BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The electric supply used for industrial and domestic application is of alternating type. This is
so because a highly efficient device called transformer is available. It is capable of transferring
electrical energy from one circuit to another at different voltage level. The transformer is used
for economically transmitting and distributing electrical power over long distance. This has
permitted us to locate the generation of electric power remotely from the point of demand.

Generally, electric power is generated at about 11kV, then stepped up to higher voltages of
132kV, 220kV and 400kV for transmission lines. At distribution point, it is again stepped
down to 400V or 220V for use in industry, offices and homes.

Many applications require the frequency of ac supply to be constant. Constant frequency of

generated power can be obtained only if the generator runs at constant speed, called its
synchronous speed. Hence, the name synchronous generator. Large size generators are also
called alternators.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALTERNATOR AND D.C. GENERATOR

1. The armature winding of a synchronous generator is an a.c. winding, i.e. it is connected
to produce a.c. supply, and the field is connected to d.c. supply. Therefore no
commutator is required in an alternator, which makes its construction simpler than that
of d.c. generator.
2. In the d.c. generator, the armature winding rotates and the field system is stationary,
whereas in the case of synchronous generator, the armature winding is mounted on a
stationary element called the stator and the field winding on a rotating element called
the rotor.

ADVANTAGES OF STATIONARY ARMATURE

1. As everywhere a.c. is used, the generation level of a.c. voltage may be higher as 11kV
to 33kV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space can be
provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulation.
2. It is always better to protect high voltage winding from centrifugal forces caused due
to rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This avoids the
interaction of mechanical and electrical stresses.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 1

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

3. It is easier to collect larger currents at high voltages from a stationary member than
from the slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to the field
is very low and hence can be easily supplied with the help of slip ring and brush
assembly by keeping it rotating.
4. The problem of sparking at the slip ring can be avoided by keeping field rotating which
is low voltage circuit and high voltage armature as stationary.
5. Due to low voltage level of the field side, the insulation required is less and hence field
system has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than high
inertia, as efforts required to rotate low inertia system are always less.
6. Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple robust
mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So
greater output can be obtained from an alternator of given size.
7. If field is rotating, to excite it by an external D.C. Supply two slip rings are enough.
One each for positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase rotating
armature, the minimum numbers of slip rings required are three and cannot be easily
insulated due to high voltage levels.
8. The ventilation arrangements for high voltage sides can be improved if it is kept
stationary.

CONSTRUCTION
Most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of construction. In alternators the stationary
winding is called Stator while the rotating winding is called Rotor.

Fig 1
Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 2
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

STATOR

• The stator is stationary armature.

• This consist of a core and the slots to hold the armature winding.
• The stator core uses a laminated construction.
• It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with varnish or paper.
• The laminated construction is basically to keep down the eddy current losses.
• Generally the choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.
• The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates.
• The core has slots on its periphery for housing armature conductors.
• Frames do not carry any flux and serves as a support to the core.
• Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.

Fig. 2 Section of alternator stator

ROTOR

There are two types of rotor used in alternators

1. Salient pole type

2. Smooth cylindrical type

SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR

• This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface
of the rotor.
• The poles are built up of thick steel lamination. The poles face has been given a
specific shape.
• The field winding is provided on the pole shoe.
• These rotors have large diameter and small axial lengths.
• The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
member of the machine.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 3

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

• As mechanical strength of the salient pole rotor is less, this preferred for low speed
alternators ranging from 125rpm to 500rpm.

Fig 3. Salient pole type rotor

SMOOTH CYLINDRICAL TYPE ROTOR

• This is also called non salient type or non-projected pole type rotor.
• The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to
accommodate the field coils.
• The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges.
• The unslotted portion of the cylinder itself acts as the poles.
• The poles are not projected out and surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains
uniform air gap between stator and rotor.
• These rotors have small diameters and large axial length. This is to keep peripheral
speed within limits.
• The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and thus
preferred for high speed alternators ranging from 1500 to 3000rpm.
• Such high speed alternators are called turbo alternators.
• The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines and
electric motors.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 4

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Fig. Smooth cylindrical rotor

Difference between salient pole and cylindrical type rotor
Sr.No Salient pole type Smooth cylindrical type
1. Poles are projecting out from the Unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as
surface poles hence poles are non projecting
2. Air gap is uniform Air gap is uniform due to smooth
cylindrical periphery
3. Diameter is high and axial length is Small diameter and large axial length
small
4. Mechanically weak Mechanically robust
5. Preferred for low speed alternator Preferred for high speed alternator
6. Prime movers used are water turbines Prime movers used are steam turbine and
and I.C. engine electric motors
7. For same size, the rating is smaller than For same size, the rating is higher than
cylindrical type salient type

Working principle

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 5

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is a relative
motion between the conductors and the flux, emf gets induced in the conductors. The DC
generator also works on the same principle. The only difference is that in an alternator the
conductors are stationary and field is rotating.

Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by two
stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical.

Let the conductor start rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity component
is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the conductor. So dØ/dt
at this instant is zero and hence induced emf in the conductor is zero.

As the conductor moves from position 1 towards position 2, the part of the velocity component
becomes perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that emf gets induced in the
conductor. The magnitude of such an induced emf increases as the conductor moves from
position 1 towards 2.

At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines. Hence there
exist maximum cutting of flux lines. And at this instant, the induced emf in the conductor is at
its maximum.

As the position of conductor changes from 2 towards 3, the velocity component perpendicular
to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced emf magnitude also starts decreasing. At
position 3, again the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines and hence at this
instant induced emf in the conductor is zero.

As the conductor moves from position 3 towards 4, the velocity component perpendicular to
the flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite
to the direction of velocity component existing during the movement of the conductor from
position 1 to 2. Hence an emf induced the conductor increases but in the opposite direction.

At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity component
becomes perpendicular to the flux lines.

Again from position 4 to 1, induced emf decreases and finally at position 1 again becomes
zero. This cycle continues as conductor rotates at a certain speed.

So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced emf against the time, we get an alternating nature
of the induced emf .

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 6

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

FREQUENCY OF INDUCED E.M.F.

P= Number of poles N= speed

of motor in rpm f = frequency

of induced e.m.f.

Consider a single conductor placed in the slot of the stator. Let the rotor with alternate north
and south poles N and S, rotate with an angular velocity 𝜔 in the clockwise direction. Positive
half cycle of emf is induced in the conductor, when the North Pole N sweeps across the
conductor. Negative half cycle of emf is induced in the conductor when the South Pole S
sweeps across it and hence one cycle of emf is induced in the conductor; when one pair of
poles N an S sweep across it.

One mechanical revolution of rotor = P/2 cycles of e.m.f. electrically

Thus there are 𝑃⁄2 cycles per revolution

As speed is N rpm, in one second, rotor will complete ) revolutions.

But cycles/sec = frequency= f

Therefore frequency f = (No. of cycles per revolution)*(No. of revolution per second)

f=

f= 𝐏𝐍 Hz
𝟏𝟐𝟎

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED(𝐍𝐒)

From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to be rotated
at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated e.m.f constant at the required value.
Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as NS.

So where f =Required frequency

Following table gives the value of the synchronous speeds for the alternators having different
number of poles (f=50Hz)

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 7

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Number of poles P 2 4 6 8 10 12 24

Synchronous speed NS in rpm 3000 1500 1000 720 600 500 250

ARMATURE WINDING

• The armature winding of an alternator differs from that of a dc generator.

• In a three phase alternator, three sets of windings are arranged in the slots made around the
inner periphery of the stator.
• The placing of these windings is done in such a way that there exists a phase difference of
120° between the induced emfs in them.
• These windings are open ended.
• Two ends of each set are brought out.
• For three phases, six terminals are brought out which may then be connected either in star
or delta.
• Thus, finally only three terminals are brought out from the alternators.
• Each set of winding is called winding per phase and the induced emf in each winding is
called emf per phase denoted as 𝐸𝑝ℎ.
• The coil in one phase is connected in such a way that their emfs end up.

Winding terminology
1. Conductor :
➢ The conductors are placed in the armature slots.
➢ The active length of the conductor is that part which is under the influence of
magnetic field and is responsible for induced emf.
➢ The conductor, when connected to other conductor, forms turns, coils and
windings.

2. Turn:
➢ A conductor in one slot when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a
turn.
➢ Thus, two conductors with their one end connected together form a turn.
➢ Thus, if there are 𝑍𝑝ℎ conductors per phase, the number of turns per phase will be
𝑇𝑝ℎ= 𝑍𝑝ℎ/2.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 8

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

3. Coil :
➢ As there are many conductors per slot, a number of turns are grouped together a
form a multiturn coil.

4. Coil side:
➢ A coil is accommodated in two distant slots with many slots in between.
➢ Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side.
➢ Thus, the two coil sides are many slots away.

5. Pole pitch:
➢ The distance between the centres of two adjacent poles is called pole pitch.
➢ Pole pitch is expressed in terms of the number of slots per pole, denoted as n.

Pole pitch n= slots per pole=

6. Slot angle (α)
➢ The electrical angle between two consecutive slots is known as slot angle.
➢ The emf induced in two conductors placed in adjacent slots will have a phase
difference of α.
180
Slot angle α=
𝑛
Types of armature windings

1. Single layer and double layer windings:

➢ If a slot contains only one coil side, the type of winding is called single layer
winding.
➢ To save space, two coil sides are accommodated in each slot. It is then known as
double layer winding.

2. Full pitch and short pitch windings:

➢ When a coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot on pole
pitch away, the coil is called full pitch coil and the winding is called full pitch
winding.
➢ When a coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot slightly less
than one pole pitch away, the coil is called short pitch coil and the winding is
called short pitch winding.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 9

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

3. Concentrated and distributed winding

➢ When all conductors of coil belonging to a phase are placed in one slot under
every pole, the winding is called concentrated winding.
➢ In practice, the coils comprising a phase of the winding are distributed in two or
more slots per pole.
➢ Compared to concentrated winding, the distributed winding is preferred as it
results in an induced emf of waveform nearer to sinusoidal and better heat
dissipation.

Concepts of winding factor

Due to some advantages, the coils of the windings are usually wound a little short pitched.
Also, the conductors of the coils are distributed over 2-3 slots per pole. Because of these two
factors, the induced emf per phase Eph gets reduced compared to the full pitched concentrated
winding.

1. Pitch factor (𝐊𝐩)

The pitch factor is defined as the factor by which the emf per coil is reduced because of
the pitch being less than full pitch.
In a full pitch coil AB as shown in fig, the emfs induced in the two coil sides Ea and Eb
(each equal to E) are in phase and the resultant emf of the coil is simply
Er= Ea+ Eb= E + E = 2E
However, due to some advantages, the coils are usually wound a little short pitched as
shown in fig c. In such a short pitched coil, the emf induced in the two coil sides Ea and
Eb(each equal to E) are out of phase by an angle β. The two emfs must then be added
vectorially to get the resultant emf Er of the coil.
Er= OQ =2*OS = 2*OP* cos (β/2) = 2Ecos (β/2)

Thus the pitch factor is given as

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 10

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Fig 5 Definition of pitch factor

Distribution factor (𝐊𝐝)

The distribution factor is defined as the factor by which the resultant emf per coil is
reduced because of the coil being distributed, instead of being concentrated.
In a distributed winding, the emf in the adjacent coils will be slightly out of phase with
respect to one another, and their resultant will be less than their algebraic sum. Each
component emf is displaced from the component emf of the adjacent slot by the slot
angle α electrical degrees.
If a synchronous generator has q slots per pole per phase and its slot angle is α electrical
degree, its distribution factor may be derived as

E.M.F. Equation of an alternator

Let Ø = flux per pole in Wb
P = number of poles
NS= synchronous speed in rpm
f= frequency of induced emf in Hz
Z= total number of conductors

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 11

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Zph = conductors per phase connected in series

as number of phase=3
Consider a single conductor placed in a slot

The average value of emf induced in a conductor = For

one revolution of a conductor,

eavg per conductor =

Total flux cut in one revolution is Ø*P.
Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds, as speed is NS rpm

Therefore, eavg per conductor =

But f=

Therefore =2f

Substituting in equation (1) eavg

per conductor = 2 f Ø

Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a conductor which
is 180° electrical apart. So these two emf will try to set up a current in the same direction i.e.
the two emfs are helping each other and hence the resultant emf per turn will be twice the emf
induced in a conductor

Therefore emf per turn = 2 * (emf per conductor)

= 2 * (2 f Ø)

=4fØ

Let Tph be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated
winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So the induced emf in
all the turns will be in phase as placed in single slot. Hence net emf per phase will be algebraic
sum of the emfs per turn

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 12

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Therefore average Eph = Tph * (average emf per turn)

Average Eph = Tph * 4 f Ø

But in ac circuits RMS value of an alternating quantity is used for analysis. The form factor is
1.11 for purely sinusoidal emf

for sinusoidal

Therefore RMS value of Eph = Kf * Average value

Eph = 1.11 * 4 f Ø Tph

𝐄𝐩𝐡 = 4.44 f Ø 𝐓𝐩𝐡 where Tph number of turns per phase = 𝑍𝑝ℎ/2.

But due to short pitch, distribution winding in practice, this Ephwill reduce by factors Kd andKp.
So the generalized expression for emf equation can be written as

𝐄𝐩𝐡 = 4.44 𝐊 𝐝 𝐊 𝐩 f Ø 𝐓𝐩𝐡

For full pitched coil Kp =1

For concentrated winding Kd=1

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 13

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

INTRODUCTION

The three phase induction motor is the most widely used a.c. motor. It differs from other type
of motors in that there is no connection from the rotor winding to any source of supply. The
necessary voltage and current in the rotor circuit are produced by induction from the stator
winding which is why it is called induction motor.

Advantages

1. It is very simple, very robust and rugged, practically unbreakable construction.

2. Its cost is low.
3. It is very reliable.
4. It is highly efficient
5. It has a fairly good power factor.
6. Its maintenance requires minimum of attention.
7. It does not need to be synchronized. It has a simple starting arrangement.

Disadvantage

1. It is essentially a constant speed motor and the speed cannot be varied easily.
2. Its speed reduces to some extent with increase in load as in case of D.C. shunt motor.
3. It has somewhat lesser starting torque as compared to D.C. shunt motor.

CONSTRUCTION

Three phase induction motor consists of two parts

1. Stator
2. Rotor

Stator

• It is the stationary part of the motor supporting the entire motor assembly.
• This outer frame is made up of a single piece of cast iron in case of small machines.
• In case of larger machines they are fabricated in sections of steel and bolted together.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 14

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

• The core is made of thin laminations of silicon steel and flash enamelled to reduce eddy
current and hysteresis losses.
• Slots are evenly spaced on the inner periphery of the laminations.
• Conductors insulated from each other are placed in these slots and are connected to form
a balanced 3 - phase star or delta connected stator circuit.
• Depending on the desired speed the stator winding is wound for the required number of
poles. Greater the speed lesser is the number of poles.

Rotor

They are basically classified into two types based on the rotor construction

1. Squirrel cage motor

2. Slip ring motor or phase wound motor

Squirrel cage rotor

• Squirrel cage rotors are widely used because of their ruggedness.

• The rotor consists of hollow laminated core with parallel slots provided on the outer
periphery.
• The rotor conductors are solid bars of copper, aluminium or their alloys.
• The bars are inserted from the ends into the semi-enclosed slots and are brazed to the thick
short circuited end rings.
• This sort of construction resembles a squirrel cage hence the name “squirrel cage
induction motor”.
• The rotor conductors being permanently short circuited prevent the addition of any
external resistance to the rotor circuit to improve the inherent low starting torque.
• The rotor bars are not placed parallel to each other but are slightly skewed which reduces
the magnetic hum and prevents cogging of the rotor and the stator teeth.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 15

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Phase wound/slip ring rotor

• The rotor in case of a phase wound/ slip ring motor has a 3-phase double layer distributed
winding made up of coils, similar to that of an alternator.
• The rotor winding is usually star connected and is wound to the number of stator poles.
• The terminals are brought out and connected to three slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft
with the brushes resting on the slip rings.
• The brushes are externally connected to the star connected rheostat in case a higher
starting torque and modification in the speed torque characteristics are required.
• Under normal running conditions all the slip rings are automatically short circuited by a
metal collar provided on the shaft and the condition is similar to that of a cage rotor.
• Provision is made to lift the brushes to reduce the frictional losses.
• The slip ring and the enclosures are made of phosphor bronze .

Comparison of the squirrel cage and slip ring rotors

S.No Slip ring rotor Squirrel cage rotor
1. Rotor consist of a 3-phase winding Rotor consist of bars which are shorted at the
similar to stator winding ends with the help of end rings
2. Construction is complicated Construction is very simple
3. Resistance can be added externally As permanently shorted external resistance
cannot be added
4. Slip rings and brushes are present Slip rings and brushes are absent
5. Rotors are very costly Due to simple constructions rotors are cheap
6. High starting torque can be obtained Moderate starting torque which cannot be
controlled
7. Rotor resistance starter can be used Rotor resistance starter cannot be used
8. Rotor must be wound for same The rotor automatically adjusts itself for the
number of poles as stator same number of poles as that of stator

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 16

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

9. Rotor copper loss is high hence Rotor copper loss is less and hence efficiency
efficiency is less is more
Production of rotating magnetic field
Consider a 3- phase induction motor whose stator windings mutually displaced from each other
by 120° are connected in delta and energized by a 3- phase supply.

The currents flowing in each phase will set up a flux in the respective phases as shown

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 17

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

The corresponding phase fluxes can be represented by the following equations

ΦR =Φm sinωt =Φm sinθ

ΦY =Φm sin(ωt -120o)

ΦY =Φm sin(θ-120o)

ΦB =Φm sin(ωt -240o)

ΦB =Φm sin(θ-240o)
The resultant flux at any instant is given by the vector sum of the flux in each of the
phases.

(i) When θ=0, from the flux waveform diagram ,we have
Φ
R =0

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 18

 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

ΦY =Φm sin(-120) =- Φm √3/2

ΦB =Φm sin(-240) = Φm √3/2
The resultant flux Φr is given by,

So the magnitude of 𝝋𝑻 is 1.5𝝋𝒎 and its position is vertically upward at θ=0°

(ii) When θ=60°

ΦR = Φm √3/2

ΦY =- Φm √3/2

ΦB =0

Doing the same construction, we get the same result as 𝝋𝑻 = 1.5𝝋𝒎

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 19

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

So the magnitude of 𝝋𝑻 is 1.5𝝋𝒎 , but it has rotated through 60° in space, in clockwise
direction from its previous position.

(iii) When θ= 120°

ΦR =Φm √3/2

ΦY =0

ΦB =-Φm √3/2

Doing the same construction, we get the same result as 𝝋𝑻 = 1.5𝝋𝒎

So the magnitude of 𝝋𝑻 is 1.5𝝋𝒎 , but it has rotated through 120° in space, in clockwise
direction from its position θ=0°.

(iv) When θ=180°

ΦR = 0;
ΦY = Φm √3/2
ΦB =- Φm √3/2

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 20

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Doing the same construction, we get the same result as 𝝋𝑻 = 1.5𝝋𝒎

So the magnitude of 𝝋𝑻 is 1.5𝝋𝒎 , but it has rotated through 180° in space, in clockwise
direction from its position θ=0°.

From the above discussion we have the following conclusion

1. The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by 120° has constant
amplitude of 1.5𝝋𝒎 where 𝝋𝒎 is the maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any
flux.

2. The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.

Speed of the RMF

There exist a fixed relation between frequency f of AC supply to the winding, the number of
poles for which the winding is wound and speed N rpm of rotating magnetic field. For a
standard frequency whatever speed of RMF results is called Synchronous Speed. In case of
induction motor it is denoted as NS

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 21

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Working principle

Fig d

Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

When a 3 phase is given to the 3 phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced. The speed of this rotating magnetic field is synchronous speed NS rpm.

This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let the direction of this
rotating magnetic field be clockwise as shown in fig above.
Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux RMF is rotating. So it’s obvious that
there exist a relative motion between the RMF and rotor conductors. Now the RMF gets cut
by the rotor conductors as RMF sweeps over the rotor conductors. Whenever conductor cuts
the flux, emf gets induced in the rotor. The emf that gets induced in the rotor conductor is
called rotor induced emf. This is electromagnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit,
induced emf circulates current through the rotor called rotor current as shown in fig b above.
Let the direction of the current be going into the paper denoted by cross.
Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor
flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is shown in fig c. this
direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are two fluxes, one
RMF and other rotor flux. Both fluxes interact with each other as shown in fig d. On left of
the rotor conductor, two fluxes are in same direction hence added up to get high flux area. On

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 22

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

the right side, the two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As the flux acts as
stretched rubber bands, high density area exerts a push on rotor conductors towards low flux
density area. So the rotor conductors experiences a force from left to right in the case as shown
in fig d due to interaction of two fluxes.
As all the rotor conductors experience a force the overall rotor experiences a torque and starts
rotating. So the interaction of the two fluxes is very important for a motoring action. As seen
from fig d the direction of force experienced is same as that of RMF. Hence rotor starts rotating
in the same direction as RMF.
Alternatively this can be explained as:
According to Lenz`s law the direction of the induced current in the rotor is so as to oppose
the cause producing it. The cause of the rotor current is the induced emf which is induced
because of the relative motion present between the RMF and rotor conductors. Hence to
oppose the relative motion i.e. to reduce the relative speed, the rotor experiences a torque in
the same direction as that of RMF and tries to catch up the speed of the RMF. So

NS = speed of RMF
N = speed of motor
NS - N = relative speed between RMF and rotor conductor

Can N=𝐍𝐒 ?
When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch up the speed of RMF. If it catches the speed of the
RMF, the relative motion between the rotor and the RMF will vanish (NS – N=0). In fact the
relative motion is the main cause for the induced emf in the rotor. So induced emf will
vanish and hence there cannot be rotor current and the rotor flux which is essential to
produce torque on the rotor. Eventually the motor will stop. But immediately there will exist
a relative motion between the rotor and RMF and it will start. But due to inertia of rotor, this
does not happen in practice and rotor continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the
synchronous speed of the RMF in a steady state. The induction motor never rotates at
synchronous speed. The speed at which it rotates is hence called subsynchronous speed and
motor sometimes called asynchronous motor.
N< NS

So it can be said that rotor slips behind the RMF produced by stator. The difference between the
two is called slip speed.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 23

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

NS – N = slip speed of the motor in rpm

This speed decides the magnitude of the induced emf and the rotor current, which in turn
decides the torque produced.

Slip of the induction motor

The rotor rotates in the same direction as that of RMF but in steady state attains a speed less
than the synchronous speed. The difference between the two speeds is called the slip speed.
This slip speed is generally expressed as % of synchronous speed.
So the slip speed of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the
synchronous speed and the actual speed of the rotor expressed as a fraction of synchronous
speed.

S=
% slip is expressed as

S=

In terms of slip actual speed of motor can be expressed as

N= NS(1-S)
At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N=0

Therefore S=1 at start

Frequency of rotor current

When the rotor is at standstill, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. However, when there is relative speed between the rotor and stator field, the
frequency of the induced voltage and hence the current in the rotor varies with the rotor
speed i.e. slip. Let at any speed N of the rotor, the frequency of the rotor current be f`.

Then,
As,

Dividing (1) by (2)

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 24

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

S=
Note: In an induction motor the slip value ranges from 2% to 4%

Application of squirrel cage and slip ring induction motor

1. Squirrel cage type of motor having moderate starting torque and constant speed
characteristic are preferred for driving fans, blowers, water pumps, grinders, lathe machines,
printing ,machines, drilling machines.

2. Slip ring induction motor can have high starting torque. Hence they are preferred for
lifts, hoists, elevators, cranes.

Need for starters

When a 3- phase motor of higher rating is switched on directly from the mains it draws a
starting current of about 4 -7 times the full load (depending upon on the design) current. This
will cause a drop in the voltage affecting the performance of other loads connected to the
mains. Hence starters are used to limit the initial current drawn by the 3 phase induction
motors.

The starting current is limited by applying reduced voltage in case of squirrel cage type
induction motor and by increasing the impedance of the motor circuit in case of slip ring type
induction motor. This can be achieved by the following methods .

1. Star –delta starter

2. Auto transformer starter

3. Soft starter

Star delta starter

The star delta starter is used for squirrel cage induction motor whose stator winding is delta
connected during normal running conditions. The two ends of each phase of the stator winding
are drawn out and connected to the starter terminals as shown in the following figure

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 25

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

When the switch is closed on the star-start side

(1) The winding is to be shown connected in star

(2) The current I = 1/3 * (I direct switching)
(3) Reduction in voltage by1/√3

V = V supply*1/√3
When the switch is closed on to delta –run side (1)

the winding to be shown connected in delta

(2) application of normal voltage V supply

(3) normal current I

During staring the starter switch is thrown on to the STAR - START. In this position the
stator winding is connected in star fashion and the voltage per phase is 1/√3 of the supply
voltage. This will limit the current at starting to 1/3 of the value drawn during direct switching.
When the motor accelerates the starter switch is thrown on to the DELTA - RUN side. In this

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 26

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

position the stator winding gets connected in the fashion and the motor draws the normal
rated current.

Department of E&EE, Dr.TTIT, KGF Page 27