EGG AND EGG COOKERY

Egg

• “an astonishing gift from birds to humans, the acme of food packaging, a prime resource of
all cooks”
• Carries symbolic significance: renewal of life (easter)

Fertile eggs

• If a rooster is available when the hen starts to lay eggs, the eggs produced are fertilized
• Fertile eggs can be incubated and develop into chicks
• Fertilized duck eggs: balut and penoy
• More expensive to produce, do not keep as well as non- fertile eggs, may contain male
hormones

Free Range Eggs

• Produced by hens raised outdoors

• More varied diet: eggs taste better

Organic eggs

• Eggs from hens fed rations having ingredients that were grown without pesticides,
fungicides, herbicides, or commercial fertilizers
• More expensive

Physical Structure and Composition of Eggs

Composition of eggs

• Moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrates, ash

• Egg proteins
o Albumin – accounts for 2/3 of total
o Conalbumin and ovomucoid – accounts for 10%
o Ovomucin – accounts for 2%l; for thickness of egg white
o Ovoglobulin, lysozyme, avidin*
• Proteins of egg yolk – vitelline, phosvitin, levitin
• Lipids – triglycerides, phospholipids (lecithin) & lipoproteins
• Other nutrients – B vitamins, iron

Changes in egg during storage

• Most of the chemical and physical changes that occur in egg during storage evolve from
reaction of the carbonic acid and bicarbonates present as buffer in the white:
• 2NaHCO3 + H2CO3 -> Na2CO3 + 2H20 + 2CO2

carbonic acid slightly basic

a. Chemical change

• Increase in pH: loss of carbon dioxide from egg until it is in equilibrium with atmosphere
• pH rises as a result of loss of carbon dioxide from 7.9 to 9.3 in egg white
• *storage at refrigerated temperatures greatly slow pH changes

b. Physical changes

• Increase amt of water in white dilutes the white causing egg white thinning (spreading) &
white becomes less viscous
• Chalaze w/c is water soluble dissolves and the yolk becomes off-centered and moves toward
shell
• Moisture from white penetrates the yolk membrane then it weakens, and egg yolk flattens
• Moisture escapes through the porous shell -> decreased contents -> enlarged air cell

Changes in egg as it ages

• Egg shell loses its bloom, making egg more susceptible to contamination
• Air cell enlarges, due to loss of CO2 and moisture
• Albumen thins out due to loss of CO2 leading to alkalinity
• Vitelline membrane becomes weaker due to loss of CO2

Egg quality

• Egg Grading
o A, B, C, D – phil std
o AA, A, B – USDA std
• Egg size
o smaller due to malnutrition of hen, heat, stress, overcrowding
o Jumbo, extra-large, large, medium, small, peewee

Measurement of quality

• Haugh unit (HU)

o Based oon thickness of albumen
o Scores of 90 & above – excellent
o Not used in actual practice
 • Egg candling
o Nondestructive and fast
o Passing light through egg
o Detect leakers, thin albumin, size of air sac, blood spots

Egg defects

• Leaker – ruptured egg shell membrane while shell is still intact; egg white leaks out
• Thin albumen – yolk moves freely
• Air cell moves freely is a result of broken inner shell membrane
• Air cell depth – not more than 1/8 inch deep if fresh egg; evaporation/water loss – replaced
with air
• Blood & meat spots – dark, red spot in egg; unacceptable if >1/8 inch in diameter

Characteristics of fresh eggs

• Porous, uncracked shell

• Good size and shape
• Firm, defined albumen
• Conical, well concentrated yolk
• Small air cell
• No germ spot

Egg Cookery

• Coagulation of proteins: white at 62-65 C, yolk at 65-70 C

o Coagulation – responsible for thickening effect
o Beyond this temperature, over coagulation occurs and water is squeezed out
causing shrinkage resulting in a tough product

Hard cooked eggs

• Boiling water start and cold water start

• Bring eggs to room temperature before cooking
• Have enough water to cover (while boiling)
• Low cooking temp. -> soft white
• Peelability – affected by handling & storage; freshy laid eggs poor peelability
 • Stir egg while boiling to keep yolk centered
• Cracking of eggs while cooking in shell -> leaking; can be due to careless handling, too weak
shells, sudden temperature changes

Effect of heat on eggs

• Formation of greenish discoloration at the interface of yolk and white when egg is
overcooked
o Due to the reaction of bet iron in yolk & hydrogen sulfide liberated from sulfur
containing proteins (ferrous sulfide)
o Reaction is favored by high cooking temperature & prolonged heating
o Reaction is prevented by immediate cooling of egg (immersing in cold water) after
cooking

Poached Eggs

• Prepared by dropping broken out eggs into boiling water or flavored liquid.
• Cooking: cooked in simmering water; addition of salt and vinegar hastens coagulation

Fried Egg

• Deep Fried or Pan Fried

• Cooking: Medium or Low Heat
• “Once over” or “Over Easy”

Scrambled Eggs

• Another liquid usually cream or milk is added

• Cooking: Beat the eggs well, add 1/2T cream per egg. Heat butter in a pan, pour the egg
mixture and stir constantly with a whisk or fork as the egg is cooking over low heat.
• Addition of sugar delays coagulation; addition of liquids and acids decreases coagulation
point; greenish – harmless: due to high temp & in large batches

Emulsification

• Emulsification – ability to hold together 2 immiscible substances like oil & water
• Lecithin and lysolecithin – responsible for the remarkable ability of egg yolk to act as an
emulsifying agent
 • Both are phosphoproteins containing polar and non-polar ends such that the polar end holds
water while the non-polar end holds the fat, thus prevent oil droplets in suspension from
coalescing
• Mayonnaise, cream puffs

Egg as binding, thickening and gelling agent

• Because it contains proteins that are easily denatured by heat

• Using whole egg requires lower coagulation temperature resulting in a stiffer gel
• Addition of sugar, raises coagulation temperature producing softer, weaker gel
• Softer gel is produced w/ addition of scalded milk and acid
• In cooking custards, bain marie/double boiler/steamer is used to avoid boiling w/c can
produce a porous custard
• Soft custards are produced by constant stirring
• The higher the proportion of egg, the lower is the coagulation temperature

Egg as foam

• When egg is beaten, albumen is denatured, air is incorporated as white is stretched into thin
films
• With continued beating, the air cells are subdivided and volume is increased
• Then protein network dried up and stabilizes the gas air foams
o If only EW are used, color turns white & soft peaks are formed. Egg proteins collect
at the air/liquid interface of the air bubble and undergo surface denaturation
o If whole eggs (or EY) are used, color becomes pale yellow w/ continued beating;
volume is increased (but not as much as when only whites are used); no surface
denaturation occurs

Stages in foam formation

a. Frothy
• Large, air bubbles that flow easily
b. Soft foam
• Air cells are smaller & more numerous; Foams become whiter; Soft peaks are
formed when beater is lifted
 c. Stiff foam
• Peaks hold their shape; when bowl is tipped, it holds; moist & glossy
d. Dry
• Moistness & glossiness disappear; specks of egg whites are seen

Egg Products

A. Chicken Eggs

Categorized as:

• Refrigerated Liquid Egg Products – imported in metal or plastic containers

• Frozen Egg Products – used as ingredients by food processors
• Dried Egg Products – used primarily as ingredients in food industry

B. Duck Eggs

• Balut – unhatched 18 days old duck chick, boiled

• Penoy – infertile eggs
• Itlog na maalat/pula – salted boiled duck eggs painted red

Storage and handling

• Frozen egg products < -12oC long shelf life

• Refrigerated liquid egg products stored at recommended temperatures, unopened,
2-6 days

Nutritional Value

1. High quality protein

2. All essential amino acids
3. Choline
4. Folate
5. Vitamin D
6. Egg Yolk – High in cholesterol
7. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
 FATS AND OILS

Definition

• Triglycerides or compounds of FA’s & glycerol

• Belong to a group of organic compounds called lipids
• Fat = all edible lipids that are solid at room temperature
• Oil = all edible lipids that are liquids at room temperature

Chemical Characteristics

• Fats and oils are triglycerides esters of fatty acids

• Depending upon number of carbon atoms of tile fatty acids, they may be short-chain, long
chain or medium-chain
• Depending upon the degree of saturation of the predominant fatty acids, they may be PUFA,
MUFA or SFA

Fatty acids

• SFA (no double bonds in carbon chain)

o animal fats, coconut oil & palm kernel oil
• MUFA (one carbon w/ a double bond)
o vegetable oils (olive, peanut oils)
• PUFA (have more than one double bond)
o vegetable oils (corn, canola, cottonseed, soybean)
• Trans FA
o formed as by products when veg oils are hydrogenated

Degree of Saturation

• Most vegetable oils are polyunsaturated. Exception of coconut oil which consists largely of
medium chain saturated fats
• Exist as mono-, di-, or triglycerides in foods
• Common form in foods is the triglycerides or neutral fats
Classification of Fats and Oils

A. Classification by Appearance

1. Visible fats
• Visually distinctive
• Butter, beef tallow, coconut oil
2. Invisible fats
• Indistinguishable unless separated by chemical means
• Avocado, egg yolk, lean meats
• Naturally significant but not for culinary use

B. Classification by Source

1. Animal Fats
• Beef tallow
• Suet
• Neutral lard
• Leaf lard
• Lard Compound
• Butter
• Low fat dairy spreads
• Oleo stock tallow
• Oleo oil
• Oleo stearin
2. Vegetable Fats
1. Hydrogenated fats or vegetable shortenings
2. Lard Substitute
3. Margarine
4. Vegetable oils
5. Salad oils

C. Classification by Culinary Use

1. Table fats
• Spreads such as butter & margarine
 2. Cooking oil
• For frying; coconut oil/corn oil
3. Shortening
• Plastic fats; for baked flour products
4. Salad oils
• Corn oil, soybean oil, olive oil

Nutritional importance

• Concentrated source of energy: 9kcal/g

• Should not exceed 30%
• Excess -> fat deposits
• Carry fat-soluble vitamins
• Insulate body organs from extreme Tº
• Sources of EFA (linoleic and linolenic) – converted to prostaglandins (immune system)

Culinary Importance

• Slow in leaving the stomach & hence contribute to satiety effect of food
• Provides creamy mouth feel to food
• Needs proper storage to prevent absorption of foreign odors
• Heated fats for unique texture of fried foods
• Provides tenderness in baked products (fat coats the flour particles creating a flaky tender
texture)
• In cooking lean meats, baste w/ oily mixture to avoid dryness/stringiness

Chemical Composition

• Triglycerides – glycerol esters of free FA wherein all 3 carbons in the glycerol backbone are
attached to a FA
• Monoglycerides – when only one of the 3 carbons of glycerol molecule is esterified w/ a FA
• Diglycerides – when 2 of the 3 carbons are esterified
• MG & DG as emulsifiers  hydrophilic (interacts w/ water) & hydrophobic ends (interacts w/
fats)
• Phospholipids – combination of lipid & phosphate group (ex. Lecithin)
 • Phospholipids are polar substances – positive/negative charge (effect of its acidic phosphate
group & nitrogenous base)
• Vitamins ADEK

Physical Characteristics of Fats and Oils

1. Physical Structure
• Solid fat is composed of crystal structures of straight chain FA suspended in oil
2. Solid fat index (SFI)
• The proportion of fat in crystalline form to the suspending oil; More solids = high SFI
3. Polymorphism
• Crystals may be fine or course depending on variety of molecular species; If less
molecular species -> crystals become unstable -> larger crystals will form
4. Plasticity
• Property of fat that allows it to be molded or pressed into various shapes w/o breaking
5. Ability to retain shape
• Fat w/ wide plastic range is desirable for creaming; e.g. hydrogenated fats
• Fat w/ narrow plastic range is used as table fat; e.g. butter
• Fat w/ wide plastic range contains FA
• Fat w/ smaller crystals are more plastic
6. Melting Point
• Temperature at which fat becomes an oil
• Determined by the strength of bonding forces between fatty acids within the crystal
• Melting disrupts forces in solid molecules
• High melting point - remains crystalline or solid at room Tº; requires more heat to melt;
high boiling point
• Low melting point - requires less heat to melt; liquid at room Tº; low boiling point
• Factors influencing melting point
1. Degree of saturation
o Highly saturated: high melting point
o Unsaturated: low melting point
2. Size of crystals
o Large: low melting point Size of crystals
 o Small: high melting point
3. Winterized
o Pure fat chilled to remove solid portions
o Remains liquid even at refrigeration, thus has low melting point
4. Hydrogenation
o Addition of H+ at unsaturated points: high melting point
7. Solidification temperature
• The temperature range when a liquid fat is changed to solid
• To solidify -> cooled to a Tº lower than the melting Tº
• To liquefy -> warmed to a higher Tº than solidification T
8. Solubility
• Natural fats
o insoluble in water
o Slightly soluble in lower alcohols
o Readily soluble in non-polar solvent (chloroform, ether, petroleum ether,
benzene & carbon tetrachloride)
9. Density/Specific Gravity
• Oil less dense than water (0.90 – 0.92 g/cm3)
• Specific gravity – the ratio between density of a substance & water

10. Refractive Index

• measure of ability of a substance to bend light as it passes though it

• Clearer -> low refractive index
• RI decreases w/ increasing temperature because it becomes clearer as it is completely
melted

11. Surfactant properties

• Ability to bridge water and oil molecules

• Useful for emulsification
• Additional MG & DG in fats intended as shortening

12. Thermal Stability

• Ability of fat/oil to withstand heat w/o undergoing deterioration

 13. Smoke Point

• The temperature at which fat becomes overheated

• depends on free glycerol content
• When fats get overheated, dehydration & decomposition of glycerol to acrolein occurs
which is irritating to mucus membrane and imparts an undesirable flavor
• Acrolein = volatile bluish gas that indicates smoke point of the oil
• Fats w/ high smoke point are undesirable, especially for frying
• Factors which lower Smoke Point
o Repeated heating of fats
o Using a wide diameter pan
o Presence of food particles in the fat

14. Fat Degradation

• Lowers smoke point of fat

• Increases viscosity
• Increases its ability to foam
• *Reused oil affects quality of fried foods

Changes in fat during heating

1. Pyrolysis (thermal breakdown)

• Heating oil causes molecular breakdown

2. Oxidation

• Heat combines w/ oxygen causing molecular breakdown

3. Hydrolysis

• Water reacts w/ oil

• Splits the ester bridge bet. FA and glycerol

4. Reaction w/ food residue

• Contributes to deterioration
Chemical Properties and Reactions of Fats and Oils

A. Ester Linkage Reactions

1. Hydrolysis

• Breaking of ester linkage bet. Glycerol molecules & FA resulting in release of free FA
• Catalyzed by lipase (natural enzymes present in fats), acid w/ heat

2. Saponification

• Formation of soap w/ the free FA

• Saponification number = the grams of KOH required to saponify 1g of oil at specified
conditions
• Occurs primarily in processing (e.g. soapy taste in miki)

3. Interesterification

• Transfer of FA from glycerol to another alcohol

• Involved in production of MG and DG for emulsification factors

4. Rearrangement

• Used in commercial preparation of shortening where a variety of FA molecules is desired

to increase plasticity

5. Acetylation

• Replacement of FA by acetate
• For production of emulsifiers & food colors

B. Reactions involving double bonds

1. Oxidation

• removal of hydrogen atom from the electron adjacent to a double bond -> formation of
free radical (highly reactive; leads to auto-oxidation)

2. Hydrogenation/Isomerization

• highly unsaturated fats heated w/ H+ in presence of a catalyst (nickel) to saturate the

double bond carbons
 3. Halogenation

• ability of halogens (iodine) to be added to a double bond in an UFA

Fat Rancidity

• Spoilage of fats
o Hydrolytic
▪ Due to hydrolysis of triglycerides w/c liberate free fatty acids (SFA) &
glycerol
o Oxidative
▪ Reaction w/ oxygen
▪ Due to oxidation of UFA in fat by peroxides w/c in turn results in the
formation of other molecules like ketones, aldehydes, etc. producing the
rancid odor & flavor

Factors Affecting oxidation of fats and oils

• Initial quality of fat/oil

• Conditions used manufacturing
• Storage conditions (heat., light, packaging)
• Surface area exposed to atmospheric oxygen
• Presence of transition metals
• Concentration of active lipoxidases
• Application of preservatives
• Presence of chemical oxidizers

Fat and Oil Products

A. Animal Fats

• Butter
o Fat or cream that is separated from other milk constituents by agitation or churning
• Lard
o Fatty tissues of hog chopped into small pieces & heated w/ or w/o water
• Beef tallow
o dry rendered from fatty tissues of beef
 • Fish oils
o omega FA

B. Plant Fats

• Coconut oil
o a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the
kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm.
o Common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids
dominant.
• Corn oil
o one of the principal oils sold as salad and cooking oil.
• Canola oil
o the most sold cooking oil all around the world
o used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.
o Also used in fuel industry as bio-fuel.
• Cottonseed oil
o used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.
• Olive oil
o used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.
• Palm oil
o the most widely produced tropical oil
o Popular in West African and Brazilian cuisine.
o Also used to make biofuel.
• Peanut oil (Ground nut oil)
o a clear oil with some applications as a salad dressing, and, due to its high smoke
point, especially used for frying.
• Rapeseed oil
o including Canola oil, one of the most widely used cooking oils.

• Safflower oil
o until the 1960s used in the paint industry, now mostly as a cooking oil.
• Sesame oil
 o cold pressed as light cooking oil
o hot pressed for a darker and stronger flavor.
• Soybean oil
o produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal.
• Sunflower oil
o a common cooking oils
o also used to make biodiesel.

Storage of fats/oils

• Avoid exposure of oxygen, light, heat

• Always cover oil container
• Used oil should be strained to remove food particles

Safety precautions

• Do not overheat oil.

• Never leave heating unattended.
• Cool heated oil before transferring to any container.
• Clean spilled oil immediately
• Do not throw oil in drain. Dispose in a tightly sealed container
 RICE, CORN, AND OTHER CEREALS

Cereals

• Cultivated plants belonging to the grass family used as food by man

• Most common: rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats, millet or sorghum, triticale, buckwheat, Bulgur
wheat (a donated food)
• Also called grains

Main Structure of Grains

Structure of Grains

1. Seed coat or hull

• Has no value as food

2. Bran

• 5% of the kernel
• Outer covering composed of several layers (2 layers in
rice, 5 in wheat)
• Chiefly cellulose but rich in V & M (thiamine) & some protein

3. Aleurone layer

• 8% of kernel
• Group of single layered square cells beneath the bran
• Contains protein, ash, VB1, some starch
4. Endosperm

• 85% of kernel
• Largest part of grain
• Contains 75% starch granules embedded in a matrix of about 10% protein, very little ash,
vitamins & fiber, & only trace of fat

5. Germ

• 3% of kernel
• Rich in oil & fat-soluble vitamins, protein & ash Easily attacked
• by insects & oxidative rancidity

Composition of Grains

• Approximately 75% CHO, 10% CHON, 8-12% moisture, 1-2% fat & 1- 2%ash
• Starch – main carbohydrate w/small amounts of sucrose & dextrins
• Protein – 7.5% in ordinary rice,14% in oats
• Presence of bran, germ & aleurone layer improves nutritive value as in unpolished or whole
grains (have more fiber, proteins, V&M)
• Starch is highly digestible; fiber furnishes roughage
• Times of washing & amount of washing water reduce nutrient content
• Pigments – white pigments belong to flavones, yellow pigments belong to carotenoids

Market Forms of Grains

1. Whole grains
2. Milled – bran & germ removed by milling process
3. Enriched – vitamins (B1, B2, B3) & iron added to refined grams
4. Parboiled – cereal grains that had undergone heat treatment w/ hull still intact then sun-
dried before dehulling
5. Convenient food item
6. Processed
Milled forms

• Highly milled or refined

o no bran & germ
• Undermilled
o with traces of bran & germ
• Brown rice
o milled w/ only the hull removed; contains high amounts of bran & germ

Fundamentals of Cereal Cookery

• Proper ratio of water to cereal

• Complete gelatinization of starch
• Prevention of lumping is moist cooking
• Retention of discrete grains as desired
• Prevention of scorching

*main aim: to improve palatability & to increase digestibility

Types of Cereal Grains

A. Rice (Oryza sativa)

Three subspecies: Indica, Japonica, Javanica

Classification of Rice
According to Size of grain (IRRI) • Short - <5.5 mm
• Medium – 5.51mm to 6.6mm
• Long – 6.61mm to 7.5mm
According to location of • Lowland rice eg. IR 20, 26, 28, C4, 12
cultivation • Upland/highland rice: Azucena, Palawan, Dinalaga
According to amylose content • High amylose – 27% (wagwag, IR 8)
• Moderately high – 25-27% (Burma or Thai Rice)
• Intermediate – 20-25% (Milagrosa)
• Low – less than 20% (Japonica)
• Nonamylose – less than 1% (waxy rice/malagkit)
 According to processing • Unpolished rice
• Polished or milled
• Enriched
• Pinipig
• Galapong
According to storage • Bago (newly harvested)
• Luma or laon (has undergone long storage)

Rice Production and Utilization Top 10 Rice producers:

• Nueva Ecija
• Iloilo
• Pangasinan
• Isabela
• Cagayan
• Camarines Sur
• Maguindanao
• Negros Occidental
• Tarlac
• Capiz

Drying

• Harvested: 20% moisture (18% to 25%)

• High moisture content = immature grains
• Moisture must be brought down to 14% to avoid spoilage
• Drying is done mostly by sun drying and mechanical rice dryers

Rice Milling

1. Pre-cleaning – to remove dirt and foreign materials

2. Dehusking or dehulling – hulls are removed

3. Polishing step – removes the bran and the germ

Composition and Nutritive Value

Rice Fortification

• Enrichment of rice with thiamin, niacin and iron

• Food Fortification Law (RA 8976)
o mixing rice with iron

Parboiled Rice

• Parboiling – process where the rough rice after harvest is subjected to steaming prior to
drying and milling
• Parboiled rice when cooked is firm and fluffy with little tendency to stick together.
• Brownish in color

Rice Cookery

1. Steaming

• gentler and so results in firmer, more separate grains

2. Sauté

• raw rice is coated with oil, usually olive oil by sautéing

3. Fried Rice `

• cooked rice that has been stir-fried in a wok or a frying pan and is usually mixed with other
ingredients; not really fried but sautéed

4. Lugaw and Arroz Caldo

• porridge dishes with or without pieces of meat or chicken or tripe, and are taken as breakfast
or snack fares.

5. Rice Cakes

• not really cakes in the style of wheat flour cakes; some are more like puddings than cakes ◦
May be categorized into, the suman group, the bibingka, the puto and the puddings

6. Rice Cakes

• Suman – all uses malagkit rice

o Suman sa lihia
o Suman sa ibos
o Moron
o Budbud Tanjay
o Patupat
o Puto
o Puto Maya
o Kutchinta
o Bibingka
o Kalamay
o Rice Products
• Rice Snack Items
o Pinipig
o Rice Crackers
o Pop rice
o Extruded rice Snacks
• Rice Derived Ingredients
o Rice grits
 Rice flour
• Fermented Rice Products
o Rice wine (tapuy)
o Rice Vinegar
• Rice Coffee
• Canned Rice, Instant Rice and Noodle

B. Corn (Maize)

• Widely grown for food and livestock fodder

• One of chief grain crops
• The corn plant is a tall annual grass with a stout, erect, solid stem.
• Staminate (male) flowers are borne on the tassel terminating the main axis of the stem.
• The pistillate (female) inflorescences, which mature to become the edible ears.
• Varieties of yellow and white corn are the most popular as food
• Native to Central and South America
• Most important raw material for industrial starch and syrups
• Corn Production: Cebu, Bohol, Siquijo

Physical Structure and Composition of Corn Kernel

Corn Varieties

• Dent Corn
o “field corn”, corn variety with kernels that contain both hard and soft starch
• Flint Corn
o hard, rounded, or short and flat kernels
• Waxy corn
o grains that have waxy appearance
• Sweet corn
o contains high percentage of sugar
• Popcorn
o corn kernel which expands and puffs up when heated
• Indian corn
o white, red, purple, brown or multicoloured kernels.
• Flour corn
o has kernels shaped like those of flint corn and composed entirely of soft starch

Corn Harvest, Drying and Milling

• Manually harvested and husked

• Drying – done immediately after dehusking
• Deshelling mainly done by hand
• Corn has higher moisture content
• Moisture content should be 14 to 15% for stability

Market Forms of Corn

• Fresh corn on cob – corn is sold with husk on

• Dried whole kernels – commercially traded corn
• Corn grits – coarsely ground from whole kernel
• Corn meal – fine granules smaller than grits
• Corn flour – very fine granules
• Corn starch – recovered from wet milling of corn
• Masa Flour – raw materials for making tortilla and other Mexican products
Nixtamalization - Process that involves lime treatment equivalent to our binatog

Corn Products

• Extruded Snacks and Breakfast Cereals – corn flour and corn meal are the major raw
materials
• Corn Starch, Modified Corn Starch, Dextrin and Syrups – ingredients for wide range of food
products
• Fermented Corn Products – whiskey and vinegar
• Corn oil - from the corn embryo which contains lipids

Corn Cookery

• Boiling, Steaming
• Grilling
• Tamales
• Tortillas
• Popcorn and Caramel Popcorn
• Corn Muffins
• Binatog
• Maja Blanca
• Korniks

C. Wheat

• Produced by repeated hybridization of Triticum spp with Aegilops spp

• Second oldest cultivated cereal after barley
• Most widely cultivated exceeding rice
• Grown primarily for religious purposes

Bulgur – coarsely ground product derived from the whole wheat kernel after removal of the bran,
steaming and drying

Cracked Wheat – similar to bulgur except that it is not steamed

Wheat Germ – embryo or germ of the wheat grain is removed during flour milling
D. Oats

• Made by steaming and subsequent rolling of oatmeal.

• Variants: Quick cooking and instant
• Rolled oats – high soluble fiber content
• Has high β-glucan content

E. Rye

• Grows in very cold regions

• Used in making bread and alcoholic drink (Kvass)
• Rye bread is darkish in color
• Rye kernel contains dietary fiber components (soluble and insoluble)
• Contains less starch than wheat

F. Barley

• Major uses today: animal feed and brewing beer

• Pearl barley – polished whole barley grain
• Barley water – made by boiling pearl barley and the resulting infusion is flavored with lemon
and sweetened.
• Barley coffee – toasted and infusion is made

G. Millet

• Bears very small roundish yellowish grains.

• Budbud kabog
• Tasty, with a mildly sweet, nut-like flavor

Cereal Safety

1. Aflatoxin

• poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain molds which grow in soil,
decaying vegetation, hay, and grains.
• Corn is more susceptible to mold contamination because of higher moisture content
• Rice is in danger of mold growth during rainy season
• Rye ergotism is due to contamination with the mold Claviceps purpurea
 • Trypsin Inhibitors prevent the action of trypsin in the stomach making amino acids
unavailable

2. Wheat Allergy

• Adverse reactions involving immunoglobulin E antibodies to one to one or more protein

fractions of wheat.
• May be caused by ingestion of wheat-containing foods or inhalation of flour containing
wheat
• Treatment: avoidance of wheat and wheat-containing foods

3. Gluten Intolerance or Gluten Enteropathy or Celiac Disease

• Hereditary disorder of the immune system in which eating gluten leads to damage of the
mucosa of the small intestine
• Gluten — a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye — triggers its symptoms. There's
currently no cure for celiac disease. A strict gluten-free diet — also known as the celiac
disease diet — must be followed to allow your body to heal
 STARCH AND STARCH PRODUCTS

Starch

• Polysaccharide made up entirely of glucose present as granules or grains in

amyloplasts/leucoplasts of plants (seeds, roots, cereals, legumes)
• A carbohydrate which is produced by photosynthesis

How are starches classified?

• Second most abundant organic substance

• From Leafy green plants, roots, fruits, grains
• Staples of man: rice, corn (USA), cassava (tropical), wheat, potato (Europe)
• Classified according to its source
• Classified as:
o Native – originally derived from its plant source
o Modified – altered by treatment w/ physical or chemical agents

What are the 2 basic polymer structure of starches?

Structure of starch granules

• Starch molecules are present in plant cells as granules or grains, laid down in concentric rings
& deposited in a radial fashion
• Starch granules consist of water-compatible, amorphous & partially crystalline polymers
• These radially arranged crystallites are linked by amorphous areas in which the starch
molecules are deposited in a less orderly fashion
• Starch granules vary in size & shape

Amylose – a linear starch molecule

• Glucose units are linked through the C1 of one glucose unit to C4 of the next glucose unit w/
the ring oxygen all on the same side
• A one long linear chain of glucose units

Amylopectin – branched starch molecule

• Besides the C1 to C4 linkage, there is a branching C1 to C6 linkage

 • Highly branched dense molecule
• A chains – outer unbranched chains
• B chains – inner branched chains
• C chains – head chain that contain the single reducing group
• *among the largest molecules in nature

Properties of amylose & amylopectin

Starch granules

• Arranged radially & contain both crystalline & non-crystalline regions in alternating layers
• Cassava starch – irregular shapes w/ truncated round & concave granules
• Wheat starch – w/ small spherical & large lenticular granules
• Rice – small polygonal granules
• Corn – both round & larger polygonal granules
• Potato – smooth ovoid granules of irregular sizes
• Rice – smallest among commercial granules
• Root crops granules > grains granules
• 100% Amylopectin – waxy starches
• Amylose & amylopectin associate through hydrogen bonding, forming crystalline bundle
Properties of starch

• Native starches – insoluble solids

• As a dispersion, starch in cold water remains a suspension
• When starch solution is heated to a critical temperature, an irreversible reaction occurs ->
GELATINIZATION

Gelatinization

• Series of steps that is dependent on water & heat resulting in a viscous and thickened starchy
products
• starch granules in suspension when heated (moist heat cooking) absorbs water & the
granules swell accompanied by thickening, increased in viscosity & loss of birefringence with
increasing translucency

Gelatinization Process

1. Starch granules dispersed in water -> swell slightly

2. As heated (CT ex. 70ºC) -> starch granules in amorphous region take up water & swells
3. Swelling -> disrupts crystalline regions
4. Loose amylose molecules leach out of granules
5. Loose granules take up even more water -> swells
6. Pressure of the swelling causes granules to collapse -> paste
7. Cooked starch paste = swollen granules, loose molecules, collapsed fragments

Birefringence

• Property of starch to rotate polarized light

• Melting of crystalline region causes starch molecules to lose birefringence
• Gelatinized starches = no birefringence

Viscosity

• Resistance to flow when shear is applied

• “consistency”; thickness/thinness of dispersions
• High viscosity gel (firm & resists flow)
• Low viscosity gel (flows)
Factors influencing gelatinization

1. Agitation or stirring
• results in a weaker gel & the mixture becomes gluey
2. Kind of starch
• root starch gelatinizes at lower temperature than cereal starch
3. Concentration of starch
• high concentration turns viscous more readily
4. Effects of added ingredients
• Addition of sugar at the start of cooking delays gelatinization but makes swollen granules
more resistant to mechanical rupture
• Acids delay gelatinization & results in softer gel –
• Fats lower gelatinization temperature
• Milk & eggs increase firmness of the gel
5. Method of cooking
• more viscous due to rapid & direct heating
6. Endpoint temperature
• wherein starch reaches optimum gelatinization
7. Cooling & storage conditions
• Cooled too fast – no time to form micelles
• Cooled too slowly – liquid portion not be trapped in micelles -> weeping & syneresis
8. Dextrinization heat
• less viscous

Retrogradation

• A process which causes drying & hardening of cooked starch; reassociation of the linear
amylose chains by hydrogen bonding -> upon cooling, creating structure that holds water
• Starches w/ high amylose content retrograde more readily
• Staling of bread – amylopectin retrogradation; crumb becomes firm & fall easily; crust dries
up
Syneresis

• Expulsion of moisture from gel; Occurs with stiff gels

• As cooled gel ages, some water weeps from the network (micelles)
• occurs when concentration of sugar is 50%; changing temperature, adding salt Example:
lumpia sauce left

Thickening

• Ability to gelatinize without setting / solidification

• Corn starch has twice thickening property as flour
• Thickening is less due to dextrinization of starch
• Added ingredients:
o Sugar decreases thickening; elevates gelatinization temperature (for starch to
thicken)
o Acids decrease thickening

Dextrinization

• Partially hydrolyzed starches prepared by dry roasting starch

• Dry heat cooking at 160ºC changes starch to smaller fragments called dextrins (water-
soluble thus decreases the ability to starch to gelatinize & thicken)
• its gels have lower viscosity than starch gels (bread crumbs, toasted flour as thickeners)
• Have sweetish taste & nutty flavor
• Less susceptible to lumping

Hydrolysis

• Involves breaking up of the glycosidic bonds

• Acids & enzymes (amylases) can catalyze this reaction

Modified starches

• Starches that have been altered physically or chemically to modify one or more of its
chemical and/or physical property
 • Adding of carboxymethyl group makes starch less prone to damage by heat & bacteria, more
hydrophylic (water loving), aids in cross linking, prevents from recrystallizing; can keep bread
fresh for a longer period

Resistant starches

• Defined as sum of starch & products of starch degradation not absorbed in SI

• Cannot be digested
• Fermented in large intestine producing SCFA, lactic acids & gases
• Classified as
o RS1 – with intact cell walls (beans, legumes)
o RS2 – banana, raw potato
o RS3 – undergone heating then retrograded (bahaw)
o RS4 – heavily chemically modified starches

Functions of starch

a. Thickening – sauces, gravy, pie filling & soups

b. Gelling – puddings, maja, bibingka
c. Structural – breads, cakes, framework of baked products
d. Binding & filling – meat extenders
e. Stabilizing – salad & cooked salad dressings, beverages, syrups
f. Coating or dusting – breads, candies
g. Moisture retaining – cake fillings, candies h. Diluent – baking powder
h. Coloring – as dextrins

Grain Starches vs. root starches

• Grain starches 22- 27% amylose

o Clear when hot, cloudy when cold
o Spongy & leaks watery fluid
o No thinning when reheated
• Root starches
o Crystal clear hot or cold
o Freeze & thaw w/ no change
o Thins when reheated
Proportion of water to starch affects & viscosity

Problems in Starch cookery

• Lumping
• Thinning of gel – when using acid
• Weak gel – if too much liquid, sugar, fats
• Raw starch flavor (ungelatinized starch)
• Scorching – control temperature & constant stirring (use bain marie)
• Skin formation – loss of water from starch & protein (use covers)

Preventing lumps

• Dissolve in cold water first to keep grains dispersed

• Mix with sugar, cocoa powder or dry milk while dry to aid dispersion
• Coat with fat – roux as thickener
• Keep stirring while cooking
• Maintain uniform temperature

Preventing raw starch

• Starches are cooked 5 minutes more after reaching gelatinization point (90ºC) to be sure
that complete swelling & cooking
Market forms of starches

• Corn starch
• Rice flour (high amylose)
• Malagkit rice flour (pure amylopectin)
• Wheat flour
• Cassava flour
• Potato flour
• Arrowroot & taro flour

Alimentary pastes

• Pasta – italian for dough; unleavened dough formed from liquid (eggs/water) mixed w/ flour
& cut/extruded into shapes & sizes
• made from semolina (granular product from endosperm of durum wheat) Noodles – ribbons
or strands of boiled dough made w/ a starchy ingredient & eggs/water

Noodles and pasta (alimentary pastes)

• Made from hard wheat flour; dough is shaped, then dried in hot air
• Examples: spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli, lasagna

Kinds of alimentary pastes

a. Pancit canton

• Egg noodles made from flour & duck’s eggs, salt & soda (kansui)
• Dough is shaped, boiled, then drained & deep fried before packaging

b. Sotanghon

• Long, thin, round, translucent noodles made from mungbean & cassava starch
• Also called cellophane noodles, bean threads, NYLON or SILK NOODLES
• the starch paste is first cooked then extruded into thin strands, then sun dried

c. Bihon

• Made from rice or corn flour, the dough is extruded then boiled, cooled & dried
• First class bihon is made from rice
 • Fresh bihon is also available but shelf life is shorter & used for pancit palabok or luglug

d. Misua

• Made from cassava & wheat flour

• hairy noodles, usually salted; cheapest noodle

e. Miki

• Flat yellowish noodles made from wheat flour, lye & salt, egg, kasui
• The mixture is flattened, boiled & drained; oil is applied on the surface
• Bigger and heavier
• Dried – shing a ling

f. Instant Noodles

• Made from rice or wheat flour, usually packaged with flavorings; require 2 minutes to
cook in boiling water

g. Mami

• Thin egg noodles

• Wonton noodles; used in soups

h. Pansit molo

• Square stuffed noodles

Other Asian noodles

a. Somen

• Thin noodles served cold always

• Cha somen (w/ green tea), tomago soman (w/ egg yolks)

b. Soba (Japan)

• Tan, thick flat chewy noodles

c. Rice sheets

• Used for dimsum; used as lumpia wrapper; may also be in ribbon

Pasta

6 basic chapes:

• Tubular (macaroni)
• Strand (spaghetti)
• Ribbons (fettuccine)
• Fancy shapes (bows,
wheels)
• Soup pasta (alphabet)
• Stuffed pasta (ravioli)

Proper cooking of noodles

Pasta: cooking is the same as in cereals

• Add 1 tsp. salt & 1 tsp. oil to boiling water

• When boiling vigorously, lower flame & simmer with occasional stirring
• Cooked up to al dente stage
• Cooking time: 20 mins
• Macaroni: 6 cups water: 250g or 3 cups/cup of macaroni
• Macaroni & spaghetti are boiled gently in water to which salt & oil had been added

Noodles and pasta cookery

• Canton is just added to sautéed sauce

• Misua is usually dropped in boiling water & allowed to boil one minutes
• For bihon, washed & soaked in water is poured over it, then drained; cut the block or sheets
in quarters
• Sotanghon is soaked in water first, then added to sauteed sauce
• Boiling broth is added to miki
Filipino Pancit dishes

Pasta and noodle safety

• Contamination Prevention
o Cleanliness: A clean working environment is essential in the prevention of
contamination in working with pasta and other foods. Be sure to wash hands
thoroughly before handling the pasta dough. The work area, cutting boards, and
utensils must be clean. Do not use the same cutting board for cutting pasta as was
used for raw meat or poultry unless it has been properly washed and dried before
using. When you are finished making the pasta, be sure to clean the work area and
all utensils thoroughly. The eggs in the dough are a potential risk factor for
salmonella. Cleaning the area with hot soapy water will help eliminate traces of the
bacteria.
o Handling: As with any dough that contains raw eggs, fresh egg pasta dough should
never be tasted when it is raw. It is also important that the eggs used in the dough
have been handled and stored properly

Proper Storage

• Uncooked Pasta
o Dried Pasta:
▪ Dried pasta does not need to be refrigerated. It can be stored on the shelf
in an airtight container in a dry area that is not exposed to extreme
temperatures.
o Fresh and Homemade Pasta:
 ▪ Fresh pasta can be stored in the refrigerator for 2 or 3 days. If the pasta will
not be used within that time, it can be frozen and stored in the freezer for 2
to 3 months. Homemade pasta can be store in the refrigerator for 1 or 2
days or frozen for 2 to 3 months.
• Cooked Pasta
o cooked pasta can be stored unsauced in an airtight container and refrigerated for 4
or 5 days. The sauce should be refrigerated separate from the pasta and can be
stored for 6 or 7 days. If the pasta is stored together with the sauce, it should be
eaten within 1 or 2 days to limit the amount of sauce that is absorbed.
o To store, cook the pasta as you normally would and then rinse with cold water and
allow it to drain well.
o Add a small amount of olive oil or butter to help prevent the pasta from clumping
together while it is stored.
o To refrigerate, place the pasta in an airtight plastic bag or an airtight container and
place in the refrigerator. To freeze, place in an airtight plastic freezer bag and press
out as much excess air.
o If storing sauced pasta, eat within 1 to 2 days.
 FLOUR AND FLOUR MIXTURE

Flour

• Powdered products made from milling or grinding cereal grains, root crops, legumes, and
other starchy foods
• “Wheat flour”

Kinds of Wheat

1. Hard red spring

• Usually grown in the northern US and Canada

• One of the hardest wheat types but widely used
• Flour for bread, croissant and pizza

2. Hard red winter

• Excellent milling and baking characteristics

• Ideal type for Asian noodles, general purpose flour and improver

3. Soft white winter

• Used for bakery products other than breads such as cakes, crackers, cookie s, and
pastries

4. Soft white spring

• Less common
• Usually grown in eastern US
• Have less protein and more complex carbohydrates
• Pancakes, waffles, muffins

Wheat

1. Winter Wheat

• Planted where winter is mild

• Starts growing in the fall, lays dormant during winter, and matures in early spring
 2. Spring Wheat

• Planted where winter is severe

• Planted in spring and harvested in late summer

3. Kernel hardness/ softness

• Influenced by protein content, breeding, and environment

4. Hard Wheat

• Yield flours of high to intermediate protein contents and with gluten strength suitable
for bread production

5. Soft Wheat

• Superior for cakes and cookies

Milling of Wheat flour

• Intended to remove outside bran layer and germ of wheat to obtain maximum extraction of
the endosperm without damaging the starch granules
• Steps
o Gradual breaking and griding of the kernel
o Separating and purifying the particles according to size and characteristics
o Conditioned kernels undergo breaking (shearing/ crushing in rollers) -> separate
bran and germ -> break flour (flour made from break stems)
o Purification (bran which adheres to endosperm are removed by air currents
o Bran and Germ with some endosperm for animal feeding
• Straight grade flour – when all the steams of white flour from these are combined, 97-98%
from milling, 2-3% which contain aleurone and bran are with held
• Bleached or oxidized with nitrogen or benzoyl peroxide or chlorine dioxide
• Enriched before packaging; thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron

Grading of Wheat Flour

• Straight Grade Flour – composed of all the wheat flours different streams
• Patent flour – made from the most refined steams of flour and is further graded according
to the percentage of the total streams
 o Family Patent = 70-75%
o Short Patent = 78-80%
o Medium Patent = 80-85%
o Long Patent = 90-95%
• Clear flour – the remaining streams of flour after removing patent grade, less white, used
for whole wheat breads

Market Forms of Wheat Flour

• Whole wheat flour

o “Graham flour”
o “Entire wheat flour”
o More nutritious than the refined flour
o Yet easily oxidized because of fat content in germ -> rancidity
• Bread Flour
o Milled from hard wheat and bends
o “Strong flour” -> high in protein (12-14%)
o “Hard flour” made from hard wheat
o Off-white color and granular texture
• All-purpose Flour
o “Family or general-purpose flour”
o Milled from blends of soft and hard wheat
o Protein 10-12%
o For all cooking purposes
o Intermediate between bread and cake flours
• Cake
o “Soft flour” -> made from soft wheat
o “Weak flour” -> low protein content 7-8%
o Finely milled, velvety in texture
o Made from most refined white flour streams and belongs to short patent grade
o Whitest among the flours
o Suitable for delicate and fine-textured cakes (high starch and lower gluten content)
 • Pastry Flour
o White flour; intermediate of cake and APF
o For commercial bakers of pies and cookies
o *Use APF (for household cooking only)
• Enriched Flour
o Nutrients are added to white flour as required by law
o Iron enrichment (RA 8796 Food Fortification Act of 2000) from November 1004 in
the Phils
• Self-rising flour
o White Flour to which sodium bicarbonate or baking soda plus and acid salt (calcium
phosphate) are added as leaveners
o Not suitable for breadmaking
• Gluten Flour
o Dried extracted gluten is mixed with wheat flour in proportions that will yield about
41% protein in the gluten flour
o Not common
• Instantized or Quick-mixing Flour
o Processed by moistening and the re-drying the flour to form agglomerates that do
not lump or pack

Flour Mixes

• Popular: pancake and waffle mixes

• Mixes of dry ingredients: flour, leavening agent, milk powder, egg powder (optional),
flavorings
• Just add water
• Instructions for use may vary according to manufacturer

Non-Wheat Flours

• Flours made from grinding or milling grain kernels other than wheat, root crops, and
legumes
• Composite Flour - non-wheat flours replacing wheat flour for cooking purposes
 • *Only wheat flour has protein responsible for gluten development necessary for unique
texture of bread
• Different flours (rice, banana, malunggay flours) can be incorporated into wheat flour at
levels not exceeding 10% and still have achieved loaf volume

Market Forms of Non-Wheat Flours

• Coconut flour
o coconut id further defatted, dried, and milled
• Rye flour
o sifting rye meal; lacks gluten forming proteins of wheat flour
• Buckwheat flour
o finely ground product obtained from sifting buckwheat meal
• Corn Flour
o milled and sifter yellow or white corn; Mexican tortillas
• Potato Flour
o Dried and ground white potatoes; doughnuts
• Rice Flour
o milled white rice
• Waxy rice flour
o "sweet rice flour"/'Mochiko flour"; malagkit flour; amylopectin; used as stabilizer
in frozen products
• Soy flour
o full-fat from dehulled soybeans & low -fat from defatted soybeans
o has strong beany flavor
o high protein but does not have gluten potential
• Other flours
o for formulation of composite flours.
o Ex. Sunflower flour; peanut flour; cassava flour
Composite Flours

• Using indigenous non-wheat materials because cheaper than wheat flour Offer variety &
distinct flavor, color & texture
• Can produce highly acceptable quick breads Gluten-free flours for those with Celiac
disease or who are allergic to gluten

Nutrient composition of Flour

• Wheat grain 84% endosperm, 14.5% bran, 1.5% germ

• Milling + 75% recovered, the rest for animal feeding
• Energy value - 360 cal/100g; 71-79 g CHO/100g Moisture content - 11-14%
• Protein content - 7.5-13.3% depending on kind

Classes of wheat proteins

• Albumins, globulins, gliadins & glutenins

• Gluten - interaction of glutenin with gliadin during dough mixing, using the right amount of
water
• Length of time for kneading the dough determines amount of gluten developed
• Glutenin - imparts toughness and strength
• Gliadin - imparts extensibility

Flour Mixture

• Are blends of liquid and flour with other ingredients in certain amounts intended for a
specific product
• Classification:
o Batter
▪ flour mixtures that can be poured in a steady steam called pour batters or
in heavy drops (drop batters)
o Dough
▪ viscous flour mixtures that can be handled because the amount of flour
per cup of liquid is so-100% more than what is used for batters
Mixing Process

• Straight dough method

• Sponge & dough method or sponge method
• Muffin method Pastry method
• Conventional cake method
• One-bowl method

Main ingredients in flour mixtures

• Flour
• Liquid
• Leavening agents
• Fat
• Sugar
• Eggs
• Salt
• Other flavoring agents

Properties of Flour

• Color
o whitest most accepted
• Strength
o capacity to hold gas, related to protein content
• Tolerance
o ability to withstand mixing, fermenting, rough handling & other steps
• Absorption Capacity
o absorption of maximum amount of liquid
• Texture
o hard wheat flour are granular, soft wheat flour are velvety & smooth
• Cohesiveness Weight
o heavy flour absorbs more moisture than lighter one (soft wheat flour)
Roles of flours in Batters and Doughs

• Gluten - the elastic rubbery substance that provides the continuous network to which
gliadin adheres
• Glutenin and gliadin (2 proteins involved in gluten complex)

Factors that affect gluten quality Amount of protein in flour

• Proportion of liquid
• Quality and extent of kneading
• Effect of other ingredients
• Conditions of baking

How to extract gluten

• Liquid
• Leavening agents (air, steam/water vapor, carbon dioxide) - source of gas rather than the
gas itself (baking soda, baking powder, yeast)

Yeast breads

• Lean (flour, water, yeast, salt)

• Rich/specialty breads (with additional ingredients like sugar, milk, shortening, egg, dried
fruits, nuts, seeds & flavoring extracts)

Ingredients and their roles

• Flour
• Liquid
• Yeast
• Salt
• Fat or shortening
• Eggs

Steps in Bread Making Preparing the ingredients

• Mixing the dough Fermenting

• Punching Make-up period or shaping
• Proofing
• Baking
• Cooling and Storing
• Frozen dough