of which 30 are endemic, 200
species of fish of which 40 are endemic and 6862 insects of which 7 are endemic (IBC, 2009).
Ethiopian wild animal species in general and lower mammals, arachinida, insects and herpetofauna
in particular are not studied well in the country. The number of species is expected to increase in
an alarming rate, especially those of insects and herpetofauna. This reveals that, Ethiopia is highly
diversified in wild animals. Some of the wild fauna are found in PAs areas in restricted ranges. The
wildlife-PAs in the country include NPs, wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife reserves, controlled hunting
areas, community conserved areas, wildlife rescue areas, community- managed ecotourism,
hunting and open hunting areas. Priority forest areas and biosphere reserves are also included into
the PAs.

The major threats to wild animal genetic resources are livestock encroachment, human settlement,
agricultural expansion, deforestation, illegal hunting, invasive species, and bushfire. As a result, the
wildlife resources are facing habitat destruction and fragmentation, population decline,
overexploitation, disease, human-wildlife conflict and bush encroachment and incompetent tourism
destination quality. To reverse these impacts, several activities are underway, including establishment
of PAs, re-demarcation of existing PAs, gazetment, and assessment of new areas with potential as
PAs. However, the existing PAs d o not have the necessary institutional and legislative
mechanisms, sufficiently trained and experienced work force, facilities, budget, and community-PAs
relationships that would enable them to function as PAs.

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6.2.4 Cultural Diversity

Because of the diverse altitudinal variation that ranges from the highest peak at Ras Dashen (4533
masl), to the lower altitudes at Danakil (116 below sea level), Ethiopia harbors a wide diversity
of microbial resources. Nevertheless, they are less explored, collected, identified, characterized,
and conserved. Amongst the few known are those that are used in the fermentation processes of
traditional foods and beverages, diseases control, biological pest control, soil fertility, reduction of
post-harvest losses, improving human and animal health, improving environmental safety and
reduction of wastes and/or its bioconversion into useful products. The Danakil depression is
characterized by acidic or hot springs, saline and/or alkaline lakes, include high temperature, pH,
salt concentration, high levels of radiation, harmful heavy metals and toxic compounds, which are
too harsh for normal life to exist. Microorganisms have evolved several structural and chemical
adaptations, which allow them to survive and grow in such extreme environments.

Apart from the ecological diversity, the diverse ethnic groups led to diverse traditional foods such as
enjera, kocho, bulla, yoghurt, curdle, cheese, tella, tej, borde, cheka, areke, awaze, shameta, silgjo,
and keribo that are potentials for microbial ecology, especially lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid and
yeast.

The fresh water lakes in the Ethiopian Rift, including Abaya, Chamo, Koka, Beseka, Ziway, Abijata,
Shala, and Hawassa, due to their alkalinity, salinity, shallowness and other physical and chemical
properties, comprise very rich algal diversity, cyanobacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton. For
example, green algae, diatoms, and cyanobacteria mainly Microcystis aeruginosa and Chroococcus,
Arthrospira fusiformis are found in Bishoftu crater lakes (Fasil et al. 2015). Spirulina (Arthrospira
platensis), a micro-alga producing about 60% of the Earth’s oxygen, is found in Arenguade, Basaka,
Shala, Chitu, and Abijatta lakes. Similar to the exploration and characterization, very limited data
exist on the level of threats to microbial genetic resources of the country. However, those factors
affecting ecosystems, and plant and animal biodiversity are believed to affect directly or indirectly the
microbial genetic resource base of the country. As an attempt to reverse the effects of threatening
factors, 769 Bacteria, 288 Fungi species, and 30 genera of Algae, in total 1079 species are preserved
at EBI’s gene bank.

In Ethiopia, there are 80 different ethnic groups along with languages and dialects, which are
associated with the existence of inter- and intra-ethnic cultural diversity (EBI, 2015). Associated with
these diverse cultures, there are diverse community knowledge and innovations, including that of
conservation and use of biodiversity. The farming communities and herders in the country have
maintained diversified crops, livestock, and associated biodiversity through their community
knowledge and innovations. The farming communities, including herders, fishermen and wild food
gatherers and hunters have diverse customary laws, which have contributed to the conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources.

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Examples of these traditional institutions involved in biodiversity conservation and sustainable

utilization include rangeland resources management strategies of the ‘Gada’ system amongst
the Oromo people, the ‘Qero’ system of traditional grassland management systems used by
the Menz people in the Amhara region, the Konso cultural landscape management, the ‘Kobo’
system of Sheka forest management and the agroforestry management systems of Gedeo in
SNNPRS. However, biodiversity-related community knowledge, particularly knowledge of
traditional medicine, is eroding due to various factors. Loss of plant and animal genetic
resources, weak integration of traditional knowledge with modern science, undermining
indigenous knowledge and practices are some of the major factors leading to less application
of cultural practices related to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. In response,
there are emerging attempts to study and document community knowledge, particularly those
related to traditional medicine and food, and edible wild plants. Furthermore, efforts are
underway to reverse the declining use of indigenous knowledge and cultural practices.

6.3. Pressures
6.3.1. Agricultural Expansion

The fast growth in human population in the country, coupled with the low productivity of
smallholder agriculture, drives the need for more cultivated and grazingland. As a result, both
smallholder and large-scale agricultural lands are expanding at the expense of land under
forest and other forms of biodiversity hotspot areas. Conversion of natural forests,
grazinglands, woodlands, and wetlands into agricultural land and settlement areas are threats
well experienced by Ethiopian biodiversity resources. This led to the increasing fragmentation
of the remaining ecosystems. A fifteen percent expansion of agricultural land during 2005 to
2010 in the form of rice, sugarcane, bio-fuel plants, and tea and coffee plantations has resulted
in loss of significant portions of high forests, woodlands, rangelands, and wetlands. In order to
achieve targets, set for the growth of the agriculture sector for years 2010 to 2030, agricultural
land expansion of 3.9% per annum is required. Under the “business as usual” scenario, this
will continue to affect ecosystems and biodiversity of the country, especially of the high forest
and woodland areas (MoFED, 2011). The ever-increasing human encroachment into the PAs
including Bale Mountains, Awash, Simien Mountains, and Abijata Shalla National Parks, is
affecting the park ecosystems. Land use change in these PAs includes degradation and
shrinkage of natural ecosystems, and consequently loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
services. According to a case study conducted in Bale Mountains Eco-region by Sisay et al.
(2016), the total area of forests, shrubland, and grassland converted into farmland was
estimated to be 123,751, 93,078, and 83,158 ha, respectively during the period from 1985 to
2015.
6.3.2. Overutilization

Overgrazing/browsing, harvesting, and hunting of biological resources is a major threat to

biodiversity and ecosystem services in Ethiopia. Overfishing along with other factors, such as
soil erosion and unsustainable utilization of water resources for developments, has threatened
Labeo barbus fish in Lake Tana.

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Similarly, overharvesting has threatened timber tree species such as Hagenia abyssinica and
medicinal plants species such as Taverniera abyssinica. Overgrazing/browsing by livestock in
many ecosystems, including rangelands has also contributed to the degradation (increased
erosion, decreased quality and productivity of range resources, reduction or elimination of the
natural regeneration of woody species and highly palatable forage species of rangelands and
forest ecosystems). Similarly, the increase in population in Harar town and in the lake Haramaya
watershed has raised a high demand for municipal water supply. Besides, farmers in the
watershed of the lake were pumping water mainly to irrigate commercial crops such as chat (Catha
edulis). These eventually resulted in disappearance of the Lake, which is severely affecting the
local communities whose livelihoods were based on the lake resources (Brook, 2011).
6.3.3. Invasive Species

Invasive species have become increasingly problematic at local, regional, continental, and global
scales. Once they invade a new environment, they can adversely affect the goods and services the
ecosystems provide to the society leading to negative effects on the native biota and/or local
economies. Tackling the problem of invasive species is particularly complex because most
activities, leading to the introduction of potential invasive alien species, have legitimate economic
and social importance (Shine et al. 2005). In Ethiopia, invasive alien species are becoming a threat
to biodiversity and the economy. Close to 35 invasive species were identified in Ethiopia, which are
posing negative impacts on native biodiversity, agricultural and range lands, national parks,
waterways, lakes, rivers, hydropower dams, roadsides, and urban green spaces with huge
economic as well as social consequences. Among these invasive alien species, Prosopis juliflora,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, and Acacia mearnsii are
causing major problems in the country (EIAR, 2010). There are also recently emerging invasive
alien species in the country such as Calotropis procera, Mimosa invisa, Xanthium struma, Opuntia
ficus-indica and Desmodium species.

Prosopis juliflora is aggressively invading pastoral areas in the Middle and Upper Awash Valleys,
western and eastern Hararge Zones, Afar and Somali National Regional States. It is driving out
more nutritive browse and grazing plant species by forming a thick mono specific scrub, affecting
both domestic and wild animals eventually leading to death of the affected animals and reduction in
the overall biodiversity of the areas.

Similarly, Parthenium hysterophorus is spreading rapidly in many rangeland areas and farmlands of
Afar, Somali, Oromia, Amhara and Gambella national regional states, causing enormous reduction
in crop and forage production.Yield losses due to Parthenium weed in sorghum production reached
46-97% depending on location and year (Rezene, 2012).Water hyacinth is also becoming a serious
threat especially inWonji and Koka Reservoir and more recently in Lake Tana, obstructing irrigation,
affecting productivity and biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems. Cognizant of the problem, Ethiopia
has recently drafted a national invasive alien species policy, strategy and action plan in 2010. Lack
of policy and regulatory frameworks have been and still are undermining our efforts of managing
invasive species. Apart from this, there is no single authority assigned to look after invasive alien
species issues in Ethiopia. Many institutions have indicated their role in addressing issues directly
and/or indirectly that is related to invasive species.

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So far, this has undermined the control and management efforts due to lack of a responsible
institution. Thus, it is urgently required to put in place relevant measures, including policy, strategy,
and institutions to control and manage invasive alien species in many parts of the country.

6.3.4 Climate Change

Manifestation of climate change in the form of droughts, floods, and hailstorms has been happening and will
continue to happen with severe impacts on crop and animal production as well as on food security and the
national economy, among others. It had been causing serious damage to life, property, and natural resources
that is affecting the lives and livelihoods of peoples of the country. Major climate variability, such as variability
in rainfall, affects the correlation of the crops with the seasons and farmers’ preference and technology
involvement to crop biodiversity of a given location. When crop diversity decreases, climate mitigation and
adaptation potentials also decrease. All of the ecosystems and agrobiodiversity resources are vulnerable and
affected by climate change. The increase in temperature has increased incidence and frequency of fire.
Increasing incidence of pests/diseases is also associated with increase in temperature, which is a risk factor in
most ecosystems (Ermias et.al, 2011).

6.3.5 Replacement of Local Varieties and Breeds

Displacement by the improved varieties is one of the causes for the gradual loss of landraces of both plants and animals.
Farmers’ varieties of wheat (locally called Shehan, Gerey and Gomad), barley (Demhay and Gunaza) and sorghum (Gedalit)
have been locally lost due to wider use of improved varieties. About 77% of durum wheat is replaced by improved varieties
in eastern Shewa, mainly due to displacement by bread wheat varieties, which took place gradually in a time of three
decades. Similarly, Sheko cattle breed is among the threatened local breeds, resulting from interbreeding with the local zebu
breed and changes in the production system (IBC, 2009). This gradually led to the loss of agricultural biodiversity, resulting
in loss of ecological, economic, nutritional, and cultural benefits, and increased vulnerability to climate change and food
insecurity. A case study made in Tigray region showed that 133 (91.10%) of crop varieties were reported to be lost mainly
because of replacement by improved varieties (Abraha and Mebrahtom, 2017).

6.3.6 Pollution

Poor waste management poses a great challenge to biodiversity due to the potential of the waste to pollute water,
land, air, and vegetation. Potential effects of pollutants on ecosystems and their biodiversity include changes in the
abundance of species, loss of species, modification of habitats, reduction in soil, water and air quality, and changes
to the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Irrigation and run-off from farming activities containing insecticides,
fertilizers, and herbicides that are applied to crops are affecting aquatic and wetland organisms. Nitrogen and
phosphorous drainage from agricultural fields to fresh water systems has caused eutrophication that leads to
depletion of oxygen as well as to other environmental problems, which in turn will cause loss of species. Large and
small-scale factories with an unregulated waste disposal system are causing major damage to the nearby aquatic
and wetland ecosystems through deposition of heavy metals. Examples include cases in Akaki and Abasamuel
rivers, and Koka Reservoir.

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6.4. Driving Forces

6.4.1. Demographic Change

Human population growth and resource use, mediated by changes in climate, land use, and water
use, increasingly impact biodiversity and ecosystem service provisions. Human and livestock
populations are rapidly increasing in Ethiopia with undue pressures on all ecosystems and
biodiversity of the country. Ethiopia’s population is increasing steadily over the last three decades
from 42.6 million in 1984 to 83.4 million in 2012, and is expected to reach 130 million by 2020
(CSA, 2014). Because of the limited access to land and its degradation in the highlands, many are
migrating to lowlands where there exists relatively unpopulated land. In addition, a series of
government resettlement programs have been underway, causing a rapidly building up of human
and livestock population, particularly in the drylands of the country. For example, between 2000
and 2004 alone, 440,000 household heads or 2.2 million people were formally resettled in four
Regional States of Ethiopia, namely Amhara, Oromiya, SNNPR and Tigray, the majority of which
took place in dryland areas (Mulugeta 2012). Biodiversity loss and subsequent degradation of the
land are among the inevitable results of increasing population. Higher population implies increasing
demand for forest products, space for settlement, grazing and farming areas (Mulugeta and
Habtemariam, 2010).
6.4.2. Poverty

Poverty is among the factors hypothesized as driving forces of biodiversity loss. In situations where
people depend directly upon consumption of biodiversity or other natural resources for survival,
poverty stands as one of the causes of biodiversity loss. There exists a vicious circle of poverty,
resource degradation, and further impoverishment in Ethiopia. Poor farmers, fishermen, pastoralists
and other users extract whatever they can from the environment to support livelihoods of their
families. Although recent data is lacking on the relations between poverty and biodiversity loss, the
national poverty head count indices and inequality was reported to reach 29.6% (MoFED, 2012).
This, together with low level of literacy rate (36%) and high unemployment rate in Cities (17.5%),
exerts a huge pressure on the country’s biodiversity and associated ecosystem services.
6.4.3. Low Level of Awareness

Decision makers and the public often influence biodiversity through their actions because of lack of
awareness on biodiversity values. This arises from lack of effective communication mechanisms to
raise awareness on biodiversity and its values. Biodiversity and ecosystem services are not well
mainstreamed into the formal education system and other relevant sectors. Community knowledge
on biodiversity and its cultural practices in the management of biodiversity and ecosystems are not
well promoted and applied. Specifically, awareness creation on biodiversity policy and strategies
was not carried out properly at all levels to the concerned stakeholders to mobilize support for
implementation. As a result, the contribution of biodiversity and ecosystem services to the national
economy and sustainable development are undervalued.

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6.4.4. Weak Implementation of Policies and Laws

Some development policies that were intended for desirable outcomes turned out to result in
undesirable ecological consequences. These include resettlement programmes and investment policy
in the country. Resettlement programme, which was meant to ensure food security of highland food
insecure households, has relocated millions of such households to dryland woodlands. The relocation
of such large number of households corresponds with clearance of large dryland woodlands to give
space for settlement as well as farm and grazinglands. This resettlement policy measure of the
government of Ethiopia is a major change driver, particularly in terms of deforestation, loss of
biodiversity and land degradation in many lowland drylands of the country, particularly those in the
western lowland drylands (EPCC, 2015). Similarly, investment policy that encourages big commercial
agriculture is driving significant dryland woodland degradation. Between 2009 and 2011, 350,099 ha
land, which are mostly in the drylands, have been leased for agriculture-oriented investments (Bossio
et al. 2012). This mainly results from lack of alignment among different sectoral policies and ill
implementation of policies and laws.

6.4.5 Climate Related Risks to Biodiversity

Biodiversity is vulnerable to the effects of some pressures such as climate change. For example,
increase in temperature and aridity coupled with human population growth is increasing risk of forest
fire in most ecosystems, which is increasing both in frequency and intensity. Disease and pest
incidence is another risk factor in dryland ecosystems both for wild and cultivated flora (Negussie,
2008; Abiyu et al., 2010). Tree die-back due to extreme drought of Juniperus procera and Olea
europaea subsp. Cuspidate has been reported to affect their population structure and composition in
northern Ethiopia through its effects as a gradual replacement of high canopy trees by pioneer shrub
and herb species (Aynekulu et al., 2011; Lemenih et al., 2015). Another risk related to climate change
is the shift in altitude distribution, thereby shrinking of some of the ecosystems and expansion of
others. In Ethiopia, dry evergreen montane forest is predicted to shrink from 9.01% under current
climate to 1.72% under changing climate (Table 29). This shrinkage means some species will be
restricted to very narrow ecological niches, which will increase the risk of extinction. On the other
hand, Combretiun-Terminalia woodland will expand from 44.9% under current climate to 51.29%, and
desert and semi-desert scrub lands will expand from 17.09% under current to 21.33% under future
climate (Mamo, 2001). Similarly, projections show that the current coffee growing areas of Ethiopia
will decrease considerably due to climate change if no interventions are made leading to severe
stress and a high risk of extinction (Davis et al., 2012; Moat et al., 2017).

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 Table 29: Climate of Holdridge life zones

Source: Mamo, 2001

6.5 Impacts
Pressures and driving forces of biodiversity loss could cause increase in major ecosystem
disturbances such as ecosystem processes and functions; degradation and loss of habitats; shifts
in geographical ranges of some native plants and animals; change in timing of life history events;
spread of invasive species and disease; decline in species, populations, and genetic resources as
well as extinction.
6.5.1 Habitat Fragmentation

One of the basic potential effects of fragmentation is that a decrease in fragment size, an increase
in fragment isolation, or both, lead to fragments with fewer species due to both increasing
extinction and decreasing immigration rates. In Ethiopia, deforestation and forest degradation
driven by anthropogenic factors has resulted in habitat fragmentation, leading to reduced gene flow
among populations. Assessment of loss of forest cover in all regions due to deforestation and
degradation shows that the loss of forest cover is greater than the gain, resulting in a net loss of
forest cover over the period of 2000 to 2015 (MEFCC, 2016).

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A case study made in Bale Mountains Eco-Region showed that significant areas of forests,
grassland, and shrubland were lost through conversion to farmland resulting in habitat
fragmentation. Similarly, deforestation and conversion of dryland ecosystems in the country
resulted in decline of natural ecosystems. Furthermore, bush encroachment and invasion by alien
species are threatening local livelihoods by altering several ecosystem processes and native
biodiversity, particularly affecting availability of animal feed. For instance, Worku (2006) reported
that 76 species from non-infested plots compared to only 31 species in the P. juliflora infested site
in Afar Region, implying its adverse impact on native biodiversity.

Similarly, a case study conducted to examine future land use land cover (LULC) patterns and
changes in Munessa-Shashemene landscape of the Ethiopian highlands revealed that areas of
croplands will increase widely under the business as usual scenario and would expand to the
remaining woodlands, natural forests and grasslands, reflecting vulnerability of these LULC types
and potential loss of associated ecosystem service values (Mengistie et al., 2018).
6.5.2 Threatened Species

Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list assessment, 64
plant species are threatened (IUCN, 2018). Apart from this, the population of some species is
declining, resulting from anthropogenic disturbances. For example, two of the dryland species:
Boswellia papayrifera (frankincense tree) and lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica)
were critically threatened locally because of deforestation and degradation. Cordeauxia edulis
is highly exploited in eastern Ethiopia for its high sugar and fat content, providing a balanced
diet and high energy. Some medicinal plants with their roots as medicine are also threatened
because of direct exploitation for medicine. The population of endemic wild mammals such as
the Ethiopian Wolf, Mountain Nyala, and African Wild Ass are also declining because of
anthropogenic factors. The population of Grevy’s zebra, which is native to Ethiopia and Kenya,
is also decreasing (IUCN, 2016) (Table 30).

Table 30: Population status of some wild endemic and native mammals in Ethiopia
Current
Species Threat level population Year of assessment
trend
Ethiopian wolf Endangered Decreasing 2011
Mountain Nyala Endangered Decreasing 2016
Gelada Baboon Least concern Decreasing 2008
Walia ibex Endangered Increasing 2008
African Wild Ass Critically Endangered Decreasing 2015
Grevy’s zebra Endangered Decreasing 2016
Source: IUCN, 2016

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6.6 Response Measures
6.6.1 Conservation Efforts
6.6.1.1 In situconservation
In situ conservation includes wildlife-PAs, forest conservation sites, on-farm crop and horticulture
conservation and on-farm domestic animal conservation. In Ethiopia, there are 27 wildlife- PAs,
which include 24 NPs and 3 sanctuaries (Table 31). There are also other forms of PAs such as
community-conserved areas, controlled hunting areas, open hunting areas, biosphere reserves,
and wildlife rescue areas. In order to improve the management effectiveness of the PAs, 11 were
re-demarcated and management plan was developed for 7 PAs. Economic valuation was also
done for 14 PAs. Five biosphere reserves were established since 2010 to enhance in situ
conservation in the biodiversity hotspot areas. These includeYayu Coffee Forest, Kafa, Sheka
forest, Lake Tana, and Majang forest.

Apart from in situ conservation in PAs by Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) and
other regional authorities, responsible for wildlife protection and development, EBI has been
engaged in in situ conservation of crop and horticulture, forest and animal genetic resources. In
order to promote in situ conservation, conservation sites were established for crop and horticulture,
forest and animal genetic resources (Table 32).

Table 31: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries in Ethiopia

Year Area Managed

No. Name Region
established (km2) by
1. National parks
1 Qafta Sheraro Tigray 1999 2117 Federal
2 Simien Mountains Amhara 1959 412 Federal
3 Alatish Amhara 1997 2666 Federal
4 Bakussa Amhara 2004 447 Regional
5 Borena Saynt Amhara 1999 4325 Regional
Bahir Dar Tikur
6 Amhara 2008 4729 Regional
Abay Millennium
7 Yangudi Rassa Afar 1969 4731 Federal
8 Abijata Shala Lakes Oromiya 1963 887 Federal
9 Bale Mountains Oromiya 1962 2200 Federal
10 Dati Wolel Oromia 1998 1035 Regional
11 Borena Oromia 1978 1000 Regional
12 Arsi Mountains Oromiya 2002 938 Regional
13 Awash Oromiya and Afar 1958 756 Federal
14 Aledege Oromiya and Afar 2006 1099 Federal
15 Nech sar S.N.N.P 1966 514 Federal
16 Omo S.N.N.P 1959 3566 Federal
17 Mago S.N.N.P 1971 1942 Regional
Chebera-
18 S.N.N.P 1997 1190 Regional
Churchura

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19 Maze S.N.N.P 1997 225 Regional

20 Loka Abaya S.N.N.P 2001 500 Regional
21 Gibe Sheleko S.N.N.P 2001 248 Regional
22 Geralle Ethiopian Somali 1998 3858 Federal
23 Gambella Gambela 1966 5061 Federal
24 Bejimiz Benishangul Gumuz 2006 1685 Regional
2.Wildlife sanctuaries
Oromiya and
1 Babile Elephant Ethiopian Somali 1962 6982 Federal
Sinkile Swayne’s Oromiya and
2 1964 54 Federal
Hartebeest S.N.N.P
3 Tulu Lafto Saden Oromiya 2007 536 Regional

Source: EWCA, 2017; SNNP, South Nations, nationalties and People

Table 32: In situ conservation sites established for crop, forest, and animal genetic resources
Number of
No. Genetic resources conservation Species conserved
sites
1 Crop and horticulture 27 34 (64 varieties)
2 Forest 19 n.a
wild 11 n.a
3 Animal
Domestic 13 13 breeds
4 Microbial 3 n.a
n.a = not applicable (Source: EBI)

6.6.1.2. Ex-situ conservation

Ex situ is conservation of genetic resources outside their natural environment. It includes
conservation in gene banks (cold rooms), field gene banks, botanic gardens, and arboreta.
Genetic resources in the form of seeds, semen, and microbial species are conserved ex situ in
cold rooms, while accessions of life plant species are conserved in field gene banks. Number of
species of crop and horticulture, forest, animal and microbes conserved ex situ in indicat ed in
Table 33 and Figure 49.

Table 33: Accessions of species of crop and horticulture, forest, animal breeds, and microbes conserved ex situ
Number of accessions/
Number of species Number of
breeds/ straws of semen
Genetic resources accessions/breeds
Cold Field gene Cold Field gene characterized
room banks room banks

Crop and 81805 6720 576 14256

horticulture
Forest 4129 747 296 583 44
Animal (domestic) 70000 13 n.a n.a 25
Microbial n.a n.a 964 n.a 1079
n.a = not applicable

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 Figure 49: Plant accessions conserved at Gene bank during 2008-2017
Source: (EBI, 2017)

6.6.2. Policies, strategies, legal and institutional frameworks

As Ethiopia is signatory to international conventions, including CBD, the policy it follows is a

reflection of its global commitments on how to practically deal with the biodiversity conservation
and sustainable management. A set of policies, strategies, and actions can serve as a base for
biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and access and benefit sharing out of the genetic
resources in Ethiopia. The Biodiversity Conservation and Research Policy (1998), Environment
Policy (1997), the Conservation Strategy (1997), the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan (2005), the Wildlife Policy and Strategy (2005), Development, Conservation and Utilization of
Wildlife Proclamation 541/2007; Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation
(2007), the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2015 and Growth and Transformation
Plans of 2010 and 2016 are some of the major policy measures relevant to the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity in the country.

The Biodiversity Conservation and Research Policy adopted in 1998 emphasizes the provisions
regarding the conservation, development, and sustainable utilization of biological resources in the
country. A number of attempts were made by EBI to implement the policy and bring impacts. The
preparation of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), development of Access
and Benefit Sharing proclamation and regulation (proclamation 482/2006 & Regulation 169/2009),
establishment of biodiversity centers, biodiversity units at regional bureaus and agencies,
education and public awareness at various levels are among the efforts made tow ards
implementing the policy. The NBSAP, first issued in 2005, is an overarching strategy to guide
national efforts in the conservation, sustainable utilization and access and benefit sharing on
biodiversity.

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The NBSAP 2005- 2015 was drafted with four strategic objectives each followed by one or two
actions. The revised NBSAP 2015- 2020 of Ethiopia, comprising 18 national targets, and 58
actions, was issued and its implementation had officially started in January 2015, following the
final approval at the National stakeholders’ workshop. In all the NBSAP action plans, it is
envisaged that successful conservation of biodiversity would be achieved only with the active
participation of the community. This could be promoted through awareness-raising activities on
the value of biodiversity and its conservation through formal education and informal community
meetings and participation. In this respect, biodiversity and environmental education are planned
for integration into the formal education system through the development of appropriate curricula.

Ethiopia has enacted a law that regulates access to genetic resources and related traditional
knowledge and Community Rights (Proclamation No 482/2006). The law applies access to genetic
resources found in ex-situ or in-situ conditions and the traditional knowledge associated therein. It
subjects access to genetic resources and related community knowledge to the requirement of
permit from EBI and sharing of benefit arising from the use thereof. Furthermore, it stipulat es that
access to genetic resource under multilateral system of access of the International Treaty shall be
subjected to the conditions and procedures provided therein (Article 15(2)). A regulation cited
as “Access to Genetic Resources and Community Knowledge, and Community Rights” issued to
implement the proclamation facilitates Access Agreement, which will be signed in accordance with
Article 14(2) of the proclamation on access to, and sharing the benefits arising from the utilization
of genetic resources and/or community knowledge.

EBI has the power and responsibility, among others, to initiate policy and legislative proposals
for the conservation of biodiversity; explore and survey the diversity and distribution of the
country’s biodiversity resources; ensure the conservation of the country’s biodiversity using in-
situ and ex-situ methods; develop strategy for the conservation of species threatened by
extinction; develop systems and technical standards for the conservation of the country’s
biodiversity; and issue directives on and permits for access to genetic resources and sharing
benefits from genetic resources. Initially, it was established in 1976 as the Plant Genetic
Resources Centre of Ethiopia (PGRCE) with the objectives to promote the colle ction,
evaluation, conservation, and use of crop germplasm in Ethiopia, East Africa and adjacent
regions.

In 1998, PGRCE developed into the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC), expanding its
mandate to ensuring the conservation of the country’s biodiversity resource as a whole. Ever
since its establishment as PGRCE, EBI has been collecting, characterizing, and conserving
plant genetic resources with minimal focus on animal genetic resources. Apart from formulating
and putting in place policies and legal frameworks, such as NBSAP, proclamations and
regulations/guidelines on biodiversity conservation, the institute has ratified CBD, Nagoya
Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) and legalized the benefit sharing scheme on
genetic resources. It is working towards being a centre of excellence in East Africa by 2025. It
used to train some professionals of gene banks from East Africa during the past capacity -
building programmes.

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The institute has initiated a number of in-situ conservation sites in collaboration with regional
bureaus and other relevant actors. Awareness-raising activities were made at various levels on
biodiversity policies and legal frameworks that enhance the conservation and sustainable use
of biodiversity. Mandates over biodiversity issues are being in the process of decentralization to
regional governments to ensure its conservation, sustainable use, and access and benefit -
sharing. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs) were used to be
developed with full engagement of stakeholders both from federal and regional states to ensure
their effective implementation. As a result, some sectoral and cross-sectoral stakeholders have
integrated biodiversity into their policies and strategies. The EBI, that used to be only at the
federal level, has established seven biodiversity centers across different geographical regions
and biodiversity units at each regional state. Two botanical gardens and a duplicate gene bank
were also established.

6.6.3. Restoration of Degraded Landscapes

Ethiopia is implementing the CRGE strategy since 2011 with the objective of protecting the
country from the adverse effects of climate change and building a green economy that will
help realize its ambition of reaching middle-income status by 2025. The forest sector is among
the dominant components of the CRGE pillars with the largest share of emission reduction
next only to agriculture. Given that forest resources in the country are under threat mainly
from deforestation and forest degradation, increasing afforestation, reforestation, and forest
management to increase carbon sequestration in forests and woodlands; and promoting area
closures via rehabilitation of degraded pastureland and farmland, are among the strategies
devised to reverse the situation. In the CRGE document, the Government of Ethiopia has set
afforestation and reforestation targets to cover three million ha of land by 2030 (FDRE,
2011).

Afforestation/reforestation and area ex-closures are the two strategies implemented in the
country to restore species and ecosystems. It was planned to increase the forest cover from
the current 15.5% to 20% by 2020. Ethiopia planned to produce 4.27 billion forest seedlings
and plant nearly one million hectares of forest annually through afforestation and
reforestation during 2016-2020. As an achievement, over 1.5 million ha of land are reportedly
put under area enclosures in Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia alone (Yigremachew et al.
2015). Similarly, 399 ha of degraded areas were excluded from disturbance in Oromiya
region (EBI, 2017). With the pledge to restore 22 million hectares of degraded forests and
lands by 2030 under the Bonn challenge and the CRGE strategy, Ethiopia is one of the
countries with the most ambitious forest landscape restoration targets (MEFCC, 2016). One
million ha natural forests and five million ha degraded land around hydrodams were planned
to be rehabilitated through area closures by 2020.

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6.6.4. Management of Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Their Products

Ethiopia has a policy and strategy on wildlife development, protection, and utilization that
governs all activities related to wildlife development, protection, and utilization in the country.
The policy framework has put in place an important issue to control wildlife trafficking in
Ethiopia. It provides for combating wildlife trafficking at all levels. Article 1.5 of the policy and
strategy states the need to control trafficking in wildlife and wildlife products. The policy
statement states: “A system that enables proper control over the trafficking of wildlife and
wildlife products will be established”.
In order to enhance the enforcement of the wildlife policy and strategy, Ethiopia issued a
proclamation (no 541/2007) on development, conservation, and utilization of wildlife, and a
regulation (no 163/2008) on wildlife development, conservation, and utilization. The
Proclamation emphasizes the need for active participation of local communities and private
investors in the development, conservation, and utilization of wildlife and the need to enact
laws in conformity with the present day federal arrangement, as well as foster the role of
wildlife in the economic development of the country.
The Proclamation vests the power of wildlife administration in both Federal and Regional
Governments. EWCA, as a federal institute, is given a number of powers and duties for
controlling wildlife trafficking as per the proclamation. This proclamation also gives power that
has to be exercised by the Regional Governments, which include controlling illegal activities in
both wildlife areas administered by them and by the Federal Government; supervising wildlife
areas administered by private investors and local communities, issuing hunting permits to
domestic hunters, etc. (Article 14). Additionally, the Federal Government, when necessary,
can entrust some of its power to regional states.
In addition to the national legal frameworks, Ethiopia has ratified international conventions that
complement the national laws, including Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Although the proclamation gives various power and duties to EWCA with the possibility of
establishing wildlife conservation offices elsewhere when necessary (Articles 3 and 4), it does
not give any power to the authority over forests, the natural habitats of wildlife. The power of
administering forests remains vested in the other ministries like Ministry of Agriculture and
Natural Resources and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. This situation
calls for an intimate coordination in the functions of these government institutions if both wild
animals and plants are to be adequately protected and conserved in their own rights. In
addition to EWCA, institutions such as police commissions (federal and regional), the
Ethiopian Revenue and Custom Authority, Ministry of Justice and regional states are also key
actors in wildlife trafficking control (Figure 50).

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Figure 50: Number of arrests on wildlife products during 2010-2017
Source: EWCA, arrest data 2010-2017

6.7. Outlook and Way Forward

Ethiopia’s biodiversity is suffering from various anthropogenic factors, including habitat
conversion, over exploitation, agricultural expansion, invasive alien species, and pollutio n. The
size of natural habitats converted into other land uses and threatened species is increasing
compared to the state in 2007. Currently, nearly 64 plant species are threatened according to
the IUCN red list criteria and categories. The population of some endemic wild mammals is
decreasing due to the high rate of habitat conversion.
The actual and projected human population increase and associated need for more food
production puts great pressure on biodiversity mainly through habitat conversion for
agricultural land. In light of the growing threats to and values of biodiversity to the country’s
economic development and environmental sustainability, the Ethiopian government is
committed to the conservation and sustainable utilization of the country’s biodiversity for the
benefit of present and future generations. Ethiopia has developed its second National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) for 2015-2020, which is under implementation
with 18 national targets that are aligned with global targets such as Aichi biodiversity targets
and sustainable development goals.
The country has made considerable progresses in achieving these national targets. However,
the on- going efforts in implementing the NBSAP and safeguarding the biodiversity through
conservation, formulation of policies, strategies, and institutional restructuring are confronted
with challenges, limiting its effectiveness in achieving the targets in biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use. These include limited institutional capacities, awareness gaps, weak
implementation of policies and legal frameworks, lack of integration among sectoral polices
and weak coordination/collaboration among relevant sectors and institutions. If these
challenges continue unabated, the on-going efforts and achievements will not be sustained on
the one hand, and the rate of habitat conversion and threatened species will be aggravated on
the other. Thus, in order to reverse the situation, scale up progresses, and minimize habitat
and species loss, the following recommendations are suggested.

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Strengthening institutional capacities (both human resource development and physical facilities);
Enhancing public awareness on biodiversity at different levels;
Updating the existing biodiversity policy and related sectoral policies for better alignment
and comprehensiveness;
Strengthening law enforcement, including EIA to minimize the impact of development
projects on biodiversity;
Enhancing sectoral/cross-sectoral coordination and collaboration; and
Mainstreaming biodiversity across sectors.

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7. Policy and Institutional Features
Key messages
In Ethiopia, the environment and natural resources have been affected by
policy discourses and strategies that multiple actor-networks have promoted,
and successive governments have adopted at different times based on their
political ideology and vision; sometimes influenced by events and stakeholders’
interests.
The pathways to successful policy development and implementation include:
identifying the root causes of a contextual or sector specific problems; adopting
inclusive processes; ensuring alignment, coherence and complementarity of
policies; organizational competence and strength manifested in enhanced
coordination between concerned sectors; timely monitoring and evaluation to adapt
to emerging opportunities and challenges.The latter is important because policy is
not an end, but a means to achieve specific goals aimed at achieving outcomes by
implementing pertinent strategies, laws, regulations and guidelines.
The full benefits of the policies and strategies can only be realized with the
presence of strong institutions that are capable of effectively implementing
strategies and laws with essential and adequate human and financial resources;
supported by an active citizenry. Maintaining viable institutions requires
performance enhancement interventions at federal, regional, zonal, district and
local levels through vertical and horizontal coordination while each actor
discharges its mandates within its functional boundaries.
The effectiveness of policies depends on introducing and implementing incentives
and taking full account of people’s preference for individual and collective actions
to protect and manage the environment and natural resources management.
The openness and willingness of policy makers and stakeholders to learn from
environmental impact assessments, environmental audits, and monitoring activities
will facilitate the pursuit of alternative policy options that could rectify mistakes
caused by designing inappropriate policy or problems encountered in
implementation.

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7.1 Introduction
Socially and environmentally sound policies and laws are important for sustainable
environmental management. In the context of Ethiopia, the following practices are considered
unlawful and environmentally harmful: cutting trees for charcoal production; illegal logging;
deforestation to expand farmland; damping waste in rivers and lakes; disposing litter in open
spaces; limited access to public toilets in urban areas; widespread use of old vehicles and
manufacturing in industrial plants that release huge amounts of smoke into the atmosphere.
Nevertheless, because of political, administrative and financial constraints the enforcement of
public policy and law is weak at various levels. The proverb ‘there is no virtue in an untamed
nature’ strongly influences the behavior and actions of rural smallholder farmers who resort to
convert forestland into crop land or pastoralists who freely graze livestock in PAs and/or
forests. In urban areas, random settlement patterns, lack of proper waste disposal services,
public toilets, rubbish bins, low level of awareness among the public and public disposition to
relegate environmental health matters to government institutions exacerbate the problem.
Birkland (2011) states that public policy is a statement made by the government of what it
intends to do about a public problem. In this regard, the absence of a definitive statement o f
policy may be evidence of an implicit policy. It is common knowledge that polices are revealed
through texts, practices, symbols, and discourses that define and deliver values, including
goods and services as well as regulations, income, status, and other positively or negatively
valued attributes. Once policies are made, implementers make decisions about who will benefit
from policies and who will shoulder burdens as a result. This reveals an important notion
concerning the importance of creating a very good understanding among policy implementers
about the ideology underpinning a policy, its contents, and how it needs to be implemented to
benefit the intended target groups.
Successful and effective policy implementation is believed to be as good as the i nclusiveness
of the process. This distinguishes a good public policy from bad policy. If a policy is meant to
address a public problem; if it is designed and issued on behalf of citizens; if it is not only
symbolic; if interaction between government and stakeholders is important; if policy is to be
interpreted and implemented by those representing public interest; the policy design and
decision-making process needs to be inclusive, open and transparent.
To meet the above criteria, a good public policy seeks to go through the process shown in
Figure 51 (Wheelan, 2011). It is important to note that the schematic presentation (known as
the stages model) does not suggest the process proceeds step-by-step. For example, it is not
possible to separate policy implementation from evaluation, because, as Birkland (2011)
suggests, evaluation happens continuously as policy is implemented.

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Identify a social/economic/environmental goal

What are the benefits that can be achieved through effective public action?

Diagnose the problem

What behavior/practice must change to achieve the stated goal?

Identify and empower the appropriate institution for action

What level of authority would be desirable to change behavior/practice in way that will bring about the
desired outcome?

Evaluate the substance and implications of the competing policy options

Choose the policy that is most likely to be both successful and acceptable on social, economic and envi-
ronmental grounds

Implement, enforce, and monitor the policy change

The policy change must be founded, enforced, and modified as necessary
Figure 51: Public Policy Process (adopted from Wheelan, 2011).

One of the questions arising from the schematic presentation is to what extent is such a process
adopted in Ethiopia. Obviously, the political, social, economic and environmental context
determines the key ideology and practice of the policy formulation and implementation processes.
Hence, the policy process—identification of goal, diagnosis, decision-making, and
implementation—is dictated by the ideology, opinions, experiences and expertise of people’s
representatives, technical and legal experts. The authority to implement a policy is delegated to a
sector ministry, a given regional state, or any other entity, having a federal or regional mandate, as
stipulated in a proclamation.

Analyzing the substantive policy implications, considering the trade-offs, evaluating the potential
repercussions of policy-driven actions, understanding how different groups will be affected, what
policy provisions need change, persuading the public about the benefits of a policy require mutual
trust, an open and transparent process which seeks the active and sustained participation of
citizens.

Introducing environmental policy and promulgating laws is not sufficient to change the state of an
environmental problem. Implementing a policy requires finance, technology, expertise and
organizational capacity at various levels to deliver the goods and services that the policy promises
to deliver.

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As Wheelan (2011) states “a policy change without sufficient mechanisms and resources for
implementing and enforcing cannot be expected to bring change’’ Wheelan further noted that
“[a] policy change may or may not achieve its intended effect; a policy may even have adverse
consequences that were not anticipated at the time it was passed. Therefore, it is essential to
monitor and evaluate policies after they are implemented to determine their true costs and
benefits and to recommend modifications when necessary.”
For instance, in Ethiopia, the policy to expand large-scale commercial farms may have been designed
and implemented with good intentions to transform traditional agricultural practices. However, the
impact of the policy on deforestation and the livelihoods of local communities, who depend on forest
resources, may not have been sufficiently analyzed during the policy design phase or in subsequent
monitoring stages. Similarly, allowing the importation of used cars may be considered as an indicator
of a growing middle-class; attributed to the success of Ethiopia’s growing economy, and thus, an
emerging middle-class. However, the inefficiency of used cars in converting gas into energy, their
high fuel consumption, and demand for spare parts has multiple negative impacts on the
environment, human health, and foreign currency. In this regard, encouraging the import of cars not
older than three years or new cars with significant reduction on custom duty and levying higher tax for
importing old cars could reduce the need for extensive use of spare parts, increase the efficiency of
fuel consumption, and contribute to emission reduction.

7.2. Environmental Policy Implementation

Ethiopia’s government commitment to environmental protection and natural resources
management for bringing sustainable development is demonstrated in enacting national policies,
laws, strategies, and plans. The key policies and legislations, providing the framework and
guidance for concerted national action to drive the green and resilient economic growth agenda
are: The Constitution, the Growth and Transformation Plan II (GTP II) and the CRGE, the
Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP II), the National Forest Sector Development
Program, and National Adaptation Plan 2017 (NAP-ETH). Other important national policies and
laws as well as international conventions, protocols, and initiatives, relevant for sustainable
environmental protection and natural resources management, are shown in Table 34.

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Table 34: National policies and international conventions

National International
Access to Genetic Resources and Community
United Nations Framework Conventions
Knowledge, and Community Rights (Proclamation No.
for Climate Change (UNFCCC)
482 /2006)

Development, conservation and utilization of wildlife United Nations Convention to Combat

(Proclamation No 541/2007) Desertification (UNCCD)

United Nations Convention on Biological

Energy Proclamation (2013)
Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on International Trade
Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (2002)
in Endangered Species (CITES)
Convention for the Safeguards of
Environmental Policy (1997)
Intangible Heritage
Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to
(2005) the Convention on Biological Diversity
Pan African Agency for the Great Green
Investment Proclamation (2012)
Wall (PAGWW)
Forest Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy
(2007)
Forest Conservation and Utilization Proclamation
(2007)
Guideline for Participatory Forest Management in
Ethiopia (2012)
Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to
End Poverty (PASDEP) (2006-2011)
Development, conservation and utilization of wildlife
(Proclamation No. 541/2007)
Regulation for Wildlife Development, Conservation and
Utilization, No. 163/2008
Water Resources Management Proclamation, No.
197/2000
Forest Development, conservation and utilization
proclamation (1065/2018)

Bekele et al. (2015), state that national and sectoral development policies often affect
environmental protection and natural resources management by providing incentives or
disincentives. In Ethiopia, the environment and natural resources have been affected by policy
discourses and strategies that multiple actor-networks have promoted, and successive
governments have adopted at different times based on their political ideology and vision;
sometimes influenced by drought and famine and interest groups.These seemingly divergent,
but interlinked strategies have created tension among scientists, field workers, government
officials, and program beneficiaries to the extent of defying the possibility of formulating a policy
that harmonizes the opposing strategic policy positions.

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It is widely known that the main policy discourses driving Ethiopia’s environmental agenda are
growth and transformation, climate resilient green economy and agricultural transformation. To
this effect, the incumbent government has issued “well written and fairly comprehensive” national
policies and laws that have created an enabling environment to further improve environmental
protection and natural resources management. However, the formulation of polices, and the
promulgation of laws is not the only sufficient condition for transforming the state of the
environment – the crucial factors are commitment and determination to invest in implementation.
Policy implementation and translating laws to action require organizational capacity, work force,
financial and material resources; willingness to comply, enforce, and cooperate among
concerned individuals and institutions; and accountability.
The pathways to successful policy implementation include inclusive policy formulation processes,
which determine the receptiveness of stakeholders, alignment, and coherence of policies,
organizational competence, and timely monitoring, tailored for action. Environmental protection
and natural resources management should not be seen as the design of policies and the
enactment of laws. Equally important factors of ownership, empowerment through
decentralization, equity in benefit-sharing, continued public awareness raising and facilitating
citizens’ recurrent engagement in debating crucial environmental issues need to be considered.
7.2.1. Policy instruments
Experience shows that the instruments the government of Ethiopia used to implement the
various environmental and natural resource management policies, among others, include:
Community mobilization for constructing soil and water conservation structures and
planting tree seedlings;
Cash transfer and food distribution;
Voluntary resettlement to reduce population pressure and abate further land
degradation in highly degraded highland areas;
Participatory forest management;
Public-private partnerships and organizing youth associations for waste management;
Encouraging private investment in commercial forest development;
Construction of micro-dams for irrigation; Expansion of hydropower generation
capacity; Reducing fuel subsidy;
Distribution of energy saving stoves; Development of renewable energy like solar,
wind; Land registration and certification;
Public awareness-raising and capacity-building; and Mandatory environmental impact
assessment.

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7.2.2 Challenges in policy implementation

In Ethiopia, the factors hindering the effective implementation of existing policies and laws include
the following (MEFCC 2017):

Policies and proclamations at the federal level provide an overarching framework for achieving
environmental and development outcomes. These are complemented by specific regulations
and implementation frameworks, which are the basis for concrete action plans. In most cases,
however, regulations and implementation frameworks because of significant delays in issuing
regulations do not readily support policies and proclamations. Even when regulations are in
place, they frequently do not provide follow up, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms;
Legal frameworks often emphasize prohibitions and law enforcement. In many cases,
legislation effectively criminalizes community practices with negative consequence on the
resource base. Efforts to incorporate the participation of citizens in natural resources
management have sought to address this, but results have been mixed, and participation
is often loosely defined. Participation within the context of natural resources management
is understood to mean mobilizing farmers to implement something rather than only
involving them in decision-making;
Implementation is hindered by a lack of capacity in relevant government institutions. Actors
at various levels of governance are operating under significant institutional and fiscal
constraints. Owing to the decentralized governance structure and resultant lack of human
capacity in some regions, inconsistencies between regions and federal institutions exist. In
general, policy narratives may provide a positive outlook, but these are often not
accompanied by sufficient allocation of resources to realize policy objectives;
Policies and laws relevant to land use are not coherent. Several sectoral policies and
proclamations relevant to land use overlap, resulting in a lack of clarity in mandates for
implementing institutions. For instance, there is an overlap between the Forest
Proclamation and Land Administration Proclamation, both of which deal with natural
resources management, including forest. On the other hand, the Forest Proclamation does
not provide a legal provision for common property ownership, which undermines
community authority over forests;
Related to environmental and social safeguards, the absence of established principles,
standards, and indicators presents a barrier to assessing and managing risks. This leaves
the existing environmental impact assessment process open for subjective interpretations
of individual projects by sectoral ministries;
Many policies, laws and strategy documents regarding natural resource management are
produced based on outdated or crude data. The lack of up-to-date and reliable data is a
major constraint in the policy-making process, which leads to the identification of irrelevant
goal, wrong diagnosis, evaluation, implementation approach, and setting unrealistic
targets; and

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In view of the challenges, the effectiveness of policies needs to be analyzed based on

progress made in achieving the intended outcomes. More specifically, the usefulness of
policies is determined based on the performance of policy instruments assessed by
applying characteristics outlined in Table 35.

Table 35: Characteristics of policy instruments

Characteristics Description
Certainty Level of confidence concerning the administrative process and the compliance of targets
Timeliness Extent to which the tool works quickly
Cost The level of expenditure needed to implement the tool
Efficiency Extent to which the tool creates maximum outputs for a given input
Effectiveness Extent to which the tool is likely to achieve its goals
Flexibility Ease with which the tool can be altered to changing needs and circumstances (adaptability)
Accountability Extent to which implementers are accountable to their actions
Choice Choice the policy provides to citizens
Source: Birkland (2011)

7.3. Institutions
Ethiopia’s GTP II, CRGE, environmental policies and legislations provide an enabling
environment for undertaking short- and long-term programs aimed at responding to
environmental degradation through preventing land degradation, protecting forests, aquatic
resources and biodiversity, reducing vulnerability and improving the resilience of the country to
the effects of extreme weather conditions due to climate change.The full benefits of t he
policies and strategies can only be realized with the presence of institutions that have the
requisite human and financial resources; supported by an active citizenry. Maintaining viable
institutions requires performance enhancement interventions at the federal, regional, zonal,
district, and local levels.

At the federal level, the lead institutions responsible for environmental management are
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity; Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority under the
Ministry of Culture and Tourism; Ministry of Urban Planning and Housing; Ministry of
Agriculture and Natural Resources; and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
Regional States have power to issue policies and regulations. Regional Bureaus and
Agencies, Zonal Departments and Woreda Offices are responsible for implementing policy.

One of the issues that need to be raised here is the lack of clarity concerning the role and
responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture regarding natural resources management. The
question is: what is the delineation of responsibility and authority concerning natural
resources in relation to the duties and responsibilities of the Environment, Forest, and Climate
Change Commission (EFCCC)? Most importantly, what natural resources are under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture?

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Since the establishment of EFCCC in 2013, resource allocation and emphasis on the
environment, forests and climate change has increased; the provision of technical support to
regional bureaus has improved; coordination of regional activities towards national goals and
international commitments has been possible; inter-regional learning platforms and
experience-sharing forums have been planned and utilized and capacity-building support has
been provided to regions that need special support. However, regional institutions need to be
strengthened to fully implement policies and complement EFCCC’s efforts.

The current institutional set up at the regional level varies from region to region. Gi ven the
different socio-economic contexts and natural resource potentials, it is not expected that there
should be a similar institutional set up in all regions. However, there is an urgent need to
establish and/or designate dedicated institutions at regional level with cascaded structures
reaching the grassroots level. The institutional set up to be organized at regional levels should
be aligned with federal structures (MEFCC 2017).

Regarding the performance of regional institutions, MEFCC (2016) shows that rights and
responsibilities are not clear, there is no robust planning and programming system, capacities
of sectoral offices at the lower levels are extremely weak, and respect for community property
rights is unclear.

For example, a recent preliminary study conducted by CIFOR in Gambella and SNNP
Regional States to identify actions required by national, regional and district level governments
to ascertain forest use and management rights of diverse community groups, associations and
businesses with respect to the provisions of Proclamation 1065/2018 found the gaps shown in
Table 36.

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Table 36: Legal, organizational, technical and governance gaps limiting the application of Proclamation
1065/2018 in Gambella and SNNPRS

Technical and Governance

Legal Aspect Organizational Aspect
Aspects

Absence of land use policy and Decentralized power with Few differentiated approaches
plan limited local capacity and strategies to support
Focus on rights of individuals Different institutional smallholder forests and mange
to freely access land, less on arrangements at federal natural forests and woodlands.
the responsibilities of state and and regional level - difficult Local governments see forests
community to protect natural to align, coordinate, and as liabilities that do not create
resources. create complementarity, employment opportunities and
Some laws and regulations coherence, etc. generate income.
overstep regional rights. For Frequent restructuring Absence of stronger land rights
example, the investment law and results in institutional for better environmental and
regulation No. 283/2013 which instability, extremely high socio-economic outcomes
establishes the Ethiopian. staff turnover and loss of to attract investors and
Agricultural Investment Land institutional memory. encourage communities to be
Administration Agency. Interventions rely more on actively involved in forest land
government structure than restoration activities such as
Gaps in alignment and agroforestry.
coherence laws (for example, on local stakeholders.
mining, land, forest, investment) Extremely low level of Investment initiatives override
infrastructural capacity conservation goals.
Lack of political will or capacity
to effectively implement coupled with low Policy and decision-makers
laws (for example, the land technical capability to consider forests as frontiers for
law, environmental law, the plan, monitor and support expanding agricultural land.
investment law, etc.). forest conservation and
development
Failure to issue and implement
region specific land law and Limited understanding
guidelines of landscape restoration
under different context

Source: Kassa., et al. 2018 Fostering Forest Tenure Security and Community Forest Governance for FLR in Ethiopia: enabling conditions to
implement the 2018 Forest Proclamation (1065/2018); presentation made at a consultative workshop, Addis Ababa, December 29, 2018.

Article 52, sub-article 4 of the Constitution requires regions to follow the federal laws in the
administration of land and natural resources, including forests; they can pass laws and
regulations specific to their conditions without overriding federal laws. According to current
governance arrangement, regional policies may support stringent environmental standards,
but may not set lower standards than the federal law.

Most Regional environmental policies are similar across regions. However, some regions are
relatively less active than others in terms of environmental law enforcement, particularly about
regulating the environmental impacts of development activities.

Redefining the extent of land use and transfer rights, empowering Regional States to have
their own laws and legislations on land administration and the introduction of land registration
and certification have had a positive impact.

As shown in Table 36, a review of Ethiopia’s legal frameworks, institutions, and law
enforcement conducted by MEFCC (2016a) presents the state of legal frameworks in terms of
existence, comprehensiveness and relevance, priority and enforcement of regional legal
frameworks, as well as the institutional stability and human capacity.

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The capacity of regions to design and implement policy is analyzed through the following lenses:
Forest law;
Land administration and use law/regulation;
Investment directive/regulation;
EIA law/regulation;
Energy/mining directive/regulation; and
Wildlife/Biodiversity directive/regulation.

Table 37 shows that reasonable progress had been made by regional states in designing policies.
With regard to the comprehensiveness of policies, the result is mixed. Amhara, Benishangul-
Gumuz, SNPPR, and Tigray have done reasonably well. Afar, Somali, and Gambella need to do
more to make their policies as comprehensive as possible. In terms of enforcement, all the regions
have similar predicament – their performance is rated as poor or low. This is not surprising,
because one of the main challenges in policy implementation in the country is limited capacity or
lack of commitment and willingness to implement policies. The assessment noted that there is
respect for the rights of communities in all the regions. It is hoped that this is based on an
understanding of the inalienable rights of communities, not political expediency. Institutional
existence and strength could be characterized as generally weak, particularly for forestry,
moderately stable, relatively well organized, and effective/thriving for agriculture, investment, and
wildlife.

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Table 37: Comparative analysis of the state of legal frameworks in regional states

Ethiopia State and Outlook of the Environment

(Source: MEFCC, 2016)

Existence of Legal Enforcement of Respect for Institutional existence and

Region Comprehensiveness and relevance
Framework laws community Rights strength

Land administration law lacking on Weak forestry institutions;

Land
protection investment and land
administration,
Afar of forests and the environment, obligations Very Poor Satisfactory administration moderately
EIA,Wildlife/
of land users; EIA law incomplete; very stable and
Biodiversity
weak energy and mining regulation relatively well-organized

Community forest bylaws; strong land

Weak forestry institutions;
administration law with provisions
Land effective agricultural
for compensation; EIA reasonably
administration, institutions; investment
comprehensive; investment directives
Investment, EIA, and land administration
Amhara reasonably responsive to environmental Low Satisfactory
Energy/mining, moderately stable and
and socially issues; energy directive tackles
Wildlife/ relatively well-organized;
forest degradation from household energy
Biodiversity moderately stable and
consumption; regional wildlife regulation
thriving wildlife institutions
satisfactory in content and relevance

Forest Law addresses relevant problems,

contains moderately
Weak forestry institutions;
well-constructed laws, lacks specificity in
Forest Law, Land effective agricultural
forest offences and penalties; strong land
Ben- administration, institutions; investment
administration and use regulations; EIA Poor Satisfactory
Gumuz Investment, EIA, and land administration
reasonably comprehensive and demands
Energy/mining moderately stable and
reports; reasonable, environmentally and
relatively well-organized
socially responsive investment directives;
very weak energy and mining regulation

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 Existence of Legal Enforcement of Respect for Institutional existence and
Region Comprehensiveness and Relevance
Framework Laws Community Rights strength

Weak forestry institutions;

Land administration law lacks articles
effective agricultural
concerning forests, community livelihoods
Land institutions; investment
Gambella and threats from large scale agribusiness Very Poor Satisfactory
administration and land administration
investments; No EIA law; very weak energy
moderately stable and
and mining regulation
relatively well-organized

Weak forestry institutions;

Forest Law; strong land administration; EIA
effective agricultural
Land reasonably comprehensive; investment
institutions; investment
administration, directive is comprehensive; energy
and land administration
SNNPR Investment, directive tackles forest degradation due to Low Satisfactory
moderately stable and
EIA,Wildlife/ household energy
relatively well-organized;
Biodiversity consumption; regional wildlife regulation
moderately stable and
satisfactory in content and relevance
thriving wildlife institutions
Land
Reasonable environmentally and socially
Somalia administration, EIA Satisfactory Weak forestry institutions
responsive investment directives
Energy/mining

Environment for Sustainable Development | 2017

Community forest bylaws; strong
land administration; EIA reasonably
Weak forestry institutions;
comprehensive; weak investment directive
Land effective agricultural
in impact assessment, forest protection and Low to poor
administration, institutions; investment
Tigray community participation; nearly satisfactory concerning federal Satisfactory
Investment, EIA, and land administration
mining forest law
Energy/mining moderately stable and
regulation; energy directive tackles forest
relatively well-organized
degradation from household energy
consumption

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7.4. Conclusion
Ethiopia has very good polices and strategies. However, the drive to achieve economic growth has
limited the implementation of environmental laws, particularly the application of the Environment
Impact Assessment law issues in 2004. Some observers believe that Ethiopia’s EIA law is one of
the best legislation to protect the environment and community rights. Economic rationales continue
to create challenges, such as deforestation, rising income inequality, rapid urbanization, increasing
levels of pollution, growing demand for infrastructure, rising unemployment and/or
underemployment.
While it is understood that Ethiopia’s drive to grow its economy will continue to negatively affect the
environment and over exploit natural resources, the purpose of public policy should be to strike
balance between economic growth needs and the long-term benefits of sustainable environmental
and natural resources management.
As Alemneh (1990) points out, the effectiveness of policies depends on instituting incentive
mechanisms and taking full account of people’s preference for individual and collective ventures in
environmental protection and natural resources management. In this regard, paving the way for the
continuity of successful policy initiatives including public and private investment would be worthy.
In addition, policy makers and stakeholders need to be open and willing to learn from
environmental impact assessments, environmental audits, and monitoring activities to facilitate the
pursuit of alternative policy options that could rectify mistakes caused by designing inappropriate
policy or problems encountered in implementation.
Bekele et al. (2015) state one of the major threats of the agricultural policy in fueling deforestation
comes from its emphasis on the expansion of large-scale commercial agricultural investment. One
of the objectives of the investment policy, enacted in 2012 (No. 769/2012), is to accelerate the
country’s economic development through exploiting natural resources of the country. As a result,
about 3.5 million ha of land was leased to investors until 2011, and the plan was to provide a
similar amount of land between 2012 and 2016. If the plan has been realized, seven million ha of
land must have been leased in Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambela, Oromia, and SNNP. The policy and
the conditions of leasing land for large-scale commercial farming is highly favorable to investors
and does little to protect the environment and the rights of local people. Bekele et al. (2015) argue
that the actual and potential threat of deforestation and forest degradation caused by the
expansion of large-scale commercial farming is partly related to the failure of the federal and
regional governments to implement existing legal frameworks effectively. Although all investment
projects are legally expected to conduct environmental impact assessments and seek approval,
such requirements are often waived or given limited emphasis. Thus, the process of environmental
impact assessment in land deals for large-scale agricultural investment is “weak or non-existent”
(Tamrat 2010; Rahmato 2011).

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 The emphasis of the Growth andTransformation Plan on the expansion of export oriented large-
scale commercial agriculture for export and the Voluntary Resettlement Program (started in 2003)
have negative implications for environmental protection and natural resources management,
particularly for forest resources. The dual path of agricultural development pursued in Ethiopia
through the expansion of farmlands, attracting private investment, the introduction of new
technologies and the development of infrastructure could have harmful effects on the environment.
That said enhancing tenure security, facilitating agricultural input and product markets, providing
competitive incentives and creating favorable legal and institutional frameworks are desirable
policy instruments.

7.5. Going Forward

There is a need to improve the quality of data upon which national policies and proclamations
can be based and to further coordinate the flow of information at multiple levels of the
government to develop a reliable information and data management system;
Make sure that exisiting and new policies aimed at advancing the country’s growth and
development ambitions do not contravene the Constitution, which provides for clean and
healthy environment as fundamental rights of citizens (Articles 43 and 44). This, to a
certain extent, requires maintaining balance between the country’s current needs, its
growth and development ambitions;
Large-scale commercial agriculture projects are operating and expanding at the expense
of traditional livelihoods and environmental resources. The investment projects deprive
smallholder farmers’ traditional access and use rights to land and natural resources. The
problem could be addressed by removing the deficiencies in directing, implementing and
monitoring the application of legal requirements, which investors are expected to execute;
Policy instruments need to be geared toward empowering, local communities to maximize
environmental protection and natural resources management outcomes. In addition,
stakeholders, to be entrusted with the environment, need to be provided with clear
guidelines for management, monitoring mechanism and standard of accountability;
Issues arising from the fragmentation of institutional roles and responsibilities, and the
duplication of efforts need to be addressed;
As much as strong institutions are important at the federal level, regional structurers that
complement the activities of sectoral ministries, are very important;
Introducing more comprehensive policy frameworks that capture prevention, detection and
monitoring within a broader strategy of natural resources management while engaging
communities in a constructive manner may help to encourage community participation
towards implementation. This could include, for example, public education and awareness-
raising on relevant laws and engaging communities in monitoring and enforcement; and
If participatory forest management is to be considered a viable strategy option for
sustainable forest management, it needs full legal support for community ownership of
forest resources.

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8. Crosscutting Issues

Key messages
Successful approaches for achieving gender and environment outcomes include
minimizing the effects of drought and reducing food insecurity; linking gender and
environment for climate change adaptation; and fostering positive gender and
environment dynamics.
Ethiopia’s vulnerability to climate change will have long-term impact on the state
of health. The most effective adaptation actions need to focus on the provision
of basic public health services.
Environmental factors affecting health include polluted air, poor sanitation and
waste disposal, polluted water or poor water management, unhealthy housing and
food insecurity.
Economic growth and the expansion of urban centers attract a significant number
of people to cities and towns. This puts an increasing pressure, particularly on the
municipalities of major cities to manage waste for preventing potential outbreaks of
disease.
The problem of waste management emanates primarily because of unplanned
settlement patterns; low level of public awareness concerning hygiene and
sanitation; the negative implications of inappropriate waste disposal methods to
human health; limited access to waste disposal facilities; limited awareness and
application of formal waste recycling; the inadequacy of sewage systems in urban
areas; inappropriate landfill sites; and limited public and private investment in solid
waste management.

8.1. Gender and Environment

In Ethiopia, the role of women, as in many other developing agrarian countries, is very important in
the agriculture-environment nexus. Women’s role in household management and production
activities has a bearing on agricultural productivity, and natural resources management. Because of
their domestic roles, women have disproportionate contact with natural resources such as water,
firewood, and forest products. Women and girls spend a significant amount of time collecting
firewood – time they could otherwise spend on more productive activities. As wood resources
become scarcer, women experience an increased work burden and may fall further into poverty as
a result. There is evidence that since women in many parts of Ethiopia have primary domestic
responsibility of providing for their families, they are more reliant on natural resources and are thus
more careful stewards of them and the environment. The close interaction women have with the
environment enables women to possess specific knowledge, experience, and skills that would be
useful to cope with the shocks or disasters and contribute to improve natural resources
management (MEFCC 2017).

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Women’s roles and decisions in food crop production and a variety of other agricultural activities
have a direct bearing on soil fertility and erosion, water infiltration and retention, and waste and by-
product recycling. Increasing populations put greater pressure on available water resources and
fuelwood, while land and water resources degradation reduces the availability of water and
accessibility to fuelwood resources requiring women to walk long distances and carry heavier loads
(Sida 2003).

Although the consequences of environmental degradation affect all groups of people, the capacity
to cope varies according to wealth and assets that they can resort to during major shocks and
disasters. In view of women’s low level of income, limited decision-making power at household
level and unequal social status, they are among the first to be affected by environmental
degradation, natural resource depletion and disasters. According to the World Bank (2012),
socioeconomic marginalization and natural resource degradation affect women in extreme ways.
This may occur because of long-lasting droughts, food insecurity, frequent famine, fragmentation of
landholdings, and decrease in common rangeland and other common property on which pastoralist
women heads of households depend for their livelihoods.

In addition, poor infrastructure contributes to women’s marginalization. Although Ethiopia has made
progress on constructing new roads, the lack of transport and communication infrastructure
isolates communities, cutting them off from markets, economic opportunities, and social networks
and services, including health care. Lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation, and health
services negatively affects people’s productivity and health. Ethiopia’s water and sanitation
services are very limited and under-financed. Areas without access to safe drinking water are
vulnerable to diseases such as diarrhea and dysentery. Women’s workload at household level
and their engagement in various productive activities, the poor state of health affecting members of
their family put additional burden on them.

Principle 20 of the Rio declaration clearly states, “Women have a vital role in environmental
management and development. Their leadership and full participation is, therefore, essential to
achieve sustainable development.” Most interestingly, without the active participation of women,
sustainable development and efforts for environmental protection cannot succeed. Women’s
participation should be given utmost importance in addressing environmental problems. Because
of their close contact and higher dependence on natural resources, women are invaluable source
of knowledge and expertise on environmental protection issues and are more concerned than men
with the problem of environment and climate change. Empowering women with greater decision-
making power at household level and their increasing leadership role in environmental protection
programs are, therefore, indispensable (Bayeh 2016).

Because of gender-defined division of labor and their dependence on land, water, wood, etc. to
meet household basic needs and as the primary caretakers of the family, particularly when they are
the head of the household, women have strong relationship with the environment and possess
extensive knowledge about the natural resources in their surroundings.

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Women are particularly reliant on the environment to meet their basic needs and play an essential
role as managers (i.e. use and control) of natural resources. They are responsible for meeting
food, water and energy needs, placing them in direct contact with the natural environment daily.
Women, therefore, rely more on natural resources than men as they have fewer alternative
sources for livelihood security. (Irish Aid, 2004). Women make significant contributions to
environmental rehabilitation and management because of their strong social and livelihood
security-related attachment with the environment. For example, women have actively taken part
forest conservation and watershed rehabilitation through participatory forest management
arrangements and land rehabilitation (soil and water conservation activities including building
physical structures and biological conservation measures on their land and in support of
government and nongovernmental actors’ initiatives. They also contribute in planting trees for
wood and fruits, maintain the productivity of homestead gardens by adding manure. Most
importantly, women play important roles on the homestead environmental management through
various actions, which include homestead gardening, fencing, agroforestry activities, proper animal
husbandry and horticulture practices. (FDRE, 2011; Hargewien, 2019).
However, because of socially constructed cultural norms, women have very little control over
natural resources, particularly concerning decision-making on how proceeds, particularly from the
sell of agricultural produce and/or other nature-based resources are distributed and used at
household level. It is, therefore, important for gender-based environmental actions to be aligned
with special needs and priorities of women to reduce unsustainable use of natural resources and
environmental degradation in all its forms. In addition, traditional barriers that disempower women
in equally participating in decision-making at household and community level need to be
addressed.
Environmental degradation mainly deforestation, soil erosion and shortage of water, etc., weaken
the resilience women who have least control over natural resources. Social differentiation and
access to resources, shaped by both formal and informal institutions, affect the vulnerability of
different groups to climate and other shocks. The lack of assets, productive resources, skills,
livelihood options, and social capital create vulnerability, as does dependence on the availability
and abundance of natural resources for livelihood and survival strategies (World Bank, 2012).
Women’s vulnerability to environmental degradation refers to the extent to which women are
susceptible to, or unable to cope with the adverse effects of environmental change and
degradations. It is a function of the character, magnitude and rate of environmental changes, as
well as the sensitivity and adaptive capacity of women to the changing situations (Munasinghe,
2003). In many of the rural settings of Ethiopia, rural women, and specifically Female Household
Heads (FHHs), are identified as the most disadvantaged groups where they are seen to be at a
more disadvantaged position where they have severe shortages of labor to engage effectively and
efficiently in farming activities, lack of access to means of production, access to and control over
productive resources such as credit and financial services, inputs, technology, agricultural
extension services and land is dominant. Given their heavy engagement in farming and natural
resource management, agriculture’s vulnerability to climate change, including the effects of
increased rainfall variability, women may bear a disproportionately negative burden, including
greater potential for food, water and energy insecurity.

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Equality in access to resources, goods, services and decision-making in rural areas needs to be
established in response to evidence that gender inequality exacerbates food insecurity,
malnutrition and poverty (Haregewien, 2019).
Factors that attribute to women’s vulnerability to environmental degradation include limited access
to productive assets, knowledge, technology, decision-making power, education, health and food.
Studies conducted on gender globally and particularly in Ethiopia indicate that women tend to have
less or limited access to assets (Jost, 2014). Women are, therefore, more vulnerable to and suffer
most during major environment-related shocks and disasters (World Bank, 2012).
Ethiopia has taken progressive measures to address environmental challenges that have a bearing
on gender segregated roles in the management and use of natural resources. The Constitution of
Ethiopia recognizes women’s right and affirms their role in political, economic and social spheres.
Moreover, policy and legal frameworks are put in place to ensure gender equality through the
Revised Family Code (2000); Rural Land Use Proclamation (No. 456/2005), which recognizes
women rights to use, administer and control land; the Criminal Code (Proclamation No.414/2004)
which protects women from harmful practices. Furthermore, Women, Youth and Child Affairs
offices have been established at national and sub-national levels to enhance women’s active
engagement, raise their awareness, and empower them to be involved in economic and social
affairs of the nation.

8.2. Health and Environment

There is a consensus that the poor state of the environment affects human health. The Ethiopian
Panel on Climate Change (2015), states that the effects of weather variability and climate change
on human health are morbidity and mortality caused by vector-borne infectious diseases. The
Panel’s report further suggests how climate change impacts the health of Ethiopians.These include

Direct impact, which relate primarily to changes in the frequency of extreme weather
including heat, drought and heavy rains;
Effects mediated through natural systems, for example, etiologic agents, animal reservoirs
of disease vectors, water-borne diseases, and air pollution; and
Effects of heavily mediated by human systems, for example, occupational impacts, under
nutrition, and mental stress

Mortality and morbidity due to floods and heat waves, vector-borne diseases, water-borne
diseases, meningitis, and air pollution-related respiratory diseases are increasing in Ethiopia
(Belay et al 2016).
In view of Ethiopia’s vulnerability to climate change, the impacts of climate change will not be
abated in the short-term. The long-term of effects of climate change on health will be injury,
disease, and death because of intense heat waves and fires; increased risk of under nutrition
resulting from reduced food production; reduced workforce capacity and labor productivity; and
increased risks of food- and water borne diseases and vector-borne diseases.

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Strategies to respond to climate change through adaptation, mitigation, finance, technology,

and capacity building should be devised and properly take into account the impact of climate
change in health. The most effective adaptation actions for health in the near-term are
programs that implement basic public health measures such as provision of clean water and
sanitation, secure essential health care including vaccination and child health services,
increase capacity for disaster preparedness and response, and alleviate poverty.
To reduce the effect of climate change on public health, there is a need to have clear policy
directions, inter-sectoral commitments and collaboration as well as monitoring and
accountability system within country (Belay et al. 2016).
According to Sida (2003), environmental factors, which affect health, include:
Polluted air which may cause acute respiratory infections, injuries and poisonings,
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases;
Poor sanitation and waste disposal which may cause diarrheal diseases, malaria and other
vector-borne diseases;
Polluted water or poor water management which may cause diarrheal diseases, malaria
and other vector-borne disease, injuries and poisoning; and
Unhealthy housing which may cause acute respiratory infections, mental health conditions,
malaria, and other vector-borne diseases.

Health professionals contend that in Ethiopia, 70% of all diseases and 40 to 60% of all skin diseases are
caused by lack of adequate potable water. Seventy % or over 45 million of the Ethiopian population does not
have access to potable water supply and relies on untreated and unprotected supplies from rivers, lakes,
ponds, and springs.

Besides the direct effect of consuming poor-quality water, rural women carry heavy loads over long
distances and difficult terrain to reduce the number of trips required to provide water for their household.
Carrying heavy loads damages the spine, causing difficulties during pregnancy and childbirth, uses up
substantial energy, and is a cause of frequent accidents.

In addition to the hardship associated with gathering and cooking with biofuels, the indoor air pollution
created by such fuels is a health hazard, particularly to women and children. Studies indicate that smoke
contributes to acute respiratory infections that kill some 4 million infants and children a year at the global
level.

Studies conducted in some African countries indicate that children carried on their mothers’ back as they
cooked in smoky huts had a risk of acute respiratory illness six times more than that of other children. There
are no studies available in Ethiopia to provide statistical information but it can safely be concluded that rural
women in Ethiopia are exposed to a very high risk of chronic lung disease, since the housing and poverty
conditions are similar to those African countries in which studies have been conducted on indoor air
pollution. Indoor biofuel use for cooking has also been a cause for frequent fire hazards involving loss of life
and household assets in rural areas that is rarely reported or documented.

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According to Daley (2015), pollution issues encompass a broad range of types of air, water, soil
and land pollution, with the result that anthropogenic substances and their ability to provide
sustainable ecosystem services contaminate these resources may be compromised. Air
pollution includes the emission of black carbon (soot), aerosols, nitrogen oxides, sulphur
oxides, volatile organic compounds, lead, and other forms of particulate matter, as well as the
problem of acid deposition. Those emissions are disproportionately from urban, industrial and
transportation sources, although some important forms of rural air pollution also occur
particularly particulate matter released from biomass burning.
These and other pollutants are responsible for significant human mortality and morbidity as
well as for multiple ecological effects, such as impaired plant growth and reduced agricultural
productivity.

Recent research has highlighted the continuing heavy dependence on, and inefficient use of,
biomass resources in Ethiopia, which have contributed to the loss of forest resources and to indoor
air pollution and poor health using traditional cooking technology. This is despite the efforts made
by government and other institutions to promote the adoption of new cooking technologies, which
had met with only limited success.

Water pollution includes both point source and diffuse release of multiple pollutants ranging from
agricultural fertilizers and pesticides to municipal and industrial effluents. These in turn cause
health impacts and a wide range of environmental problems, including eutrophication—due to
nutrient enrichment of water bodies—harmful algal blooms, the creation of anoxic ‘dead zones’ in
lakes, and impacts on fisheries and livelihoods. Water pollution may occur because of discrete
catastrophic events such as accidental industrial discharges and these may have profound
consequences for ecosystems, fisheries, tourism, and livelihoods at local and even regional
scales. Pollution of freshwater, groundwater, soil, and land resources encompasses many point
source and diffuse types of contamination – that in some cases may be severe, but again these
are generally localized events. Some exceptions to these for which the evidence base is
particularly sparse include the pollution of air, water and soil by substances for which the
regulatory frameworks are currently embryonic such as for nanoparticles, micro-plastics and
pharmaceuticals; and for which potentially widespread pollution may now be occurring in the
absence of effective environmental regulation, monitoring or management, with unknown
consequences.

In urban areas of Ethiopia, chemical pollutants hazardous to human health may accumulate in
harmful concentrations. Combustion of fossil fuels, as well as poorly-regulated industrial
processes, release Sulphur and nitrogen compounds, volatile organic compounds, heavy metals
and other pollutants that cause respiratory and heart disease, lung cancer, acute respiratory
infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung
disease and/or triggering asthma attacks. Industrial chemical pollutants such as methylmercury,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and toluene are neurotoxic and recognized causes of subclinical
brain dysfunction and neurodevelopmental disorders; these are found in potentially harmful
concentrations in urban areas. Occupational exposure occurs in large factories and small
workshops; domestic exposure occurs when biomass/coal is used for cooking and heating homes;
and vehicle traffic creates ambient air pollution in urban areas.

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Chemical pollutants may affect more severely on urban poor populations as both unhealthy
working conditions and the use of biomass fuels in indoor cooking stoves and heaters are
characteristic features of a typical urban poor lifestyle.

8.3. Waste Management

Collecting and managing solid and human waste is a problem in Ethiopia, particularly in cites and
major towns where there is high population density. Inappropriate waste management affects
water quality and health.
In Ethiopia, economic growth and the expansion of urban centers attracts a significant number of
people to cities and towns. This puts an increasing pressure, particularly in the municipalities of
major cities to manage waste for preventing potential outbreaks of disease. In cities and towns
where there are permanent water bodies, the tendency to dispose waste in water systems is high.
For example, in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar and Hawasa, huge quantity of waste is believed to be
removed through rivers and lakes. In Bahir Dar, the spread of water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) on Lake Tana is partly attributed to the discharge of waste from hotels, resorts,
residences, manufacturing plants and other institutions built around the Lake.
Colby Environmental Policy Group (2011) states that waste management in Ethiopia is important
because only a small percentage of the country’s inhabitants have access to safe drinking water:
21% in rural areas, 84% in urban areas, and 30% country-wide. Additionally, only 7% of
populations in rural areas, 68% in urban areas, and 15% of people countrywide have adequate
access to latrines or other improved human waste disposal options. Access to latrines is a critical
aspect of waste management, especially since the practice of open defecation is prevalent in the
country, which can contaminate groundwater and lead to disease. This situation is important in
terms of the link between the quality of the environment and human health.
The problem of waste management emanates primarily not only from lack of policy and
legislation,but because of unplanned historical settlement patterns in several cities and towns
across the country; low level public awareness on hygiene and sanitation and inappropriate waste
disposal methods to human health; limited access to waste disposal facilities including latrines;
limited awareness and application of formal waste recycling; inadequacy of sewage systems in
urban areas; inappropriate landfill sites; and limited public and private investment in solid waste
management. Furthermore, the lack of transparency concerning the types of chemical inputs
used in manufacturing plants, the harmful byproducts, wasted disposal standards and methods,
safeguards put in place for factory and farm workers exposed to chemicals, etc. are issues that
need the attention of policy makers, owners and managers of manufacturing plants and
commercial farms.

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With regard to policies and proclamations, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia
states the following:
Article 92.1: Government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean
and healthy environment; and
Article 92.4: Government and citizens shall have the duty to protect the environment.

The first article specifies the government’s duty in ensuring that the environment is conducive for
people to live in, and the second article articulates the obligation of citizens to protect the
environment. In this regard, the Constitution provides for public-private partnership to improve
waste management. This is pronounced in Proclamation No.513/2007, which specifies the
importance of community participation to maximize the benefits of enhanced solid waste
management.

The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia issued in 1997 in Part 3, Section 3.7 (Human Settlement,
Urban Environment and Environmental Health); Section 3.8 (Control of Hazardous Materials and
Pollution from Industrial Waste); and Section 3.9 (Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change)
outline the key policy directions concerning waste management.

The Solid Waste Management Proclamation No.513/2007 provides legal guidelines for solid waste
management planning, collection and storage, transportation, treatment, disposal, incineration,
recycling, and the disposal of hazardous waste.

Proclamation No.513/2007 in compliance with Proclamation No. 300/2002 for Environmental

Pollution Control stipulates urban administrations to devise and implement safe and effective
mechanisms to handle, transport, and store municipal waste. The Environmental Impact
Assessment Proclamation No.299/2002 is also pertinent to waste management. Despite the
prevalence of such good polices and laws, very little progress is made in implementation because
of the mismatch between the intended objectives of the policies and laws and the objective reality
on the ground. For example, the Addis Ababa City Administration advises residents to sort and
dispose their waste. However, in many areas waste collectors provide one trash bag and many of
the city’s residents cannot afford to buy several bags to organize household waste in assortments.
In addition, several containers are overflowed with waste and people who are willing to dispose
waste at a disposal sites are forced to leave the waste in open spaces next to overflown
containers.

To address policy implementation gaps and to make solid waste management more efficient and
effective, public-private partnerships (PPP) have become prominent vehicles for investments and
in the provision of solid waste collection (SWC) services in several countries. According to
Mohammed and van Dijk (2017), there are two main reasons behind this trend. One reason is the
restrained capacity of public finance to bear the costs of new equipment. The other reason is the
increased need for proper public services delivery that requires innovative capacity and
management skills in private partners and risk that is more adequate and task sharing among
partners. The study identifies key factors affecting service performance by investigating
investments, operational management capability, and regulation in 40 private companies involved
in SWC in Addis Ababa, Adama, Bahir Dar, Hawasa and Mekelle.

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The five cities have experienced rapid urbanization and their municipal or metropolitan settings are
expanding. More importantly, the cities are chosen, as they are the main regional cities of each
region, which has the largest urban population size. Therefore, comparative analysis could be
made among cities and within cities to assess the solid waste collection performance by private
companies.

The major determinants of solid waste collection in the selected cities are:
Number and carrying capacity of vehicles;
Distance from disposal sites and (unobserved) city characteristics;
Route planning and a more flexible contract substantially increase collection; and
Investments in SWC depend on access to capital by the private companies.

The study further notes that different experiences of regulation —scope of contract—on SWC have
been noticed. Service contract arrangements are impediments in Mekelle. This is because limited
scope contracts restrict the service area and service arrangement—either communal or house- to-
house collection, not both. While, service zoning allows competition in Addis Ababa, Hawasa, and
Bahir Dar. From the perspective of private service providers, the application of delineated service
areas impedes them from reaching out to wider areas despite their potential. This, in turn, precludes
the necessary competition for the market among private companies and degrades the service
coverage of SWC. This has an investment risk involving loan repayment, default chances and the
inability to recover funding cost.

Mohammed and van Dijk (2017) conclude that the prevalence of large heaps of solid waste left
uncollected in Ethiopian cities is still a serious problem. They add solid waste collection as part of
a chain of sustainable waste management is not yet perfect and treating waste as a resource
seems far from reach. Based on their analysis and findings they provide the following
recommendations:

Inspire private companies by providing opportunities for the market and strengthening the
regulatory role of the government; and
With the limited financial access both from large banks and microfinance institutions,
private companies and municipalities need to make a paradigm shift to improve technology and
innovation for solid waste collection, such as the application of a shortest route indicator device
and electronic chip in every waste container—to notify when the containers are full.

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