2.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND ENGINE PERFORMANCE

2.1 Introduction
Internal combustion engine generally operates within a useful range of speed. Some engines
are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed governor which is its rated speed. The ratio
of power developed to the maximum usable power at the same speed is called the load. The
specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed. The performance of the engine depends on
inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each
operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.
In engine the basic tasks in the design and development are to reduces the cost and improve
the efficiency & power output. Measurement and engine performance test is used to maximize
the engine power and torque output, and to minimize the fuel consumption, emission, noise and
overall cost. In order to evaluate the performance characteristics of the engine; fuel consumption,
speed, load, temperature of engine oil and working parts, heat given off by the cooling system,
exhaust temperature, nature of the exhaust gases, etc. are checked and recorded.
2.2 Measurement and Testing
Important tests and measurements are friction power, indicated power, brake power, fuel
consumption, Air-fuel ratio, Speed, Exhaust and coolant temperature, Emissions, Noise and
Combustion phenomena. Some of the measuring devices to be used are: engine indicators used
to record the working pressure in the cylinder during a complete cycle of the engine and to
determine the indicated power (Pi ) in ‘kW’ ), dynamometers used to measure the force or
torque in ‘Nm’ and the brake power (Pb) in ‘kW’), fuel flow meter is used to measure the
amount of fuel consumed by the engine (fc) in ‘cm3/s’ or (sfc) in ‘g/h’ or (bsfc) in ‘g/kWh’).
The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on almost all
tests are the following:
(a) Friction power g) Speed
(b) Indicated power h) Emissions/ Exhaust gas analysis
(c) Brake power i) Noise
(d) Fuel consumption j) Combustion phenomenon
(e) Air consumption/ Air flow k) Heat balance sheet or performance of SI and CI engine
f) Exhaust and coolant temperature
 The difference between indicated power and the brake power output of an engine is the
friction power. Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due
to difference between their frictional losses. During the inlet and exhaust stroke the gaseous
pressure on the piston is greater on its forward side (on the underside during the inlet and on the
upper side during the exhaust stroke), hence during both strokes the piston must be moved
against a gaseous pressure, and this causes the so called pumping loss. The friction loss is made
up of the friction between the piston and cylinder walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and
between the crankshaft and camshaft and their bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by
driving the essential accessories, such as the water pump, ignition unit etc. It should be the aim
of the designer to have minimum loss of power in friction. Friction power is used for the
evaluation of indicated power and mechanical efficiency. Moreover, lower friction means
availability of more brake power; hence brake specific fuel consumption is lower. Following
methods are used to find the friction power to estimate the performance of the engine.
 Willan’s line method.
 Morse test.
 Motoring test.
 From the measurement of indicated and brake power
 Retardation test

2.2.1.1 Willan’s line method

This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. A graph connecting fuel
consumption (y-axis) and brake power (x-axis) at constant speed is drawn and it is extrapolated
on the negative axis of brake power. The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction
power of the engine at that speed. The method of extrapolation is shown in Fig.2.1 (dotted lines).
As shown in the Fig.2.1, since, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear which permits extrapolation. Further, when the engine
does not develop any power, i.e., Pb = 0, it consumes a certain amount of fuel. The energy would
have been spent in overcoming the friction. Hence, the extrapolated negative intercept of the x-
axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to mechanical friction, pumping and
blow by and as a whole it is termed the frictional loss of the engine. It should be noted that the
measured frictional power by this method will hold good only for a particular speed and is
applicable mainly to CI engines. The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be
extrapolated from data obtained between 5 and 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input. The
directional margin of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear. The changing
slope along the curve indicates the effect of part load efficiency of the engine. The pronounced
change in the slope of this line near full load reflects the limiting influence of the air-fuel ratio
and of the quality of combustion. Similarly, there may be slight curvature at light loads. This is
perhaps due to the difficulty in injecting accurately and consistently very small quantities of fuel
per cycle. Therefore, it is essential that great care should be taken in extrapolating the line and as
many readings as possible should be taken at light loads to establish the true nature of the curve.
The accuracy obtained in this method is reasonably good and compares favourably with other
methods if extrapolation is carefully done.

Figure2.1: Willian’s line method

2.2.1.2 Morse Test

The Morse test is applicable only to multi cylinders engines. In this test, the engine is first run at
the required speed and the output is measured. Then, one cylinder is cut-out by short circuiting
the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the case may be. Under this condition all other
cylinders motor this cut-out cylinder. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its
original value. The difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut
out cylinder. Thus, for each cylinder the Pi is obtained and is added together to find the total Pi of
the engine. This method though gives reasonably accurate results and is liable to errors due to
changes in mixture distribution and other conditions by cutting-out one cylinder. In gasoline
engines, where there is a common manifold for two or more cylinders the mixture distribution as
well as the volumetric efficiency both change. Again, almost all engines have a common exhaust
manifold for all cylinders and cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations in
exhaust system which may significantly change the engine performance by imposing different
back pressures.

2.2.1.3 Motoring Test

In the motoring test, the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own power and allowed
to remain at the given speed and load conditions for some time so that oil, water, and engine
component temperatures reach stable conditions. The power of the engine during this period is
absorbed by a swinging field type electric dynamometer, which is most suitable for this test. The
fuel supply is then cut-off and by suitable electric-switching devices the dynamometer is
converted to run as a motor to drive for „motor‟ the engine at the same speed at which it was
previously running. The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of the Pf of
the engine. During the motoring test the water supply is also cut-off so that the actual operating
temperatures are maintained. This method, though determines the Pf at temperature conditions
very near to the actual operating temperatures at the test speed and load, does, not give the true
losses occurring under firing conditions due to the following reasons.
i) The temperatures in the motored engine are different from those in a firing engine because
even if water circulation is stopped the incoming air cools the cylinder. This reduces the
lubricating oil temperature and increases friction increasing the oil viscosity. This problem is
much more severing in air-cooled engines.
ii) The pressure on the bearings and piston rings is lower than the firing pressure. Load on main
and connecting road bearings are lower.
iii) The clearance between piston and cylinder wall is more (due to cooling). This reduces the
piston friction.
iv) The air is drawn at a temperature less than when the engine is firing because it does not get
heat from the cylinder (rather loses heat to the cylinder). This makes the expansion line to be
lower than the compression line on the p-v diagram. This loss is however counted in the
indicator diagram.
v) During exhaust the back pressure is more because under motoring conditions sufficient
pressure difference is not available to impart gases the kinetic energy is necessary to expel
them from exhaust. Motoring method, however, gives reasonably good results and is very
suitable for finding the losses due to various engine components. This insight into the losses
caused by various components and other parameters is obtained by progressive stripping-off
of the under progressive dismantling conditions keeping water and oil circulation intact.
Then the cylinder head can be removed to evaluate, by difference, the compression loss. In
this manner piston ring, piston etc. can be removed and evaluated for their effect on overall
friction.
2.2.1.4 From the Measurement of Indicated and Brake Bower
i) The method of finding the Pf by computing the difference between Pi as obtained from
an indicator diagram, and Pb as obtained by a dynamometer, is the ideal method.
ii) In obtaining accurate indicator diagrams, especially at high engine speeds, this method
is usually only used in research laboratories. Its use at commercial level is very
limited.
2.2.2 Indicated Power
Indicated power of an engine tells about the health of the engine and also gives an indication
regarding the conversion of chemical energy in the fuel into heat energy. Indicated power is an
important variable because it is the potential output of the cycle. Therefore, to justify the
measurement of indicated power, it must be more accurate than motoring and other indirect
methods of measuring frictional power. For obtaining indicated power the cycle pressure must be
determined as a function of cylinder volume. It may be noted that it is of no use to determine
pressure accurately unless volume or crank angle can be accurately measured. In order to
estimate the indicated power of an engine the following methods are usually followed.
(a) using the indicator diagram
(b) by adding two measured quantities viz. brake power and friction power
2.2.2.1 Method using the Indicator Diagram
The device which measures the variation of the pressure in the cylinder over a part or full
cycle is called an indicator and the plot of such information obtained is called an indicator
diagram. Indicator diagram is the only intermediate record available in the account of total
liberated energy before it is measured at the output shaft. Thus an indicator diagram gives a very
good indication of the process of combustion and in the associated factors such as rate of
pressure rise, ignition lag, etc. by its analysis. Also the losses occur ring in the suction and
exhaust strokes can be studied. It is very rare that an indicator diagram is taken to find indicated
power only. It is almost invariably used to study engine combustion, knocking, tuning of inlet
and exhaust manifolds, etc. Pressure-volume, p-V and pressure-crank angle, p-θ, are the two
types of indicator diagrams that can be obtained from an engine. Both these indicator diagrams
are mutually convertible. An actual indicator diagram is shown in fig.2.2 (a) for a working cycle
whereas fig.2.2 (b) is for a missed cycle. During a missed cycle of operation there is no power
developed and therefore the entire area is shaded. The direction of the arrows shows the path to
be followed in the diagram. The sign of an area depends upon the direction in which it is traced
and since the shaded area is traced in the reverse direction compared to the unshaded area, which
has the opposite sign. The shaded area represents the work done in charging and discharging the
cylinder. The elasticity of the column of exhaust gas results in a wavy line on the exhaust stroke.
The unshaded area represents the gross power (gp), developed and the shaded one represents the
pumping power (pp). Therefore, the indicated power, Pi = (gp-pp). In practice pp is generally
ignored since it is very small. Thus the area of the indicator diagram if accurately measured will
represent the indicated power of the engine.

a) Working cycle b) Missed cycle

Figure2.2: Actual indicator diagram of an Otto engine

2.2.2.2 Engine Indicators

Basically an engine indicating device consists of a pressure sensing device, a device for
sensing the piston displacement or the angular position of the crankpin over the complete cycle
and a display device which can depict both pressure and piston displacement on paper or screen.
Some indicators also need additional equipment such as preamplifier to amplify the pressure
signal before it can be displayed.
The main types of engine indicators are
i) Piston indicator
ii) Balanced diaphragm type indicator
iii) Electronic indicator
In addition to this, optical indicators are also used. Thus, a large number of indicators are in use.
Of the above types, only electronic indicators are in common use at present.

2.2.2.3 Electronic Indicators

In order to investigate the individual cycles or a part of the cycle, electronic indicators have been
developed which consist of four main parts.
 a pressure pick-up
 a preamplifying device
 a time base recording device
 a display unit
The pressure pick-up is called a pressure transducer. It generates an electric signal in proportion
to the pressure to which it is subjected. The transducer is usually fitted in the cylinder head just
like a spark plug without projecting into the combustion space. The pressure is picked-up with
respect to displacement of a diaphragm. This diaphragm is made very stiff in order to reduce the
displacement and hence the inertia effects are reduced to minimum. The displacement of the
diaphragm is transmitted to the transducer element which may be any one of the following
 piezo electric crystal
 electromagnetic type
 capacitance type
 strain gauge-type element
2.2.3 Measurement of Brake Power
The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed
of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer. Dynamometers
can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption dynamometers and transmission
dynamometer. Absorption Dynamometers: These dynamometers measure and absorb the
power output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated
as heat by some means. Example of such dynamometers is prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic
dynamometer, etc. Transmission Dynamometers: In transmission dynamometer, the power is
transmitted to the load coupled to the engine after it is indicated on some type of scale. These are
also called torque-meters.
2.2.3.1 Prony Brake Dynamometer:
One of the simplest methods of measuring brake power (output) is to attempt to stop the
engine by means of a brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to
the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel. It consists of wooden block
mounted on a flexible rope or band the wooden block when pressed into contact with the
rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in frictional resistance. Spring-
loaded bolts are provided to tighten the wooden block and hence increase the friction.

Figure2.3: Prony Brake

The pressure of the brake shoes on the fly wheel can be varied by the spring loaded using
nuts on the top of the frame. The wooden block when pressed into contact with the rotating
drum opposes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in overcoming frictional resistance.
The power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must be cooled.
The brake power is given by
Pb = 2πNT (2.1)
T = Wl (2.2)
W being the weight applied at a distance l.
2.2.3.2 Rope Brake
It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the
output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other to a loading
device. The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum. The drum therefore
requires cooling.

Figure2.4: Rope brake

Rope brake is cheap and easily constructed but not a very accurate method because of
changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature. The Pb is given by Pb = πDN
(W − S) where, D is the brake drum diameter, W is the weight in Newton and S is the spring
scale reading.
2.2.3.3 Hydraulic Dynamometer
Hydraulic dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction
rather than in dry friction. In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel. It
consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine. This
impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid. This outer casing, due to the centrifugal force
developed, tends to revolve with the impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the
balance weight. The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the
spring-balance fitted on the casing. The heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried
away by a continuous supply of the working fluid, usually water. The output can be controlled
by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in and out to partially or wholly obstruct the
flow of water between impeller, and the casing.
2.2.3.4 Transmission Dynamometer
Transmission dynamometers, also called torque meters, mostly consist of a set of strain
gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular deformation of the
shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge. Usually a four-arm bridge is used to reduce
the effect of temperature to minimum and the gauges are arranged in pairs such that the effect of
axial or transverse load on the strain gauges is avoided. Figure2.5 shows a transmission
dynamometer which employs beams and strain-gauges for a sensing torque. Transmission
dynamometers are very accurate and are used where continuous transmission of load is
necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.

Figure2.5: Transmission dynamometer

2.2.4 Fuel Consumption Measurement

Fuel consumption is measured in two ways: (a) the fuel consumption of an engine is
measured by determining the volume flow in a given time interval and multiplying it by the
specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured occasionally to get an accurate value. (b)
Another method is to measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel. As
already mentioned two basic types of fuel measurement methods are:
 Volumetric type
 Gravimetric type
 2.2.4.1 Volumetric Type Flow Meter
Volumetric type flow meter includes Burette method, Automatic Burette flow meter and
Turbine flow meter. The simplest method of measuring volumetric fuel consumption is using
glass bulbs of known volume and having a mark on each side of the bulb. Time taken by the
engine to consume this volume is measured by a stop watch. Volume divided by time will give
the volumetric flow rate.
2.2.4.2 Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement
The efficiency of an engine is related to the kilograms of fuel which are consumed and not
the number of litres. The method of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for specific
gravity variations is quite inconvenient and inherently limited in accuracy. Instead if the weight
of the fuel consumed is directly measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be
obtained. There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially available
include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four Orifice Flow meter, etc.
2.2.5 Measurement of Air Consumption
In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the
flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a compressible fluid.
Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the induction pipe is not satisfactory since the
reading will be pulsating and unreliable. All kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles,
orifices and venturies have a square law relationship between flow rate and differential pressure
which gives rise to severe errors on unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly
inversely proportional to the pressure across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The
various methods and meters used for air flow measurement include,
(a) Air box method, and
(b) Viscous-flow air meter

2.2.5.1 Air Box Method

The orifice method can be used if pressure pulsations could be damped out by some means. The
usual method of damping out pulsations is to fit an air box of suitable volume (500 to 600 times
the swept volume in single cylinder engines and less in the case of multi-cylinder engines) to the
engine with an orifice placed in the side of the box remote from the engine (Fig.2.6).
 Figure2.6: Measurement of air by air box method

2.2.5.2 Viscous Flow Air Meter

The use (Fig.2.7) of viscous flow air meter gives accurate reading for pulsating flows. This
meter uses an element where viscous resistance is the principal source of pressure loss and
kinetic effects are small. This gives a linear relationship between pressure difference and flow
instead of a square-law. From this it follows that a true mean-flow indication is obtained under
pulsating flow conditions.

Figure2.7: Alcock Viscous Flow Air Meter

The viscous element is in the form of a honeycomb passage (a very large number of passages,
Reynolds number being less than 200). The passages are triangular of the size approximately 0.5
× 0.5 × 75 mm. The chief source of error in viscous meters arises from surface contamination of
the small triangular passages. However, by ensuring good filtration at the entry to the meter, and
not passing air through the meter unless readings are required, this trouble can be minimized. An
advantage of viscous-flow meter is that larger range of flow can be measured without pressure
head being too small. Nowadays positive displacement type of flow meters is also used for the
measurement of air consumption.
2.2.6 Measurement of Speed
One of the basic measurements is that of speed. A wide variety of speed measuring devices
are available in the market. Speed of the engine is widely used in the computation of power,
design and development. Measurement of speed is accomplished by instruments like mechanical
counters and timers, mechanical tachometers, stroboscope, electric counters, tachometers,
electric generators, electronic pulse counters etc. The best method of measuring speed is to count
the number of revolutions in a given time. This gives an accurate measurement of speed. Many
engines are fitted with such revolution counters. A mechanical tachometer or an electrical
tachometer can also be used for measuring the speed. The electrical tachometer has a three phase
permanent magnet alternator to which a voltmeter is attached. The output of the alternator is a
linear function of the speed and is directly indicated on the voltmeter dial. Both electrical and
mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and are not very
accurate. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a magnetic pick-up placed near a
toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used. The magnetic pick-up will produce a
pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the speed.
2.2.7 Exhaust and Coolant Temperature
Simplest way of measuring the exhaust temperature is by means of a thermocouple.
Nowadays electronic temperature sensitive transducers are available which can be used for
temperature measurements. Ultra violet radiation analyzers also have come into use for
measuring temperatures. Coolant temperatures are normally measured using suitable
thermometers.
2.2.8 Emissions
From the point of view of pollution control, measurement of emissions from engines is very
important. Emissions may be divided into two groups, viz., invisible emissions and visible
emissions. The exhaust of an engine may contain one or more of the following:
(a) carbon dioxide
(b) water vapour
(c) oxides of nitrogen
(d) unburnt hydrocarbons
(e) carbon monoxide
(f) aldehydes smoke and
(g) particulate.
2.2.9 Noise
Noise is a mixture of various sounds which is a source of irritation for the listener. Sound is
created by a vibrating object. The vibrations are transmitted to the surrounding air in the form of
pressure waves. If the frequency and intensity of the pressure waves are within specified range
they produce sensation of sound (15 to 15000 Hz and 0 to 120 dB intensity). Sound level meter
consists of a microphone, calibrated attenuator, an electronic amplifier and an indicator meter
which reads in decibels (dB) as shown in Fig.2.8. Octave band frequency analyzer is suitable for
obtaining the frequency distribution in light bands in frequency region between 20 and 10,000
Hz. The measurement of the noise emitted by motor vehicles is based on a moving vehicle, since
it is the total noise emitted by motor vehicle including gear box and transmission.

Figure2.8: Sound Level Meter

2.2.10 Combustion Phenomenon

Combustion in internal combustion engine is very complex and still it is not fully understood.
In order to have an insight into the combustion it is necessary to measure flame temperature,
flame propagation, details of combustion and knock.
2.2.10.1 Flame Temperature Measurement
Flame temperature measurement is a difficult task especially inside the cylinder. Infrared and
spectrographic methods are some of the methods currently employed.
2.2.10.2 Flame Propagation
Slow combustion and the propagation of a combustion wave are the two phenomena that
occur whenever ignition of combustible mixture takes place. During slow combustion, the fuel
molecules that are already burning raise the temperature of adjacent molecules by conduction
and radiation causing them to ignite. At the same time the temperature rise of the gas molecules
increases their velocity. This raises the pressure in that point and results in an expansion that
assists in propagating the ignition.
 Turbulence created in the charge before ignition increase materially the velocity of flame
propagation which in this case occurs not only through conduction and radiation but also through
convection. It is not easy to segregate all these processes. Whenever a compression wave occurs
its velocity may reach several metres per second and passing through the explosive mixture
accompanied by almost instantaneous generation of very high pressures it may cause serious
trouble in the engine. That is why the measurement of flame propagation is necessary in the
evaluation of the performance of IC engine.
Flame location with time is directly measured by the use of ionization gauges. The gauges are
made up of a wire in an annulus. The wire is insulated from the body of the gauge. Whenever
flame reaches the annulus it becomes conducting since an electrical circuit is completed between
the wire and the gauge body. A DC voltage is normally applied to the wire and an electronic
timing circuit connected to the gauge body as well as some reference time location. When the
flame arrives at the gauge the timing circuit is triggered and the time from the reference time is
measured.
2.2.10.3 Combustion Process
High speed colour photography has been successfully used for qualitative combustion analysis
notably by Ricardo. A better understanding of the combustion process can be obtained from
combustion films. Nowadays software is developed to analyze these chemical films and thereby
analysis of the process is accurately possible using computers.
2.2.11 Heat Balance Sheet
The performance of an engine is usually studied by heat balance sheet. The main components
of the heat balance are:
 Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine,
 Heat rejected to the cooling medium,
 Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases, and
 Unaccounted losses.
The unaccounted losses include the radiation losses from the various parts of the engine and
heat lost due to incomplete combustion. The friction loss is not shown as a separate item to the
heat balance-sheet as the friction loss ultimately reappears as heat in cooling water, exhaust and
radiation.
Performance of SI engine
At full throttle the brake thermal efficiency at various speeds varies from 20 to 27 percent,
maximum efficiency being at the middle speed range. The percentage heat rejected to coolant is
more at lower speed (»35%) and reduces at higher speeds (»25%). Considerably more heat is
carried by exhaust at higher speeds. Torque and mean effective pressure do not strongly depend
on the speed of the engine, but depend on the volumetric efficiency and friction losses.
Maximum torque position corresponds with the maximum air charge or minimum volumetric
efficiency position.

Figure2.9: Heat balance sheet for SI engine

High power arises from the high speed. In the speed range before the maximum power is
obtained, doubling the speed doubles the power. At low engine speed the friction power is
relatively low and Pb is nearly as large as Pi. As engine speed increases, however, Pf increases at
continuously greater rate and therefore Pb reaches a peak and starts reducing even though Pi is
rising. At engine speeds above the usual operating range, Pf increases very rapidly. Also, at these
higher speeds Pi will reach a maximum and then fall off. At some point, Pi and Pf will be equal,
and Pb will then drop to zero.
2.3 Performance of CI engine
The performance of a CI engine at constant speed and variable load is given as, the efficiency
of CI engine is more than the SI engine the total losses are less. The coolant loss is more at low
loads and radiation, etc. losses are more at high loads.
 The brake mean effective pressure, brake power and torque directly increase with load
 The lowest brake specific fuel consumption and hence the maximum efficiency occurs
at about 80% of the full load.
 Figure2.10: Heat balance sheet of CI engine at constant speed

2.4 Engine Performance parameters

Engine performance parameters are indicators of the degree of success with which the engine
does the assigned task. In order to evaluate the performance of an engine certain basic
parameters have to be chosen and the effects of various operating conditions are studied.
 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed. The performance of the engine
depends on inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption
at each operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.
The basic performance parameters are: Powers, Mean effective pressure and Torque
Efficiencies, Specific output, Specific weight., Fuel-Air Ratio, Fuel-air ratio., Specific fuel
consumption & Power flow diagram and Heat balance sheet.
2.4.1 Indicated Power (Pi)
The power actually developed inside the engine cylinder by the combustion of the fuel is
called indicated power. It is the power available to drive the piston during the combustion
process. It is given by the relation.
( in w ) (1)
Where,
 Pi is the indicated power
 pm is the mean effective pressure
 a is the cylinder cross-sectional area
 s is the stroke
 z is the number of cylinders
 n is number of cycle

For a 4 - stroke engine,

For a 2 - stroke engine, n = N

 N = RPM of the engine crank shaft

2.4.2 Brake Power (Pb)

The power which the engine actually delivers to do the outside work. It is the power available at
engine crank shaft for doing useful work. It is also known as engine output power and is given
by the following relation.

(2)

 Pb is brake power
 Tb is brake torque
 N is RPM of the engine crank shaft
2.4.3 Frictional Power (Pf)
The difference between the indicated and brake power of an engine is known as friction power.
The internal losses in an engine are two kinds: pumping loss due to suction and exhaust strokes.
Friction loss: friction between piston and cylinder walls, at crankshaft bearings, and power
required to drive essential accessories. This power will be lost to cooling system and exhaust
gases as they appear in the form of friction heat. Output power (Pb) of an engine is always less
than the input power (Pi) because some power is lost in overcoming the friction between the
moving parts. The power lost in friction in the engine mechanism is called frictional power. It is
equal to the difference between the Pi and Pb. Thus,
Pf = Pi - Pb (3)

2.4.4 Mean Effective Pressure (mep)

It can be defined as the average pressure inside the cylinder of the internal combustion engine
based on the resulting power output. For any type of engine, there will be two mean effective
pressures. It is the indicated mean effective pressure (imep) and brake mean effective pressure
(bmep).
 If it is based on Pi, it is called indicated mean effective pressure (pim or imep).
 If it is based on b, it is called brake mean effective pressure (pbm or bmep).
 If it is based on Pf, it is called friction mean effective pressure (pfm or fmep).

– and –

2.4.5 Indicated Thermal Efficiency

The ratio between the indicated power to fuel energy is termed indicated thermal efficiency. The
actual amount of energy stored in the fuel = mass of fuel × calorific value of the fuel is known as
fuel energy.
 (4)

Where, ηith is the indicated thermal efficiency, mf is mass of the fuel & CV is calorific
value of the fuel
(5)

Dividing ηbth by ηith gives

Therefore, (6)

2.4.6 Brake Thermal Efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of power available at crank shaft (Pb) to the input fuel
energy in appropriate units.

(3.7)

Where,
ηbth is the brake thermal efficiency
mf is mass of the fuel
CV is calorific value of the fuel
The overall efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal efficiency, i.e.

(8)

Where,
mf  is the mass of fuel consumed per unit time, and Qnet is the lower calorific value of the fuel
2.4.7 Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the indicated
power (power provided to the piston). In other words, it is the ratio of brake power (Pb) to the
indicated power (Pi) is called the mechanical efficiency (m).

 (9)

2.4.8 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual mass flow rate of the charge drawn in
during the intake (induction) stroke per cylinder to the swept volume of the piston.

 (10)

Where, ηv is volumetric efficiency, is density of air & swept volume.

The average value of ηv is 70% to 80%. For a turbocharged engine it may be more than 100%
2.4.9 Relative Efficiency
Relative efficiency is the ratio of the actual cycle and the thermal capacity of the ideal cycle. It is
also known as the efficiency ratio or relative efficiency. The efficiency ratio is a very useful
criterion which indicates the degree of development of the engine. The relative efficiency or
efficiency ratio as it is sometimes called is the ratio of the actual efficiency obtained from an
engine to the theoretical efficiency of the engine cycle.

  (11)

Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to 95% with theoretical air and
decreases rapidly with insufficient air to about 75% with 90% air.
2.4.10 Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the ratio of heat liberated to the theoretical heat in the fuel. The amount
of heat liberated is less than the theoretical value because of incomplete combustion either due to
dissociation or due to lack of available oxygen. Combustion efficiency in a well-adjusted engine
varies from 92% to 97%.
2.4.11 Mean Piston Speed
The mean piston speed is the twice length of stroke and rotation speed of the crankshaft.
 Mean Piston Speed = 2 x L x N (12)
Where,
 L = Length of stroke
 N = Crankshaft speed in r.p.m.

2.4.12 Specific Output

The specific output is defined as the ratio of total brake power (Pb) to the engine capacity (Ec). It
is another indicator of the relative performance of different engines.

(13)

2.4.13 Specific weight (sw)

The specific weight is defined as the ratio of the weight (w) of the engine to the total brake
power (Pb). This is a measure of how bulky the engine is

w
sw  (14)
Pb

2.4.14 Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is defined as the amount of fuel consumed by an engine for one
unit of power production. sfc is used to express the fuel efficiency of an I.C. engine.

(15)

2.4.15 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bsfc)

Brake specific fuel consumption is the ratio of the total fuel consumed by the engine in ‘g/h’ to
the total brake power of the engine in ‘kW’.
.
m f
sfc
bsfc   (16)
Pb Pb
Low values of s.f.c are obviously desired. Typical best values of bsfc for SI engines are about
270g/kWh, and for C.I. engines are about 200g/kWh.
2.4.16 Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio is the ratio of the mass (mass flow rate) of fuel to the mass (mass flow rate) of air
in the mixture. F m f

A m a (17)
2.4.17 Air-Fuel Ratio
It is considered very important in the performance of the engine. In a spark-ignition engine, the
air-fuel ratio will be the same for most operations. Whereas in the compression engines, the fuel
is entered individually with the help of a fuel injector so that if the load needs to be increased, the
amount of fuel will increase directly into the cylinder.

(19)

2.4.18 Calorific Value of the Fuel

The calorific value of the fuel can be defined as the amount of thermal energy delivered per unit
quantity of fuel when it is fully burned.
Efficiencies, Power flow diagram and Heat balance sheet
Engine efficiencies are given as a ratio and in percentage.

Pi Pi
Indicated thermal efficiency (i,th)  i ,th   100% (20)
Pin m f  QLHV c

Pb Pb
Brake thermal efficiency (b,th)  b,th   100 % (21)
Pin m f  QLHV c

2.5 Engine Performance Characteristics

Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of an engine
performance. They are constructed from the data obtained during actual test runs of the engine
and are particularly useful in comparing the performance of one engine with that of another.
The tests on I.C. engines can be divided into two types:
1. Variable speed test.
2. Constant speed test.
1. Variable speed test: Variable speed tests can be divided into full-load tests, where
maximum power and minimum s.f.c at each different speed are the objectives, and part- load
tests to determine variation in the s.f.c.
a) Full – load test with SI engine: The throttle is fully opened and the lowest desired speed is
maintained by brake load adjustment. The spark is adjusted to give maximum power at this
speed. The test is started by the watch governing the fuel consumption, the test ended at the time
the fuel- consumption test has been completed. During this interval of time, the average speed,
brake load, temperatures, fuel weight. etc., are recorded, then load is adjusted for the next run at
different speed.
b) Part – load test: To run a part load test at variable speed, say 1/2 load, power reading of half
the maximum power at each speed are obtained by varying the throttle and brake setting.

2. Constant speed test: Constant speed test is run with variable throttle from no load to full
load in suitable steps of load to give smooth curves. Starting at zero load, the throttle is opened to
give the desired speed. Then a load is put on the engine and the throttle is opened wider to
maintain the same constant speed as before, and the second run is ready to start. The last run of
the test is made at wide-open throttle. In a CI-engine test the last run would show smoke in the
exhaust gas. Below are some examples of engine performance characteristics curves (Maps):
The curves of engine brake power (Pb), torque (Tb) and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
plotted against engine speed are called engine performance curves. Such curves can be obtained
at full-load or part-load engine operation

Figure 2: Engine Performance Curves

Work out

Example .1: A four cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57mm and a stroke of 90mm. its rated
speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this speed against a brake which has a torque arm of 0.356m.
The net brake load is 155N and the fuel consumption is 6.74 l/h. The specific gravity of the
petrol used is 0.735 and it has a lower calorific value of 44200 kJ/kg. A Morse test is carried out
and the cylinders are cut out in the order 1,2,3,4, with corresponding brake load of 111,106.5,
104.2 and 111 N, respectively. Calculate for this speed, the engine torque, the brake mean
effective pressure (bmep), the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption, the
mechanical efficiency and the indicated mean effective pressure (imep).
Solution:
Torque T = RP = 0.356 x 155 = 55.2Nm

Pb = 2πNT = =16.2kw

bmep = = = 7.55 bar

 =

where

sfc = =

The indicated load for the engine is calculated by the Morse test method as:
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 and
I1 = B-B1 = 155 – 111 = 44N
I2 = B-B2 = 155-106.5 = 48.5N
I3 = B-B3 = 155 – 104.2 = 50.8N
I4 = B-B4 = 155 – 111 = 44N
I = 44 + 48.5 + 50.8 + 44 = 187.3N

i = 19.75 kw

bmep =

imep =
Example 2: A four stroke petrol engine delivers 35.75kW with a mechanical efficiency of 80%,
the fuel consumption of the engine is 0.4 kg per brake power hour, and the A/F ratio is 14:1.The
heating value of the fuel is 41870kJ/kg. Find: (a) Pi, (b) Pf., (c) bth, (d) ith, (e) fuel
consumption per hour, (f) air consumption per hour.
Solution:

b) Pf = Pi – Pb = 44.7 – 35.75 = 8.95 kW

c)

d)
 e) fuel consumption per hour = 0.4 x 35.75 = 14.32 kg
f) air consumption per hour = 14.32 x 14 = 200.5 kg

Exercise

1. In a four stroke single cylinder gas engine the indicated mean effective pressure is 0.46
MN/m2 , the brake power 9 kW, speed 250 rpm, mechanical efficiency, =0.8, and bore to
stroke ratio = 0.66. Calculate cylinder diameter and mean piston speed.
2. The following data were recorded during performance test on a four-stroke, water-cooled CI
engine,
 Number of cylinders =4
 Diameter of piston = 80 mm
 Stroke = 90 mm
 imep (indicated mean effective pressure) = 7 bar
 Engine speed = 2200 rpm
 Number of explosions = 990 per minute
 Brake torque = 130 Nm
 Fuel consumption (fc) = 0.3 kg/h
 Calorific value of fuel = 42.5 MJ/kg
 Quantity of cooling water (coolant) = 1000 kg/h
 Rise in temperature of coolant = 35 °c
 Specific heat of coolant = 4.18 kJ/kg K

Determine,

i) The mechanical efficiency.

ii) The brake thermal efficiency.

iii) The brake specific fuel consumption.

iv) The heat removed by the coolant.

End of the chapter