UNIT III: GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF
HORTICULTURAL CROPS

RENAMARIE P. NACION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

01 Differentiate Horticultural
02 Discuss the structure of
growth and development
from Agronomical Crops of Horticultural crops

03 Define the factors affecting

the physiological process
04 Identify the factors
affecting the growth and
of the crops development of the crops
SCOPE

Structure of economically important parts of

LESSON 1
horticultural crops

Physiological Processes Affecting Crop

LESSON 2
Production

Factors affecting growth and development of

LESSON 3
crops (Biotic and Genetic factors)
 LESSON 1
Structure of economically important parts
of horticultural crops
 What is the difference between Horticultural crops and
Agronomic crops?

❑ Agronomy is the application of plant and soil science to crop production.

❑ Agronomy emphasizes staple food crops (corn, rice, beans, and wheat).

❑ Forage plants and hay crops are also considered agronomic crops
GRAINS/CEREALS

Oryza sativa Zea mays

Triticum Sorghum bicolor

aestivum L.
LEGUMES/PULSES

Vigna radiata Arachis

hypogaea

Glycine max
FIBER

Gossypium Chorchorus
hirsutum olitorius

Boehmeria
nivea
Root crop/Tuber

Ipomea batatas
Zingiber officinale Manihot esculenta
 Forage

Centrosema pubescens

Pennisitum purpureum Leucaena leucocephala

Crops for Industrial processing

Saccharum officinarum
Riccinus communis Nicotiana tabacum
 What is the difference between Horticultural crops and
Agronomic crops?

❑ Horticulture is a branch of agriculture dealing with garden crops, such as

fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.

❑ Derived from the Latin word hortus, which means “garden”, and colere,
“to cultivate”.

❑ Horticulture is divided into the cultivation of plants for food (pomology

and olericulture) and plants for ornament (floriculture and landscape
horticulture).
❑ Horticultural crops are mainly comprised of fruits, vegetables, ornamental,
aromatic, plantation, and medicinal plants.

The main divisions/branches of Horticulture:

1) Olericulture: the production of vegetables, including storage, processing,

and marketing. Vegetable crops are grown for their succulent and edible
parts, such as the roots, stems, leaves, young tops, flowers, fruits, or seeds.

2) Pomology: deals with fruit crop production. Grown for their edible fruits.

3) Floriculture: the cultivation and management of cut flowers, flowering

plants and foliage plants, including their use in ornamental construct such as
flower arrangement.
4) Plant propagation/Nursery Crop Culture: the propagation and production
of seedlings, young trees, shrubs, and vines, as well as ground covers, turf,
ornamental plants, and other crops in the nurseries for landscaping, interior
plantscaping, or out planting.

5) Landscape horticulture: includes the design, construction, and care of

landscapes, considering the proper choice of plants and aesthetic effects for
homes, businesses, and public places.
Plant Growth

❑ Plant- refers to an organism capable of synthesizing organic compounds from inorganic

materials. It is capable of undergoing growth, differentiation, and reproduction. It
contains chlorophyll and develops cell wall.

❑ Growth- Defined as the irreversible increase in size, measurements of mass, length,

height, surface area, or volume may evaluate it.

❑ Growth is restricted to living cells and accomplished only by metabolic processes.

❑ Growth at a cellular level is also accompanied by the organization of macromolecules into

assemblages of membranes, plastids, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other cell organelles.
❑ Cells do not increase in size but divide.

❑ Important process during cell division is the synthesis and replication of nuclear DNA in
the chromosomes.

❑ The term “GROWTH” is an increase in size by cell division and enlargement.

❑ Vital process that brings about a permanent change in a plant or its parts.
Patterns of Growth and Development- Some Features of Plant Growth

❑ Growth in plants is restricted in certain zones,

recently produced by cell division in a meristem.

❑ Root and shoot tips (apices) are meristematic in

nature.

❑ Found in the vascular cambium and just above

the nodes of monocots or at the bases of grass
leaves.
 Meristem

- Region of cells capable of division and

growth in plants

CLASSIFICATION

❑ Apical meristem- root and shoot tip

❑ Lateral- vascular and cork cambia
❑ Intercalary- internodes or stem
regions between the places at
which leaves attach and leaf bases,
especially of certain
monocotyledons- e.g., grasses)
❑ Meristematic cells are typically small and nearly spherical.

❑ Have dense cytoplasm and relatively few small vacuoles.

❑ Cells are typically small and nearly spherical; dense cytoplasm and relatively few small
vacuoles.
➔ Some cells are known as initials and maintain the meristem as a continuing
source of new cells and may undergo mitosis (cell division).

❑ The cells that emanate from the apical meristem are arranged in lineages of partially
differentiated tissues known as primary meristems.

➔ 3 primary meristems

a) Protoderm- which will become the epidermis

b) Ground meristem will form the ground tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma,
and sclerenchyma).
c) Procambium- which will become the vascular tissues
Root apical meristem

❑ Root apical meristem, or root apex, is a small region at the tip of a root in which all cells are
capable of repeated division and from which all primary root tissues are derived.

❑ Root cap/ outer living parenchyma cells- protect the RAM as it passes through the soil.

❑ Root hairs also begin to develop as simple extensions of cells near the RAM.
 Three Specific Growth Patterns

❑ Cell division: where new cells are being generated

by mitotic cell division.

❑ Cell elongation: where new cells are growing, or

increasing in length, to add length to the root

❑ Cellular maturation: where newly elongated cells

complete their differentiation into the dermal,
vascular, or ground tissues. Changes in gene
expression drive maturation.
Shoot apical meristem

❑ All the branches and stems of higher vascular plants terminate in SAM.

❑ Center of potentially indefinite growth and development, producing the leaves and a bud in
the axis of most leaves that can grow out as a branch.

❑ Shoot apical growing centers form the primary plant body.

Lateral meristem

❑ Type of meristem that is present along the

longitudinal axis of the stem and root

❑ It is called secondary meristem

Functions:

a) Cells of lateral meristem increase in number by

dividing and help thicken the stem.

b) Vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that forms

the xylem and phloem.

c) Cork cambium is a type of LM that forms the cork.

d) An increase in the vascular and cork tissue increases

the girth of the plant.
Intercalary meristem

❑ Intercalary meristem is a primary meristematic tissue

that helps a plant or tree to grow vertically by adding
to its length.

❑ It adds to vertical growth or intercalary growth of the

plant.

❑ Intercalary meristem eventually has limits; it will

ultimately reach a limit and mature into permanent
tissues.

❑ At internodes, or stem regions between the places at

which leaves attach, and leaf bases

❑ Commonly found in monocots such as grass

Kinds of Plant Shoot Growth

1) Determinate- after certain period of vegetation growth, flower and bud clusters form at
shoot terminals so that most shoot elongation stops and eventually undergo senescence
and death.
Ex: Many vegetable species like “dwarfs” bush plants, snap beans, etc.

2) Indeterminate- plants bear flower clusters laterally along stems in the axils in the leaves so
that the shoot terminals become vegetative and the shoot continues to grow until it is stop by
senescence. Indeterminate plants grow more or less indefinitely.
Ex: Tomato
Development- refers to the whole series of changes which an organism goes through during
its life cycle. It is the aftermath of growth process and differentiation. It can also be applied
to individual organs, to tissue, and even to cells.

- Most clearly manifested in changes in the form of an organism

(Ex. Changes from a vegetative to a flowering condition)

- Could also refer to the process of growth and differentiation of individual cells
onto recognizable tissues, organs and organisms (sum total of growth and
differentiation).
Differentiation

❖ leads to an increase in complexity, resulting in qualitative difference between cells, tissues,

and organs.

❖ process by which cells become specialized and it applies to any situation in which
meristematic cells give rise to two or more types of cells, tissue or organ

❖ It takes place concurrently during development, but under certain conditions we may
obtain growth without differentiation.
(Ex. callus)
Morphogenesis

❖ origin of forms in living organisms

❖ term “form” should understood not only on the gross external morphology of the plant
but is all organization.

❖ is the biological process that causes a cell, tissue or organism to develop its shape.

1) Structural organization of the individual cell

2) Organization of cells to form tissues
3) Organization of the plant body at the macroscopic level
How Plant Grows and Develops

❖ The process of growth and development is brought about by a series of events by which food is
manufactured and used in different plant methods.

❖ Photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration are the three major functions that drive plant growth and
development, which are essential to a plant's survival.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

❖ The major difference between plants and animals is their ability to manufacture food.

❖ Photosynthesis, which means “to put together with light.“

❖ To produce food, a plant requires energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and water from the
soil.
❖ Splits carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen, adds water, and forms carbohydrates
(starches and sugars). Oxygen is a byproduct.

Carbon dioxide + Water + Sunlight = Sugar + Oxygen or 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + Energy => C6H1206 + 6 02

❖ After producing carbohydrates, a plant either uses them as energy stores them or builds
them into complex energy compounds such as oils and proteins (photosynthates)
❖ occurs only in the mesophyll layers of plant leaves and, in some instances, in mesophyll
cells in the stem.

❖ Mesophyll cells are sandwiched between the leaf's upper and lower epidermis and contain
numerous chloroplasts (where photosynthesis takes place).

Chlorophyll

❖ pigment that makes leaves green is found in the chloroplasts.

❖ responsible for trapping light energy from the sun.

❖ arranged perpendicular to incoming sun rays so they can absorb maximum sunlight.
Light

❖ Photosynthesis depends on the availability of light.

❖ sunlight intensity increases, so does photosynthesis.

❖ However, for each plant species, there is a maximum level of light intensity above which
photosynthesis does not increase.

❖ Many garden crops, such as tomatoes, respond best to maximum sunlight.

❖ Tomato production decreases drastically as light intensity drops.

Water

❖ Water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. The roots take it up into the plant
and move upward through the xylem.

Carbon dioxide

❖ Photosynthesis also requires carbon dioxide (CO2), which enters a plant through its
stomata.

❖ In most plants, photosynthesis fluctuates throughout the day as stomata open and close.

❖ They open in the morning, close down at midday, reopen in late afternoon, and shut down
for good in the evening.
Temperature

❖ Photosynthesis occurs at its highest rate between 65° and 85°F and decreases at higher or
lower temperatures.

Requirements of the Process

✓ CO2 and H2O- basic raw materials, must be sufficient

✓ Sunlight- radiant energy
✓ Chlorophyll- for its manufacture, these elements are needed: C, H, O, N, Mg and Mn
✓ Enzymes- protein molecules that act as mediators in photosynthesis that will determine
the rate and sometimes the direction of the metabolic events. Nutrients necessary for the
manufacture of enzymes: C,H, O, N, P, Ca, Fe, Mg, Cl, Mo, B, S, Cu, Zn, and Mn
RESPIRATION

❖ refers to the biochemical process through which they obtain energy by breaking down
organic molecules, such as glucose, and converting them into a usable form known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

❖ utilized by plants to perform various vital functions, including growth, reproduction, and
defense against pathogens.

❖ This energy is used for cell growth and building new tissues.
❖ The diagram provides a visual
representation of the
respiration process in plants. It
illustrates the intake of glucose
and oxygen, the production of
carbon dioxide and water, and
the release of energy in the
form of ATP.
Types of Respiration

Plant respiration can occur through two primary mechanisms: aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

❖ Aerobic respiration is the most common form of respiration in plants.

❖ Requires the presence of oxygen and involves the complete breakdown of glucose
molecules.

❖ Through a series of enzymatic reactions, glucose is gradually broken down into carbon
dioxide and water, releasing a significant amount of energy.

❖ This energy is then stored as ATP and utilized by the plant for various physiological
processes.
❖ Oxygen enters plant cells through stomata that are present in the epidermis of leaves and the
stem of a plant.

❖ Through photosynthesis, plants synthesize food and release energy.

Steps of Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis

▪ beginning of aerobic respiration that occurs in the cell’s

cytosol.

▪ glucose molecules split and segregated into ATP and

NADH molecules, numbering two each
Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

▪ formation of acetyl coenzyme is referred to as the second stage in aerobic respiration.

▪ pyruvate is oxidized in the mitochondria, leading to the production of a 2-carbon acetyl group.

▪ combines with coenzyme A and releases acetyl coenzyme A.

 Citric Acid Cycle

▪ critical step in aerobic respiration

▪ citric acid cycle is also referred to as the

Krebs cycle.

▪ witness to the combining of oxaloacetate and acetyl-coenzyme A, leading to the release of

citric acid.

▪ There are a chain of reactions undergone by the citric acid cycle, thus producing 2 molecules
of carbon dioxide, 1 molecule of ATP, and NADH and FADH, in reduced forms.
Electron Transport Chain

▪ final stage in aerobic respiration

▪ heavy quantities of ATP molecules are

released when electrons from NADH and
FADH are transferred.

▪ About 34 ATP molecules can be created from one glucose molecule.

▪ 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidized glucose molecule during cellular respiration.

▪ 2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system
Anaerobic Respiration

❖ anaerobic means without air

❖ anaerobic respiration happens in the absence of oxygen.

❖ Some plants and organisms will not have sufficient oxygen to transport all cells, and in
these types of organisms, energy production should not be stopped, as it is essential for
them.

❖ multi-cellular organisms break down glucose molecules and produce carbon dioxide,
alcohol, and energy.

❖ used by multi-cellular organisms, temporarily in the absence of oxygen.

▪ Anaerobic respiration occurs, as a
response to oxygen-less conditions.

▪ This is generally a temporary phase.

▪ The oxygen supply remains limited

and this is when muscle cells take to
anaerobic respiration
Difference Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Parameter Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen plays an important role Oxygen is not required for this

Oxygen
in the process. process.

Carbon Dioxide, Water, and Alcohol, Carbon Dioxide, and

Resulting Energy are the resulting Energy are the resultant
Components components of Aerobic components of Anaerobic
Respiration. Respiration.
Aerobic Respiration is
Anaerobic Respiration is
Location commonly observed in
observed in Cytoplasm.
Mitochondria and Cytoplasm.

Higher Organisms like Lower Organisms like Bacteria,

Examples
Mammals. Yeast, etc.
Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration

Food produces food uses food

Energy stores energy releases energy

Water uses water produces water

Carbon Dioxide uses carbon dioxide produces carbon dioxide

Oxygen releases oxygen uses oxygen

TRANSPIRATION

❖ Plants do not use most of

the water that they absorb.

❖ 97-99% of the water is lost

through transpiration.

❖ Transpiration is defined as
the physiological loss of
water in the form of water
vapor, mainly from the
stomata in leaves and
through evaporation from
the surfaces of leaves,
flowers, and stems.
Three main types of transpiration:

(i) Stomatal transpiration

▪ Stomata make up only 3% of the leaf surface area.

▪ most water loss happens through these openings due to the necessities of
photosynthesis.

▪ Stomata are open to letting carbon dioxide in for photosynthesis.

▪ causes the water in the mesophyll tissue in leaves to evaporate.

(ii) Cuticular transpiration: The leaf surface has a waxy cuticle through which water vapor can
evaporate. Water loss here is lower than stomatal transpiration, except when the stomata are
closed.

(iii) Lenticular transpiration: Lenticels, small openings in some plants’ bark, are another area
where water loss can be seen. This type of transpiration sees the lowest amounts of water
loss.
Why is transpiration important?

1) Uptake of nutrients: This moves water and other nutrients absorbed by roots to the
shoots and other parts of the plant. Hence, transpiration is very important for the survival
and productivity of plants. In agriculture, the rate of transpiration determines yields.

2) Plant survival due to heat and drought stress depends on transpiration rate, as too much
water loss can leave the plants dehydrated. Since water is a limiting factor in many cases,
much of crop research focuses on improving plant water use to increase productivity in
combination with photosynthesis. Transpiration and water use efficiency are intricately
connected with photosynthesis through stomata.

Between the three types of photosynthesis, water use efficiency is the lowest in C3
plants, better in C4 plants, and best in CAM plants. CAM, or crassulacean acid metabolism, is
found in plants in arid areas that have developed adaptations to reduce transpiration through
leaves. However, each type has a wide range of water use efficiency based on species.
3) Through evaporation cooling, plant transpiration reduces the temperature of leaves, the
largest plant organ.

4) Water balance in plant: maintained by transpiration. Plants absorb a lot of water and
transpiration is a means by which excess water is removed. Much of the water uptake is used for
photosynthesis, cell expansion, and growth, but a single tree that is 20 meters high can take up
between 10 liters to 200 liters daily, depending on its species.

5) Turgor pressure: keeps the plant cells full and turgid, due to the transpiration stream of water
from roots to shoots. This has many uses for plants:

•It maintains plant form and structure. Without water, plants would become flaccid and wilt.
•Nastic movements in plants in response to stimuli are possible due to turgor pressure.
•Turgor pressure is necessary for many cell functions. It causes stomata to open and let in carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis and helps in apical growth through cell expansion.
How does a plant grow?

Two parts of plant development: (1) from germination to flower initiation, (2) flowering to
fruiting

❑ First phase: food reserves manufactured during Ps produce roots, stalks, and leaves.

❑ Second phase: leaf and stalk growth slow down, and most Ps products not used in Rn are
converted to fruits. Yield is related to the amount of growth attained in the first phase.

❑ Summary:

The amount of carbohydrates available for growth and reproduction during any
given 24-hour period is the difference between the amount manufactured during Ps and the
amount used as a source of energy for growth and development released during Rn.

When the process of photosynthesis is disturbed, metabolic processes needing

energy usually continue to proceed at a normal rate so that the amount of energy available
for growth and development will be much less. The lesser the amount available, the slower
the growth rate per day.
Growth in Relation to Time

The S-shaped (Sigmoid) growth curve, is exhibit by numerous annual plants and
individual parts both annual and perennial plants.

Detected primary phase:

a) Logarithmic or Exponential Phase: The growth rate (the increase in size per unit of time)
is low at first, apparently because the germinating seed has fewer cells capable of growth,
but the rate continuously increases as more cells are formed so that the size increases
exponentially within time.

• During the exponential phase, growth follows a “Compound Interest Law” wherein the
final size attained is dependent on:
o Initial size of plant
o Rate of “interest”
o Time
• The rate of interest represents the efficiency of the plant as a producer of new materials
(efficiency index). This implies that during the exponential phase, growth is proportional
to the size of the plant, i.e., the larger the plant, the faster it can grow.

b) Linear Phase: Increase in size continues at a constant, usually maximum rate for some time.
The physiological basis for this is that when photosynthesis has become active in a young
seedling, the power of the plant to synthesize new material is clearly dependent upon its leaf
area. Therefore, as the plant grows and increases its leaf area, the rate at which new material
is assimilated will decrease proportionally.

c) Stationary/Senescence Phase. Decreasing growth rate as the plant reaches maturity and
begins to senesce, in other words, the growth rate of multicellular organisms decreases of
slows down gradually, resulting in a sigmoid growth curve.
4 stages of growth

1. Lag phase- initial slow

growth
2. Logarithmic and
exponential phase-
rapid/grand period of
growth where
maximum growth is
seen in a short period.
It has the longest
duration and fastest
growth
3. Diminishong phase-
growth will be slow
4. Stationary/
Senescence phase-
growth finally stop.
 Cellular Basis of Growth and Morphogenesis

Zone/Regions of the Longitudinal Section of a Root

a. Zone of cell division, or the Apical Meristem – gives rise to progenitors for all cells of the
root. The cells are small and continue to divide for a period.

b. Elongation Zone – the site where cells increase in volume through enlargement in one
direction

c. Maturation Zone – produces cells of different types. Differentiation may begin earlier but
the cells do not reach maturity until they reach the zone of differentiation. Roots hairs,
specialized epidermal cells, are formed in this region.

d. Root cap – a specialized root cap meristem forms the cells. As they mature, they
differentiate to perceive gravitational stimulus, secrete slime or mucilage, synthesize
hormones, and protect the apical meristem from mechanical injury.
The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle may influence a cell’s ability to divide. This cycle is mainly concerned
with the time of DNA replication in relation to nuclear division. After mitosis, there is a
period of cell growth before DNA replication (G1); then DNA replication (S) occurs.
Growth after replication (G2) follows. Finally, mitosis (M) completes the cycle.

➔ G1- cell growth

➔ S phase- cell replication
➔ G2- growth after replication

There is great variation among cells in the length of time a cell stays in any phase.
Hormones can lengthen or shorten a particular phase. In some cases, such as wounding
or stress, differentiated cells can again become meristematic or differentiated. If the cell
leaves the cycle after the S phase but before mitosis, it will polyploid.
Totipotency

A non-embryonic cell has the potential to differentiate into an embryonic cell and
then develop an entirely new plant if the environment is correct. This known as
totipotency.

➔ Refers to the ability of the cell to regenerate in a complete plant if the environment is
favorable.
 Phases of Plant Growth and Development

1. Vegetative Stage
a. Juvenile stage

It starts at the germination period, seedling growth, and up to a point of growth

when transition begins. Plants capable of exponential growth have a low flowering tendency
and, in some species, show some morphological characteristics. Juvenility in plants remains in
situ.

Juvenility may be modified by:

1. Intensifying growth
2. Slowing down the growth rate
3. Application of growth regulators
4. Pruning
b. Transition phase
The plant gradually loses juvenile characteristics and, at the same time, gradually
acquires adult characteristics.

c. Adult phase
The plant is already very capable of flowering, i.e., it can readily respond to
flowering stimuli; it may further be classified as adult vegetative and adult
reproductive.

2. Reproductive Stage
Mainly concerned with the productive structures.

a. Self-inducing plant – the floral morphogenesis is entirely determined endogenously

o May flower as soon as the genetically determined age for flowering is reached
o May flower when the vegetative parts have reached a certain size
o May flower when their carbon-protein balance is favorable
 b. Non-self-inducing plants – flowering is dependent upon certain environmental factors
such as temperature and photoperiod. These types of plants must first be in the
“ripeness-to-flower” status before they can respond to flower stimuli.

Principal Events of Reproductive Growth

1. Initiation of flower primordia
2. Bud development
3. Development and maturation of flower parts
4. Development of embryo sac with its enclosed nuclei
5. Development of pollen grains within anthers
6. Anthesis
7. Pollination
8. Growth of pollen tube
9. Formation of 2 sperm nuclei from the generative nucleus in the pollen tube
10. Fertilization
11. Development of embryo from zygote
12. Development of endosperm
13. Development of seed from ovule
14. Fruit development
 Other Concepts Related to Plant Growth

1. The Law of Minimum

Sachs first expounded the

three cardinal points theory in 1860.
According to this concept, there is a
minimum, optimum, and maximum for
each factor about photosynthesis. For
example, within a given species, there
may be a minimum temperature below
which no photosynthesis takes place
and a minimum temperature above
which no photosynthesis will occur.

Graphic representation of the concept of the three cardinal points.

2. The Law of Optima and Limiting Factors

Blackman proposed his principle of limiting factors in the early twentieth century. This
theory originated 20 years before the concept of the three cardinal points. Blackman’s principle of
limiting factors is a modification of Liebig’s law of minimum, which states that the rate of a process
controlled by several factors is only as rapid as the slowest factor permits.

Blackman claimed that if all other factors are kept constant, the factor under
consideration will affect the rate of photosynthesis, starting at a minimum below which no
photosynthesis takes place and ending with an optimum at which a plateau would be established;
that is, the rate would remain constant despite further increases in the factor. At this point, some
other factors become limiting. Blackman realized that, when dealing with biological material,
extremes of any controlling factor usually have detrimental effects (e.g., freezing, denaturation of
protein).
 Therefore, as the factor under
observation continues to increase, the
plateau mentioned will dip, and the rate
of photosynthesis will diminish until it is
no longer measurable.

Graphic representation of Blackman’s “Principle of Limiting Factors,”

considering only one factor while all others are held constant.
3. The Law of Diminishing Returns

If any of the factors being held at a

constant level is allowed to increase, a new
optimum for the first factor will be reached.
This change in the optimum will continue
until a third becomes limiting.
Therefore, several plateaus maybe
reached when studying the rate of
photosynthesis under the changing
Graphic representation of Blackman’s “Principle of Limiting Factors”,
conditions of several external factors exist. considering changes in two factors, all others held constant.
 Plant Life Processes

The growth and development of crops result from the interaction of various
physiological processes, namely (a) photosynthesis, (b) respiration, (c) transpiration, and (d)
translocation. These processes form the basis for crop yield.

1. Photosynthesis

It is considered as the most important biological process. The fundamental basis for crop
growth and culture is the size and efficiency of its photosynthetic system. Agriculture is a system
that exploits photosynthesis. The main task in modern scientific agriculture is to develop culture
management practices that will exploit photosynthesis to the fullest, a system that converts solar
energy into chemical energy.
Plant dry matter analysis – one measure of photosynthesis at the crop/field level.

• 90-95% - from H2O and CO2

• 5-15% - from mineral elements
• CO2 and H2O are practically free while the mineral elements have to be purchased at times the
product (grains, root, tuber, fruits) are essentially net products of photosynthesis.
The Photosynthetic Organ
Leaf – chief site of photosynthesis

Structural parts:
✓ Upper and lower epidermis –
stomates
✓ Mesophyll cells – chlorophyll
✓ Vascular bundles – transport

The Mesophyll
✓ Upper side: palisade parenchyma,
Regular-shaped palisade cells
Schematic transverse section through a leaf (Heldt, 2005) ✓ Lower side: spongy parenchyma,
Irregular shaped
 The Photosynthetic Reaction

Photosynthesis starts when a photon of

light strikes the chlorophyll molecule and excites
an electron, raising it to a high energy level that
allows it to transform this energy into other
compounds in the photosynthetic system.

Stages of the Light Reaction:

1. Light energizes chlorophyll
2. Produces high energy compounds, ATP and NADP-
H2
3. Evolution of O2 through the photosynthesis of
H2O and photoelectron transport
4. Involves chlorophyll; 2 kinds: chlorophyll a (bluish Chemical Structure of Chlorophyll (Heldt, 2005)

green) and chlorophyll b (yellowish green) at a

ratio of 3a:1b
5. Other pigments: carotene, xanthophyll
6. Light absorption: most intense in red and blue and
lowest in green
 Stages of the Dark Reaction:
1. Assimilation of CO2, production of CH2O
2. Use of ATP and NADP-H2 in the process: consist
of a series of reaction:
a. Calvin cycle or C3 Pathway
b. Hatch and Slack or C4 Pathway
c. CAM or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
Pathway
Calvin cycle or C3 Pathway – The first stable
product is 3-C PGA and operates in most crop
plants
o Carboxylation – addition of water and carbon
The Calvin-Benson or C3 cycle (Taiz and Zeiger, 2002)
dioxide to RuBP, RUBISCO is the enzyme
involved
o Reduction of 3 – PGA to 3 – phospho –
glyceraldehyde
o Regeneration of RuBP
Hatch and Slack or C4 Pathway: The first
product is 4-C oxaloacetic acid before
proceeding to the Calvin cycle, which is
operated in sugarcane, corn, sorghum, etc.

o Carboxylation of PEP to OAA: PEP

carboxylase is an enzyme involved
o Reduction of OAA to malate or
aspartate
o Decarboxylation of malate in the
bundle sheath cells to form pyruvic acid
o Transfer of pyruvic acid to the
mesophyll cell
o Fixation of carbon dioxide to form 3-
PGA

Diagram of Kranz Anatomy in C4 grass Panicum capallare (A), and C4

dicot Atriplex rosea (B) (Dengler and Nelson, 1999)
CAM or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
Pathway: operates in orchids, pineapple,
and other succulent plants wherein
stomates are closed during the day and
open at night.

o During the night – atmospheric carbon

dioxide is fixed with malic acid as a
product and stored in the vacuole
o During the day – decarboxylation of
malate and carbon dioxide is refixed via
C3 pathway The Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway (Taiz and Zeiger,
2002)
 C3 C4 CAM
Typically temperature species, e.g., Typically tropical or semi-tropical sp, Typically arid zone, e.g., cacti,
spinach, wheat, potato, tobacco, e.g., corn, sugarcane, sorghum, agave, orchid, pineapple and other
sugarbeet, soybean, sunflower grasses. Adapted to high light, succulents
temperature and semi-arid
environment

Moderately productive Highly productive ~ 80/ha. In Usually very low; in pineapple, high
sugarcane yield possible
Cells containing chloroplast do not Kranz – anatomy and peripheral No Kranz – anatomy only one type
have Kranz – anatomy, peripheral reticulum of chloroplast
reticulum, only one type of
chloroplast
Initial CO2 accepted RuBP, a 5-C Initial CO2 acceptor is PEP, a 3-C acid CO2 acceptor is PEP in the dark and
sugar RuBP in light
Only one CO2 fixation pathway Two CO2 fixation pathways Two CO2 pathways separated in
time
High rate of glycolate synthesis Low rate of glycolate synthesis Low rate of glycolate synthesis

Low water use efficiency and High water use efficiency and High water use efficiency and
salinity (ion) tolerance salinity tolerance salinity tolerance
Photosaturate 1/5 full sunlight Do not readily photosaturate at Do not readily photosaturate at
high light high light
High CO2 compensation point Low CO2 compensation point High affinity for CO2 at night
Open stomates by day Open stomates by day Open stomates by night
Factors affecting photosynthesis
➢ Light
➢ Carbon dioxide concentration
➢ Leaf diffusive resistance
➢ Temperature
➢ Water
➢ Leaf age
➢ Minerals status

Implication to crop production

➢ Optimum spacing
➢ Row orientation
➢ Plant breeding (erectophile vs. planophile variety)
➢ Special practices such as trellising and pruning
Respiration
Plants need energy to build and maintain cells and protoplasm. It is the plant’s main source of
energy.
The main function of respiration is the production of ATPs, which plants can use to drive
processes in plants.
The Respiration process:
- A slow process taking place in the mitochondria
- Involves enzymes
- Basically an oxidation process (combustion releases energy in the form of heat)

Steps in Respiration
1. Phosphorylation - formation of sugar phosphates
2. Glycolysis – pyruvate as end product, breakdown of sugar, controlled by enzymes
3. Kreb’s cycle – a cyclic reaction or TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle
Electron Transport System
o Where electron transport takes place
o Particularly in the formation of H2O
o An oxidation-reduction reaction (“donor-accepted”)
o Energy trapped in the process through the conversion of low-energy phosphates into high-
energy phosphates

Factors Affecting Respiration

o Substrate availability
o Oxygen availability
o Temperature (5-25 C vs 30-35 C vs 40 C)
o Type and age of the plant

Implications to crop production

o Detasselling in corn (source-sink relationship)
o Pruning of unwanted branches
o Postharvest handling
 Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration

Only in green plants In all living cells (plants & animals)

Only in light During cell’s lifetime (light or dark)

Uses CO2 + H2O Uses food & CO2 & H2O

Releases O2 Releases CO2 + H2O

Solar energy to chemical energy Chemical energy to heat (useful energy)

Weight increase Weight loss

Food is produced Food is broken down

Transpiration

A process wherein plants use H2O through evaporation:

a. A form gaseous water diffusion is driven by the net radiation absorbed by the leaf
b. Aside from the leaf, other plant parts transpire, even during short periods without absorbed
radiation
c.
Significance of Transpiration
An internal water deficit occurs when H2O transpired is greater than H2O absorbed. As a
result, growth decreases in proportion to the water deficit.

Lack of water balance will result into a decrease in PS, not because of shortage of H2O for
the reaction, but chiefly due to the upset condition of the protoplasm.
 A decrease in water supply can accelerate other processes: (a.) conversion of starch to
sugar and (b.) proteins hydrolyzed to amino acids; thus, during drought, leaves have more
sugar and amino acids (proline).

The reduced growth resulting from low water supply can lead to some desirable effects:
a. An accumulation of latex in rubber
b. More sugar translocation to the roots
c. Good for hardening seeding at 50°c ~ 10-15°C

It promotes the translocation and uptake of solutes. Root absorption is an action

process, i.e., it requires energy, but with transpiration, the energy required for root
absorption is reduced.
Function of Transpiration
o Helps maintain cell turgidity
o Reduces leaf temperature
• At full sunlight exposure, the temperature of the leaf may reach “killing point”
• Transpiration is a cooling process that prevents leaf injury (about 580 kcal of heat is lost per
gram of H2O transpired)
o Cooling affect: at 30-40°C ≈ 3-5°C

Factors affecting Transpiration Implications to crop production

1. Efficiency of water absorption
2. Efficiency of evaporating surface To sustain the beneficial effects of transpiration, the
3. Wind speed crop should:
4. Solar radiation
• Be given supplemental irrigation
5. Temperature
• Not compete with weeds
6. Humidity
• Not be fully exposed to wind (i.e., trees as
windbreaks)
Translocation

In plants, a balanced and integrated transfer of materials is needed for the proper
functioning of each plant part. Materials transferred are in the form of nutrients and other dissolved
substances.

Plants have a definite relationship between the roots and the shoot.

a. Roots derive water and nutrients from the soil but do not have chlorophyll (no PS)
b. Shoot is where active production of food takes place.
c. Both roots and shoots are actively growing, hence, they both require materials to maintain and
sustain these processes.
The Principal Translocation Systems

The two systems differ morphologically and physiologically:

1. Xylem vessels- more simple, they appear as dead cells as the plant matures.
2. Phloem sieve tubes- has a complex structure consisting of long and narrow tubes.

Functions

• Water moves up from the roots to the shoots through the xylem.
• It cannot be concluded that the phloem is the only translocatory system through which organic
substances are transferred.
• Sugar may also reach high concentrations in the xylem vessel.
The Classical Concept Factors Affecting Translocation

• Temperature
• Inhibitors- cyanide, dinitrophenol,
• Xylem- inorganic substances (water)
and antimycin inhibit translocation in
• Phloem- organic substances (food) the phloem
• Water stress
• Potassium
• Hormones
The Present View

• Xylem- main path of movement of inorganic substances

(and water)
• Phloem- almost the sole path of organic substances and
downward movement of all solutes (and food)
Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

1. Internal/genetic Factors – those which are controlled by hereditary units called genes. Each
plant species/variety has a genetic make-up and is termed as genotype. It determines the
following characteristics:

a. Yield Potential - is usually the reflection of the ability of the plant to utilize and adapt to its
aerial environment in terms of its morphology, anatomy or biochemical nature.

Example: leaf arrangement to a certain extent relates to the amount of light

intercepted. If two varieties were thus compared, the array with a leaf arrangement that
is more favorable for intercepting sunlight can manufacture more food, thus has greater
yield potential than the other.
b. Relative susceptible to unfavorable environment conditions – includes presence of harmful
insects and disease, water-logging, drought, too high or too low temperatures, or too much or too
little nutrient.

When a variety is said to be disease-resistant, it can prevent the entry of a pathogen

without necessarily affecting its yield. It could have been an epidermis, which is hard to penetrate,
or it could produce a chemical to counteract the toxin from the microorganism.

When a variety is said to be drought-resistant, it can produce a chemical or has a

structure that causes it to be more economical in its water requirement for the various
physiological processes. It can also escape drought by having long extensive roots or it may have
both mechanisms.
c. Earliness and regularity of bearing – the yield potential may also be a reflection of the amount
of pollination that occur in he flowers as well as the percentage of fruit setting. While plants
generally produce a lot of flower, pollination and fruit setting are critical, especially for cross-
pollinated crops.

Example: Chico ‘Ponderosa’ generally has lower yield that ‘Native’ since the former
produces little viable pollen which is necessary for pollination.

d. Size – a plant is small a maturity usually lacks the genes that will manufacture the enzymes
necessary to convert the initial products of Ps into gibberellins, which are the chemicals
necessary for normal growth, or the plant produces a large amount of abscisic acid, which
inhibits normal growth. It has also been proposed that a dwarf plant contains substances that
block the utilization of gibberellins.
2. External Factors
a. Physical Environment
1. Light
2. Temperature
3. Soil
4. Relative humidity
5. Rainfall

b. Chemical factors
1. Gasses
2. Nutrients

c. Biological/Biotic Factors
1. Insects
2. Microorganisms
3. Other plants which could be neighboring plants or weeds
4. Animals
5. Man
Interaction between Internal and External Factors

Internal and external factors interact continuously to control plant performance.

Temperature, known to produce definite plant responses, operates via internal control systems
such as enzyme activity, which is under genetic control. The interaction product of its genetic
constitution and environment results in the plants' outward appearance (phenotype). The
internal factors set the boundaries to which the manipulation of environmental factors can attain
improvement of yield. Internal factors determine the maximum yield potential, and the
environment determines the extent to which the potential is expressed.
Terms Associated with Plant Growth and Development

1. Abscisic acid – plant hormone that appears to act more as inhibitor than a promoter
2. Abscission – separation or shielding of plant organs such as leaves, flower and fruits
3. Aging – encompasses a wide array of positive or non-regulated degenerative process driven
primarily by exogenous factors or stress
4. Apical dominance – phenomenon in which the growth of the lateral bud is inhibited by the
terminal shoot apex.
5. Auxin – substance known for its capacity to induce cell elongation in shoot cells
6. Cytokinin – plant hormone associated with cell division
7. Dormancy – state of arrested growth of buds, seeds and other plant organs due to some
internal and external factors.
8. Ethylene – gaseous hormone that can promote fruit ripening.
9. Florigen- flowering stimulus believed to be synthesized after exposure of photoperiodic plants
to inductive daylength periods.
10. Gibberellins- plant change hormone usually associated with dramatic stem elongation in intact
plants
11. Juvenility – phase change in a plant characterized by its inability to form flowers and set fruit
even though all environmental conditions are conducive to flowering
12. Long-day plants – plants that flower when the length of the dark period is less than the critical
value
13. Nastic movements – movements in which the direction of growth is unrelated to the direction
of the stimulus

o Epinasty/hyponasty – often exhibited by leaves or leaflets of most compound leaves caused by

differentiation in growth in cells in the pulvini at the base of petiole, blade or leaflet
o Nyctinasty – leaf movements from early horizontal during the day and nearly vertical at night.
Also called sleep movement.
o Thigmonasty or seismonasty – temperature-induced movement such as the opening and
closing of tulip flowers. As temperature increases, the growth of upper sepal tissues speeds
up and the flower opens, as temperature decreases, growth of lower tissues speeds up and
growth of upper remains the same accounting for the closing of the flowers.
14. Parthenocarpy – production of seedless fruits of state of seedlessness.
15. Photomorphogenesis – light-dependent control of plant development independent of
photosynthesis.
16. Photoperiodism – flowering response to daylength
17. Phytochrome – a chromoprotein pigment present in two forms: phytochrome red (Pr) and
phytochrome far-red (Pfr)
18. Plant growth regulator (PGR) – substance which at low concentration can promote, inhibit or
modify any physiological response.
19. Plant hormone – an organic compound synthesized in one part of a plant and translocated to
another part where, in very low concentration, it causes a physiological response. It is an
endogenous or naturally occurring compound.
20. Polarity – any situation in which two ends or surfaces in a living system are different
21. Senescence – the endogenously controlled degenerative process leading to the death of
tissues
22. Short-day plants – plants that flower when a critical duration of darkness is exceeded
23. Tropism – growth response in which the direction of the stimulus determines the direction of
movement:

o Phototropism – bending of coleoptiles and stems to unilateral light

o Gravitropism – downward growth in response to gravity
o Heliotropism – or solar tracking – leaf movement or orientation following the direction of the
sun’s ray
o Thigmotropism – is where tendrils bend toward the point of contract wrapping around the
support.

24. Turgor movements - movements due to differential irreversible growth

25. Vernalin – hypothetical substance considered to be the flowering stimulus formed during the
process of vernalization
26. Vernalization – effect on flowering brought about by exposure to very low temperature
 FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
Crop Production can be viewed from two perspective
• Crop level
• Production System Level

SYSTEM-LEVEL
(Inputs resources) systems Environment
Output (yield)

At the production system

• Inputs (controllable, manageable, resources such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.)
• Output – yield
• Environment-uncontrollable factors external to the system
• System- component crops, processes and activities
A. EXTERNAL FACTORS (Environmental Factors)
1. Abiotic Factors
-Climate (Light, Temperature, Atmospheric gasses, Relative Humidity, Climatic Stresses

Biotic Factors
-Beneficial organism
-Pests

ENVIRONMENT FOR CROPS

Locations and Site
Location – refers to the geographical position where crop
enterprises is situated (e.g Poblacion, Kabacan)
Site refers to the actual place where the given crop is produced (e.g. along USM)
Location and Site
Dictates the following:
- Kind of crops grow
- Production cost (labor, inputs, etc.)
- Management practices
- Accessibility (transport cost-product and inputs)
- Cropping pattern

Factors to be considered when evaluating site/location for suitability to agricultural enterprise

establishment:
1. Ecological factors
2. Economic factors
3. Sociological factors (Peace and Order)
B. ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. Climate and weather factors
-temperature -relative humidity
-rainfall/ precipitation
-wind
-light

2. Topography

-contour -terrain
-elevations -drainage system
-depression -ease of transportation
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
Climate- defines as the general state of the atmosphere at given location over a long period of
time.
Weather- is the expression of the day to day conditions of the atmosphere at a given location

Climate in the Philippines based on Rainfall

Type I
- Two pronounced seasons: dry (Nov.-April); wet (rest of the year) - dry season lasts for 3-7
months
- Western part of the island of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Palawan
Type II
- No dry season with a very pronounced max. rainfall from (Nov.-Jan.)
- Catanduanes, Sorsogon, Eastern part of Albay, Samar, Eastern Leyte, and
Eastern Mindanao
Type III
- Seasons not very pronounced; relatively dry (Nov. to April), and wet during the rest of the
year; short dry period 1-3 months
- Cagayan Valley, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Negros, Southern Cebu, and Northern Mindanao

Type IV
- Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year.
- Batanes Islands, Western part of Camarines Sur, Albay, Bohol and most Central, Eastern, and
Southern Mindanao, Northern Cebu, and Western Leyte.
Classification of Crops based on Temperature requirement
1. Cool season
-Cole crops (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower), peas, potato, tea, etc.
2. Warm season- Rice, banana
3. Tropical - Coconut, pineapple
4. Sub-tropical- Citrus

Crop Plants Threshold Temperatures (°C) Growth Stage

Wheat 26 Post Anthesis

Corn 38 Grain filing
Cotton 45 Reproductive
Tomato 30 Emergence
Brassica 29 Flowering
Cool Season 25 Flowering
Pulses 34 Pollen production
Rice 34 Grain yield
Vernalization
• Low temperature exposure
• Requirement of crops for flowering, crop maturation and germination
• lettuce germination
• flowering in aster

Solar Radiation
• most crucial factor that affect crop yield
3 aspects of light
1. Intensity (foot candles or lux)
2. Duration or daylength (hours from sunrise to sunset)
3. Wavelength (Angstrom or nanometers)
Light Intensity
• Only about 47% of sun's energy reaches the earth's surface
• PAR - Photosynthetically active radiation is used by plants to fix CO2 during Ps
• Amount of light should be above light compensation point before plants can grow
• Photoenergetic effect- photosynthesis
• Photocybernetic effect-plant development

Classification: Light Intensity

1. Heliophytes
-Sun-loving plants
-Light saturated at about 5,000 ft. candles
- corn, upland rice, cowpea, peanut, sweet potato, watermelon, papaya, banana, citrus,
various vegetables
2. Sciophytes
-Shade loving plants
- Light saturated at 500 ft. candles
-Black pepper, cacao, coffee, lanzones, mangosteen, durian, ginger, vanilla, gabi

Crop and Light

Light Saturation Point- light intensity where photosynthetic activity is at maximum

Sun-loving Shade-loving Shade-tolerant

Most field crops Lanzones, cacao, coffee Pineapple, papaya,
Mangosteen, ginger

65% of ornamental crops 35% of ornamental crops

Photoperiodism (response to daylength)
1. Day- Neutral Plants
- Flowering not regulated by daylength
-Kidney Bean
2. Short day plants
-plants that flower in short days
(chrysanthemums, pineapple, coffee)
3. Long-day plants
-Plants that flower in long days
-Wheat, Aster

Light Intensity
• Short-day plant- requires short days or long nights to flower
• Critical daylength
• 14-15 hours for flower initiation
• 13-14 hours for development
Lighting for chrysanthemum

Growth Phase Weeks for Planting Photoperiod

Vegetative phase Up to 4-5 weeks from Long day: 13 hrs light and 11
planting till the plant attains hrs dark
50-60 cm height
Flowering 5-6 weeks after planting till Short day: 10 hrs light and 14
harvest hrs dark

Photoblatism
1. Positive photoblastic
-Germination is influenced by light
-Grasses, lettuce, carrot, mustard
2. Negatively photoblastic
-Germination is inhibited by light
-Melon, pumpkin, cucumber
Wavelength
• Light- wide range of electromagnetic radiation
• The Biological window of light (300-1000 nm)- biological effects
• Visible light: Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (400-700 nm)- corresponds to
photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)
• Red and Blue-effective in photosynthesis
• Far-red and red-effective in photoperiodism
• Far-red (700-800 nm) - influences morphogenesis
• Ultraviolet light-causes damage on plants

Influence of Water on Plants

• As a reactant in many biological reactions (e.g. hydrolysis)
• It enters into the structure of many biological molecules such as carbohydrates
• Serve as a medium for transport of nutrients from the soil and photosynthates
• Help regulate favorable plant temperature during transpiration.
Plant types: Moisture Need

1. Xerophytes
-Plants in arid environments (cactus)
2. Hydrophytes
-Aquatic plants
-Land plants- most of economically grown in plants
3. Mesophytes

Water System/Management
• Irrigation
-important in improving yield and quality of crops
-permits the use of production improvement factors in farming
-makes more effective use of the water-holding capacity of soil to grow crops during the
dry season.
Drought
• The insufficiency of rainfall/moisture which affect plant growth
• Absolute drought- 29 consecutive days without rainfall
• Partial drought- 15 consecutive days without rainfall

Wind
• area near coast/lakes experience daytime wind or sea or lake breeze
• Normal wind speed in the Philippines -7.2 kph
• Tropical cyclone (63-118 kph)-June to December
• July-Dec- typhoon months
• 3/4 of the Philippines is within tropical cyclone belt
• Southern Philippines- relatively typhoon-free
Effect of Strong Winds
1. Crop Lodging
2. Subsequent yield reduction
3. Grin shattering
4. Affects transpiration
5. Straight, upright, curved growth
6. Sterility due to pollen loss
7. Disease spores dispersal

Crop and Wind

Crop Characteristic Crop
Crops sensitive to strong wind Coconut, Banana, Abaca, Coffee, Cacao,
Mango, Rice, Corn (most field crops)
Crops resistant to strong wind Siniguelas (spondias), some palms, pandan,
bamboo
Soil Factors
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
-Topography -Soil reaction
-Texture (sand, silt and clay) -Soil OM -CEC
-Structure -Soil fertility status
-Depth -Soil moisture
-Drainage (internal and external)
-Color
Soil
• Biological properties
-Microorganisms- beneficial as well as pathogenic
-Soil decomposers (e.g. earthworms)
• Biological properties
-Microorganisms- beneficial as well as pathogenic
-Soil decomposers (e.g. earthworms)
Soil properties
a. Soil texture- smoothness or grittiness of soil which depends on the proportion of variously
sized particles
b. Soil structure - a function of the arrangement of the soil particles and the space between them
(related to water holding capacity)
c. Soil water-soil water added by rain or irrigation is stored up to the WHC of the soil, which is also
called the field capacity.

Bulk density-degree of compaction

-lower bulk density, lower weight, more pore spaces
-higher bulk density, higher weight, less pore spaces

Porosity -measures the relative proportion of pores space system in the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity
- a measure of how easily a fluid can pass
through a porous medium

Textural Class: Silt loam

Textural Class: Sand
• Medium texture
• Course texture • 0.002-0.05 mm diameter particles
• 0.10-2.00 mm diameter particles • Good aeration and drainage
• Excellent aeration and drainage • Medium cation exchange
• Low cation exchange capacity • Moderate permeability by water
• Fast permeability by water • Moderate tillage and erodibility by water
• Low water/ nutrient holding capacity
• Easy tillage and erodibility of
Soil factors
• Ideal Soil- 45% minerals + 5% organic matter and 50% pore space filled with half water and
half air.
• Texture- 70% sand, 15% silt, 15% clay
-clay loam- best overall in drier areas
-sandy loam- better in wet area
Color
-dark soil-high OM and good texture
-red and yellow- high level of iron oxides
-gray or yellow brown- indicator of poor drainage
-whitish or light colored soil-presence of quartz, carbonate or gypsum
Soil
Soil pH- acidity or alkalinity of a soil (1-14 units)

pH Range Soil Characteristics Nutrient Availability

3-3.9 Strongly acid -high or toxic levels of Al and
Mn
-Poor structure, low microbial
activity
4-5.9 Moderately acid -low levels of Ca, Mg, P and
Mo
-poor structure, low microbial
activity
6-6.9 Slightly acidic
7 Neutral -best for crop
7.1-7.5 Slightly alkaline
7.6-8 Alkaline -low Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn

>8 Strongly alkaline

C. ECONOMIC FACTORS
1. Cost of land
2. Local taxes
3. Available labor
4. Economic status of the people
5. Facilities (electricity, communication, transportation, storage facilities, road)

D. SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS/ HUMAN FACTOR

• Population-source of labor, religion, traditions, culture, belief
• Peace and order
• law enforcement
School, churches, recreational facilities and hospitals
 Social, Economic and Political Issues
• Climate Change RA 9729
• Biofuel act RA 9367
• Sustainable Agriculture
• Organic Act RA 10068
• High Value Crops RA 7900
• CARL-Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law

E. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
• Prevalence of pests and diseases to plant and human
• Existence of Animals (wild and domesticated animals)
• Weed population
BIOTIC FACTORS

A. BENEFICIAL ORGANISM

1. Pollinators-aside from wind as "pollen carrier"- moth, bats, bee, birds, beetles, butterflies
2. Decomposers-"breaking down of organic remains"
-bacteria and fungi
-invertebrates (earthworms, millipedes, larvae of flies and beetles)
3. Nature pest enemies- non-destructive to crops but keep down population of destructive
pests
B. PESTS
1. Insect-" six-legged creatures with pair of antennae and wings- feed on plants- defoliators,
sap feeders, stem borers, root borers
2. Pathogen- "induce disease in plants"
3. Weeds-unwanted plants in a particular place-compete for light
4. Vertebrate (rodents, birds, bats, monkeys) and Invertebrate (slugs, snails and nematodes)
pests
 Plant Reproduction
Plant reproduction/propagation
➢ the reproduction of new plants from seeds or vegetative parts of a plant.
➢ defined as multiplication or reproduction of plants.
➢ Commercializing crops leads to the development of various techniques and procedures for plant
propagation.
➢ Various propagation techniques have been developed to ensure uniformity in crops, early
bearing, increased production, resistance against pests and diseases, and the introduction of
certain characteristics in new generations.
➢ Propagation of plants is the involvement of science and art in a skillful way.
➢ It helps maintain the plant stock and preserve endangered (extinct) species.
➢ Plants can be propagated by sexual and asexual means.
1. Sexual (Seed) Reproduction
▪ The most common method of propagating annuals (Vegetable) is easy and cheap. Rootstock
for asexual propagation is propagated by seeds.
▪ Seeds are formed through successful fertilization and a combination of parental gametes.

Merits of Sexual propagation

✓ Plants propagated by seeds live longer, are vigorous, and are more resistant to biotic (insect
pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (environmental conditions).
✓ It is an easy, simple, and convenient method of plant propagation.
✓ Some plants, like papaya, marigold, chili, capsicum, tomato, etc., cannot be propagated by the
asexual method.
✓ It is the only means of creating genetic diversity in plants.
✓ New varieties and cultivars of ornamental and vegetable crops can be developed only by this
method.
✓ A large number of rootstocks for budding and grafting purposes is also raised by this method.
✓ Seeds can be transported easily and stored longer using this method.
 Demerits of Sexual propagation
✓ Sexually propagated plants show variations and are not genetically true-to-type to the mother
plants.
✓ Plants that are propagated through seeds have long gestation periods, which results in delayed
flowering and fruiting.
✓ Plants grow vigorously and obstruct intercultural practices like harvesting and spraying.
✓ Advantages offered by rootstocks and scions, as in asexual propagation cannot be exploited
through sexual methods.
Fruits propagated by seeds include Plantation crops
1. Papaya 1. Coconut
2. Pili 2. Kapok
3. Mangosteen 3. Oil palm
4. Jackfruit 4. Castor
5. Calamansi 5. Lumbang
6. Coffee
Fruit and Seed Formation Step 1: POLLINATION- the movement of pollen grains
from the anther (male part) to the stigma (female part)
of the flower, which contains the egg cell.

- the pollen grains will come in contact with the

receptive stigma.

a) Self-pollination- pollen is transferred to the stigma of

the same flower (autogamy) of flowers borne to the
same plant.

b) Cross-pollination- pollen is transferred to flowers of

another plant of the same species.

✓ Pollen grains are immobile

✓ They cannot reach the stigma by themselves
✓ An EXTERNAL AGENT is required for this- wind,
water, animal, gravity or growth contact, etc.
Step 2: GERMINATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN- will give rise to two sperm cells.

- The germination of the pollen grain will result in the growth and development of the pollen
tube (which will serve as a passageway for the two sperm cells.)

- The tube cell expands into a pollen tube. The pollen tube then grows towards the flower’s
ovule, where it releases the sperm generated in the pollen grain for fertilization.

Step 3: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLLEN TUBE

- The pollen tube will explode when it penetrates, resulting in the release if the sperm cells.
Step 4: FERTILIZATION- the union of the sperm and egg
cells, resulting in the formation of a zygote.

- The ovule contains eight (8) cells: one egg cell, two
synergid cells, two polar nuclei, and three antipodals.

a) One of the sperm cells will come in contact with or

unite with the egg cell (fertilization). The fertilized egg
will become the zygote, which will grow and develop
later and become the embryo (a living plant within the
seed).

b) The second sperm cell will come in contact with the 2

polar nuclei, resulting in the development of food
storage tissue (cotyledon-dicots, endosperm-
monocots).

Two processes are known as double fertilization:

- Sperm cell + egg cell
- Sperm cell + polar nuclei
Embryo sac- female gametophyte

- Structure which develops from the megaspore of the plant ovule.

- Bears both the embryo plant and the endosperm after fertilization.

Antipodals- the nutritional cells of the embryo sac

Synergids- 2 specialized cells that lie adjacent to the egg cell in the female gametophyte.

- Play an essential role in pollen tube guidance and function.

- Help the pollen nucleus reach the egg cell for fertilization (serves as the passageway for
the sperm cell to join the egg cell).

*Zygote- fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (egg or ovum) with a male gamete (sperm).
*The cotyledon is the embryonic leaf of a seed that becomes the first leaves of the embryonic plant, while the endosperm is
the storage of the nutrients needed by the embryo to develop into a seedling. The embryo get its nourishment from the
endosperm while the young seedling gets its nourishment from the cotyledon.
*A monocot, which is an abbreviation for monocotyledon, has only one cotyledon, and a dicot, or dicotyledon, has two
cotyledons.
Step 5: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVULE AND OVARY WALL

- Since the embryo is supplied with nutrients from the food storage tissue, it will grow and
develop.

Step 6: MATURATION OF THE OVULE AND OVARY

- The growth and development will continue and will only cease or stop upon reaching
maturation.
- Fruit- ripened ovary; seed- ripened ovule
Three primary parts of the seed:

1. Embryo- is the young multicellular

organism before it emerges from the seed.
2. Endosperm- is a source of stored food,
consisting primarily of starches, food
storage, or nutritive tissue.
3. Seed coat- consists of one or more
protective layers that encase the seed; seed
covering. Two layers:

a. Testa- outer layer that protects the embryo;

thicker
b. Tegmen- inner layer; more delicate
The mature embryo consists of:

1. radicle- an embryonic root

2. plumule- an embryonic shoot; has two main parts: epicotyl- is the portion of the embryonic
stem above the point at which the stem is attached to the cotyledon(s), hypocotyl- is the
portion below the point of attachment, is connected to the radicle.

3. cotyledon(s)- a seed leaf that stores food in the form of starch and protein for use by the
embryo.
a. monocot- stores the bulk of its energy in the endosperm
b. dicot- stores its food in two cotyledons

Hilum- the scar on the seed marking the point of attachment to its seed vessel.
Micropyle- a small pore in the outer covering of the seed, that allows for the passage of the water
Monocotyledon seed structure

➢ In monocotyledons, the radicle is surrounded by a protective sheath called coleorhiza

➢ While the plumule is surrounded by the coleoptile.
➢ In cereal seeds, the coleoptile is the first part of the embryo to emerge from the seed during
germination.

Type of Seeds: Orthodox vs. Recalcitrant

➢ Recalcitrant seeds are remarkably short-lived and cannot be dried to a moisture content below
20-30% without injury. They are unable to tolerate freezing. Recalcitrant seeds are, therefore,
also termed desiccation seeds (tropical fruit trees: mango, jackfruit)
➢ Orthodox seeds are seeds that survive drying and /or freezing ex-situ conservation (legumes,
beans, majority of vegetable crops).
➢ Intermediate seeds are more tolerant of desiccation than recalcitrant, though that tolerance is
much more limited than in the case with orthodox seeds, and they generally lose viability more
rapidly at low temperatures (papaya, coffee bean, macadamia nut).
Seed Germination is the overall process beginning with the imbibition of water by dry seeds and
ending when a portion of the embryo penetrates the seed coat.

1) Imbibition- absorption of water by the seed through its coat, and causes the seed coat
rupture.

2) Enzyme activation- that helps in respiration (liberation of the energy from stored food), cell
division, and transport of chemicals.

3) Growth of radicle- production of primary roots

4) Growth of embryo- to give rise to the shoot of the plant

5) Seed emergence- the shoot emerges out of the soil in search of light to start photosynthesis,
and thus, the growing plant emerges.
Two types of Germination

EPIGEAL GERMINATION HYPOGEAL

GERMINATION
1. The seed/cotyledons 1. The seed/cotyledons
emerge out of the soil, remain inside the soil or
above the soil. below the soil.
2. The cotyledons turn 2. The cotyledons play no
green (photosynthetic) role in photosynthesis.
and act as first leaves of
the plants.
3. Energy for growth 3. Energy from growth
primarily derived from primarily derived from
cotyledon. the endosperm.
From Greek word: epi- From Greek word: hypo-
above, and geal- earth below, and geal- earth
Environmental Conditions of Germination

Certain conditions must be present for seeds to germinate. Temperature, water,

oxygen, and sometimes light can affect seed germination.

Temperature- the most critical factor that regulates the timing of germination. Temperature
influences seed dormancy control, germination percentage, and rate. Seed germination
temperatures have been identified for most horticultural species and include a minimum,
maximum, and optimum range. The minimum temperature is the lowest temperature at which
germination will occur; the maximum is the highest. Optimal temperature is where the largest
percentage of seeds germinates at the fastest rate. Most seeds can be broadly grouped based on
their temperature requirements.

▪ Cool temperature- Seeds in the cool temperature group prefer cooler soil temperatures for
germination. They can be further subdivided into cool temperature tolerant and cool
temperature requiring. Cool temperature-tolerant seeds germinate from 86°F (30°C) to about
104°F (40°C), with an optimum temperature of 77°F–86°F (24°C–30°C). Crops in this class
include broccoli, cabbage, alyssum, and carrots. Cool temperature-requiring crops will not
germinate at temperatures higher than 77°F (25°C) and include many winter annuals such as
celery, lettuce, onion, and primrose
▪ Warm temperature- Plants in this category will not germinate at temperatures below 50°F
(10°C) (asparagus, sweet corn, and tomato) or 60°F (15°C) (beans, eggplant, peppers, and
cucumbers). Many of these plants will show symptoms of chilling injury if exposed to low
temperatures.

Water- Water starts the germination process. The rate of water movement into the seed depends
on the germination media’s texture, media compaction, and proximity of soil-to-seed contact.
Seeds have negative water potential, creating a gradient for the water in the soil (with a high
water potential) to move into the seed. Most seed germination media have a fine texture that
constantly provides water to the seed as it is taken up.

Oxygen- Oxygen is required for respiration of germinating seeds. Gas exchange between the
germination medium and seed embryo are necessary for rapid and uniform germination. Seed
beds can become saturated due to heavy rains or irrigation. These beds will have limited oxygen
available to seeds and result in poor or reduced germination rates.
Light- Light quality and photoperiod play a role in seed germination, particularly as it relates to
dormancy. Light-sensitive species have a dormancy that requires light in order to germinate. Many
of these plant species evolved to survive in shallow soils. Examples include begonia, Calceolaria,
coleus, Kalanchoe, primrose, and African violets. Germination is inhibited by light in some species,
including Allium, amaranth, and phlox.

After seedlings emerge, high light levels are important for sturdy and vigorous
transplant growth. Low light levels produce reduced photosynthesis rates and poor seedling
growth. Supplementary lighting often fulfills these lighting needs for seedling growth.
Seed Dormancy

Once harvested, most seeds only require favorable temperatures and water for
germination to occur. These seeds are considered quiescent. Other seeds have a physiological
adaptation that allows seeds to delay germination, called seed dormancy.

Dormancy allows a seed to germinate only when environmental conditions favor

seedling survival.

Desert species can survive long droughts, and then germinate after a rain. This kind of
dormancy is called primary dormancy, and it occurs as the seed is shed from the plant. When
quiescent seeds or seeds that have emerged from primary dormancy are exposed to the extreme
stress of drought, high temperatures, or low oxygen levels, they can become dormant. This is
called secondary dormancy or induced dormancy. It provides a survival mechanism for seedlings
if adverse environmental conditions are present. Some species even have a double dormancy and
require multiple treatments to germinate.
Types of Seed Dormancy

Seed Coat Dormancy

The seed of the Kentucky coffee tree has a hard, bony seed coat that resists any efforts
by water to penetrate. In nature, these seed coats break down slowly over time through exposure
to weather, microorganisms, or other substances. In horticulture, the process of physically
removing part of the seed coat to allow imbibition is called scarification. Many horticultural
species require scarification. Scarification methods include:

▪ Mechanical scarification: Seed coats are chipped or weakened (but not damaged) by rubbing
with sandpaper, scraping with a file, or cracking with a vise or hammer. Large-scale commercial
operations may have a drum lined with sandpaper that removes the seed coats of small-
seeded legumes, such as clover or alfalfa.
▪ Chemical scarification: Chemical scarification uses sulfuric acid to wear away the coat of hard
seeds. Seeds are placed in an acid bath for a predetermined amount of time and then rinsed
with water to remove any residual chemicals. They are sown immediately after treatment.
▪ Hot water scarification: Seeds are placed in a large amount of 170°F to 212°F (77°C to 100°C)
water. This softens the seed coat to make it pervious to water. In this process, the water is
heated, and then the seeds are placed in the water. Finally, the heat source is removed. Seeds
are kept in the water between 12 and 24 hours and planted shortly thereafter.
Chemical Dormancy

Natural chemicals accumulating in fruit and seed coat tissues can inhibit germination or
reduce gas exchange in seeds. Some fleshy fruits such as citrus, cucumbers, apples, and pears
contain substances ranging from phenols (naturally occurring chemical compounds in seeds) to
abscisic acid (a plant hormone) that inhibit germination. Some seeds, including iris and some
desert plants, are coated with a chemical inhibitor that is only removed through leaching after
heavy rain. In other seeds, such as spinach and white mustard, a mucilage layer (a thick, gluey
substance) hampers gas exchange and limits seed germination.

Morphological Dormancy

Some seeds are not mature when they fall from the plant. In these seeds, the embryos
have not fully developed before dropping. This condition can be found in a wide range of species,
including anemone, poppy, ginseng, carrot, rhododendron, primrose, and others. To promote
germination in these seeds, a temperature treatment (of either cold or warmth depending on the
species) may promote germination.
Physiological Dormancy

The embryo controls the physiological dormancy of seeds and delays germination. This
increases the time for growth of the radicle to force open the seed covering. This dormancy can
be overcome by manually removing the seed covering. Species like lettuce, pepper, tomato,
redbud, and lilac have demonstrated this dormancy. Photodormancy occurs when seeds either
require a period of light or dark conditions to germinate. Some seeds need to mature after
ripening or in storage. This dormancy is not long-lasting and can be broken with chilling
treatments.

▪ Stratification- Intermediate and deep physiological dormancies require multiple months of

moist, aerated cooling for seeds to germinate. Seeds are stored in a moist, aerated medium at
specific chilling temperatures for a designated time. Depending on the species, stratification
may last from one to five months. Many woody shrubs and tree species require stratification
treatments. Some temperate, tropical, and semitropical species need a warm stratification
treatment. In this practice, warm temperatures are paired with a moist, oxygen-rich medium to
stratify the seed rather than providing cool temperatures.
Stages of Seed Development

The three stages of seed development are histodifferentiation, cell expansion, and
maturation drying.

Histodifferentiation

- Histodifferentiation is a stage of seed development when the embryo and endosperm develop
distinct characteristics. Seed size increases rapidly due to cellular division. In dicots, this is the
stage where cotyledons are formed. In monocots, more specialized structures are formed to
aid in germination.

Cell Expansion

- During cell expansion, seeds undergo a phase of swift cell enlargement due to the
accumulation of food reserves in the form of carbohydrates, fats, oils, and proteins.
Maturation Drying

- Maturation drying is the last stage of seed development. It is the point at which seeds have
reached physiological maturity. Seeds experience rapid water loss through the vascular
separation from the mother plant.

*desiccation- or drying of seeds, is a preparation for seeds to be quiescent or dormant.

*quiescent seeds- are in a state of inactivity but will readily germinate if given water.
*dormant seeds- will fail to germinate under even favorable conditions, and require some sort of
treatment to grow.
*vivipary- a unique, natural phenomenon in which seeds germinate inside their fruit without
maturation drying.
Physiological Maturity and Commercial Maturity

Physiological maturity- a particular stage in growth and development in which the fruits or
commodities must attain full or complete development. It refers to the stage in the development
of fruits and vegetables when maximum growth and maturation have occurred. It is usually
associated with full ripening in the fruits.

Commercial maturity- refers to any stage of growth and development (young or mature)
depending on the purpose and for as long as there is already commercial or market value.
The Fruit

▪ Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit.

▪ Fruits are the mature ovary/ovaries of one or more flowers.
▪ In fleshy fruits, the outer layer (often edible) is the pericarp, which is the tissue that develops
from the ovary wall of the flower and surrounds the seeds.

Fruit Pericarp

a. Exocarp/epicarp (peel)- the outermost part of the fruit, also known as skin/peel.
b. Mesocarp (flesh)- middle part, usually fleshy and edible portion of the fruit.
c. Endocarp (seed coat)- the inner part of the fruit, enclose the seed.
Climacteric and Non-climacteric Fruits

All fruits and many vegetables and nuts are classified as either climacteric and non-
climacteric.

▪ Non-climacteric fruits are those that do not ripen after harvest. These fruits, once harvested,
never ripen further.

▪ Climacteric fruits will continue to ripen even after harvest, i.e., get softer and sweeter after the
harvest.

▪ The biochemical process involved is that climatic fruits give off large amounts of ethylene gas,
whereas non-climacteric fruits give little or no ethylene gas.
2. Asexual (Vegetative) Reproduction - involves the use of vegetative parts of the plants, like
roots, stems and leaves to increase the number of plants of the same kind. No union of the
male and female gametes is involved; hence it also called asexual propagation.

The reproduction of new plants from the stems, leaves, or roots of a parent plant.
No seeds are used, just portions of the parent plant which are placed in the soil.

Merits of Asexual Propagation

✓ Many fruit and ornamental plants that do not produce seeds are multiplied by this method.
✓ Plants propagated by asexual propagation are true-to-type genetically
✓ By top working (using budding and grafting), old and economically low-productive fruit
plants can be converted into superior ones.
✓ Advantages offered by rootstocks and scion can be exploited through asexual method.
✓ Maturity is uniform and the plant gives quality yield.
✓ Plants propagated by the asexual method are small in size, so spraying chemicals and
harvesting is easy.
✓ This method enables noble plant production, e.g., different colors of flowers in a single rose
plant and different types of mangoes in one mango plant can be produced through the
asexual method only.

Demerits of Asexual Propagation

✓ By vegetative propagation, new varieties cannot be developed.
✓ It requires specialized skills, so it is an expensive propagation method.
✓ The life span of asexually propagated plants is short as compared to sexually propagated
ones.
✓ These plants are more prone to biotic and abiotic stresses.
 a. Separation – propagation using naturally detachable organs.

• Runners – slender specialized aerial stems that grow horizontally along the ground and
develop from the leaf axils at the base or crown of the plant.
• Slips – are leafy shoots, originating from axillary buds the base of the plant of fruit such
• Suckers – secondary shoots that start below the ground from an underground stem; ex.
Banana, pineapple, agaves, abaca, and African daisy.
• Crowns – shoot produced on the top of a fruit like pineapple.
• Bulbs –
• Bulblet – small bulbs produced at the base of the plant. (Ex. Multiplier onion)
• Corms, Rhizomes and Tuberous roots

b. Division – propagation where specialized or modified stems mother stems and roots are
cut into sections having a bud or eye.
• Corm
• Tuberous roots
• Rhizomes
c. Cutting

Cutting is a detached vegetative part of a plant that regenerates the missing parts and
develops into a new plant upon separation and planting. It is an inexpensive and quick method of
propagation. Using few parent plants, a large number of uniform plants can be produced. The
method does not involve specialized skills. The technique is named after the part of the plant
used for cutting, e.g., stem, root, or leaf.

c.1 Stem cutting- Based on the age and maturity of shoots detached for vegetative propagation,
stem cuttings are of four types: (i) Hardwood cutting, (ii) Semi-hardwood cutting, (iii) Softwood
cutting. (iv) Herbaceous cutting
c.1.1. Hardwood cutting

Such a cutting is taken from woody plants. This method is

mostly used to propagate deciduous plants. A one-year-
old mature branch is cut into pieces of suitable sizes and
planted in the rooting medium, e.g., rose, grapes, fig,
pomegranate, bougainvillea, tabernaemontana,
lagerstroemia, jasminum, hibiscus, etc.

c.1.2. Semi-hardwood cutting

A semi-hardwood cutting is taken from 4 to 9-month old

shoots of current season woody plants. Most ornamental
foliage plants like croton, acalyphas, aralias, diffenbachia,
russelia, cestrum, nerium, etc., are propagated by semi-
hardwood cuttings.
c.1.3. Softwood cutting

Such a cutting is taken from herbaceous or succulent

plants. Shoots of 2 to 3-month-old plants are selected for
softwood cuttings. Examples are alternanthera, coleus,
duranta, clerodendrum, etc.

c.1.4. Herbaceous cutting

Such a cutting is taken from herbaceous plants. Shoots of

plants that are 1 to 2 months old are selected for
herbaceous cuttings. Examples are chrysanthemum,
iresine, pilea, dahlia, petunia, carnation, marigold, etc.
c.1.5. Leaf cutting

Selection of cutting

Plants with thick fleshy leaves having buds are

propagated by leaf cutting. Vegetative buds are
present in the notches of the leaf margin
(bryophyllum) or on the vein (begonia rex). Leaf
blades or pieces of it with bud are put on the rooting
medium under favorable conditions. In the case of
black raspberry, the leaf blade, along with the petiole
and a short piece of the stem with attached axillary
buds, are kept in the medium for rooting. Plants like
snake plant (senseveria), blackberry, rhododendron,
and bryophyllum are propagated by this method.
d. Layering – It is an attached method of propagation. In this method, roots are allowed to
develop on the covered portion of the stem while still being attached to the mother plant. After
the emergence and development of the roots, this portion is separated from the mother plant and
allowed to grow as a new plant on its own root stem. Such a root stem is known as a ‘layer.’ Types
of layering: (i) Simple layering, (ii) Compound or serpentine layering, (iii) Trench layering, (iv)
Mound layering, and (v) Air layering

d.1. Simple layering

In simple layering, a partial tongue-like cut is given on a branch.

The branch is then bent to the ground, and the treated portion
is covered with soil, exposing the top or terminal portion. The
layered branches produce roots in weeks and are ready for
transplanting in a nursery after detaching them carefully.
Examples are jasmine, ixora, clerodendron, pyrostegia, etc.
d.2. Compound or serpentine layering

Compound layering is similar to simple layering, except the

branches are alternately covered and exposed along their
length. The branches must be longer so that they can be
layered in several places. This method is used in plants like
bougainvillea, jasmine, clematis, muscadine grape, and
wisteria.

d.3. Trench layering

Trench layering is primarily used in fruit plants. Covering

the shoots with soil results in etiolation, which is also
known as ‘etiolation layering.’ New shoots arise from the
length of the buried branches. After rooting, individual
shoots are separated from the mother plant. This method
is followed in apple, cherry, pear, jasmine, and
rhododendron.
d.4. Mound layering or stooling

This method is followed in plants whose 1

branches are firm and difficult to bend. The
selected plant must be at a dormant stage at the
time of layering.
2

d.5. Air layering

A.K.A. marcotting. It is the most common. This involves

developing roots in a selected shoot or branch by bringing
the rooting medium to the stem with or without treatment.
Other media are placed around the base of the newly
developing shoots to encourage roots to form
e. Grafting– propagation methods whereby two plant parts are joined in such a manner that they
will unite and continue their growth as one plant.

Advantage of Grafting

✓ Plants propagated by grafting are true-to-type and bear flowers and fruits early.
✓ The plants can be multiplied and preserved by grafting.
✓ The local variety of older plants can be improved to a superior variety by top working.
✓ Wounded or damaged tree trunks can be repaired by special grafting methods.
✓ Rootstock influences the resistance, vigor, and quality of grafted plants.
✓ Certain rootstocks, tolerant to saline and alkaline soils and other adverse conditions, can be
used for grafting.

Disadvantage of Grafting

✓ It requires specialized skills.

✓ It is an expensive method of propagation.
✓ New varieties cannot be developed by grafting.
✓ Plants produced through grafting are short lived as compared to plants propagated by seeds.
✓ When contaminated tools or propagation material are used in grafting, newly propagated
plants may also get infected.

e.1. Rootstock

The part of the graft that provides the root system to the grafted plant is known as
‘rootstock’. It is normally raised by seeds in the seedbed and then transplanted in the nursery bed
for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

Characteristics of rootstock

✓ Adaptable to local climatic conditions.

✓ Resistant to adverse climatic and soil conditions
✓ Resistant or tolerant to pests and diseases
✓ Propagates easily.
✓ Compatible with scion.
✓ Promotes early healing and formation of cambium layer
e.2. Scion

The upper portion of graft combination taken from the desired plant to be multiplied is
known as ‘scion’.

Characteristics of scion

✓ Scion wood must be of the previous season but not from more than one-year old plant.
✓ Flowering shoots or shoots from where the harvesting is recently done must be avoided.
✓ Healthy and well-developed vegetative buds must be selected.
✓ The scion or bud sticks must be selected from known performing orchard trees.

Selection of scion

✓ The mother plant must be vigorous, high-yielding, true-to-type, and free from undesirable bud
mutations and viral diseases.
✓ It is advisable to collect scion from grown-up trees.
✓ It must be preconditioned by defoliating the branch before it is used for budding or grafting.
Defoliating helps the buds to swell.
e.3. Methods of Grafting

e.3.1. Scion Attached Method

The scion shoot is not detached from the mother plant until the union occurs in this
method. After the successful union of the scion and rootstock, the scion is gradually cut from the
mother plant. The rootstock is grown in a container or polythene bag to make the grafting handy.
This method is followed in plants, where successful graft unions are difficult to obtain. ‘Approach
grafting’ is a type of scion-attached method. It is classified into two types.

▪ Sliced approach grafting

▪ Tongue grafting
e.3.1.1. Approach Grafting

Approach grafting, also known as ‘inarching,’ is a technique in which two independent,

self-sustaining plants are grafted together. After the successful union of the graft, the scion plant
is detached below the graft union from the mother plant, and the top of the rootstock plant is
removed above the graft.

Selection of grafting material

Approach grafting can be done in two ways, and accordingly, their names are given as
‘sliced approach grafting’ and ‘tongue approach grafting’. In both the methods, the success of
grafting depends on the thickness of the scion and rootstock. Both must be compatible and
comfortable at the union. The rootstock and scion must be of almost the same thickness. Select
the scion branch on the mother plant of desired characteristics.
Tongue Approach
Grafting

Sliced Approach
Grafting
e.3.2. Scion Detached Method

This method is a more popular method of grafting and comparatively easier to perform.
Besides, the rate of success of plant propagation is higher in this case. In this method, the scion is
first detached from the mother plant and then inserted or tied on the rootstock. The types of
scion detached methods are:

▪ Veneer grafting
▪ Side grafting
▪ Wedge or cleft grafting
▪ Stone or epicotyl grafting
▪ Whip or splice grafting
▪ Bark grafting
e.3.2.1. Veneer grafting

It is a simple and economical method of grafting. It is the ideal method for establishing in situ
orchards and top working of old, unproductive orchards. Mango, cashew, and peach are
commercially propagated by this technique. Veneer grafting differs from side grafting. In this, the
vertical flap of the stock is completely removed, and a slanting cut is made on one side of the
scion.
e.3.2.2. Side grafting

In this method, the operated scion is

inserted into the side of the established
rootstock, which has more girth than the
scion, e.g., hibiscus.

e.3.2.3. Cleft grafting

It is comparatively a
simple and an easy
method of grafting,
which is widely used in
fruit trees, e.g.,
mango, jackfruit, bael,
amla, etc.
e.3.2.4. Stone or epicotyl grafting

This method is commonly adopted for the rapid multiplication

of mango plants. In this method, stones (seeds) are sown in
polythene bags or moist sand bed and covered with 5 to 7-cm
layer of leaf mold for germination. When the seedlings are
about 15 days old, they are taken out and grafted indoor.

e.3.2.5. Whip or splice grafting

It is the oldest method of grafting. This method

is used in fruit trees such as apples, pear, and
walnut.
e.3.2.5. Bark grafting

A plant graft made by slitting

the bark of the stock and
inserting the scion beneath it is
called ‘bark grafting’. It is
commonly used in top work.
e.3.3. Grafting for special purposes

Grafting for special purposes is done for quality improvement and repair. Grafting is
done on established plants to improve their quality, e.g., side grafting and top working. It is also
done to rejuvenate old or injured trees, for example bridge grafting.

e.3.3.1. Bridge grafting

This method is used for repairing

wounds in trees made by
implements, frost, rodents or
diseases. In this grafting, the bark of
a tree is damaged, resulting into
girdling. A completely girdled tree
will die. Bridge grafting repairs
girdling.
e.3.3.2. Top working

Top working is a method of

grafting in which inferior or older
plants are rejuvenated into superior or
new ones. It is generally adopted in
plants with long leaves. It is suitable
for apples, avocados, citrus fruits,
vegetables, mangoes, and shrubs or
vines. Top working can be done by top
grafting or top budding. According to
a plant's suitability, cleft, whip, wedge,
or side grafting methods can be used.
Top work is usually done during spring.
f. Budding

Budding is the process of inserting a single mature scion bud into the stem (rootstock)
in a way that results in a union and continues to grow as a new plant. It is also a type of grafting.
Types of budding:

▪ T-budding
▪ Patch budding
▪ Ring budding
▪ Flute budding
▪ Forkert budding
▪ Chip budding
f.1. T-budding

Since a ‘T’-shaped incision is made for bud

insertion on the rootstock, it is called T-budding. T – budding
is also called ‘shield budding’ as the bud used for insertion is
in the shape of a ‘shield.’ It is widely used for propagating
fruit trees and ornamental plants. In this method, the
rootstocks of compatible plants are raised in beds or poly
bags.

f.2. Patch budding

A rectangular patch of bark, measuring 2.4×1.5 cm

(length and width), is completely removed from the
internodes of the stock plant. A similar patch of bark with a
healthy bud is removed from the scion bud stick. This patch
is placed on the cut portion of the stock and wrapped with a
polyethylene strip, exposing the bud. This type of budding is
useful for the propagation of plants having a thick bark.
Examples are amla, mango, jamun, rubber, etc.
f.3. Ring budding

In this method, a bark of approximately 3−6 cm wide in ring

form is removed from the stock. The same dimension of
bark with a healthy bud is removed from the scion bud stick
and placed on the stalk. After placing the ring in position, tie
it with a polythene strip, keeping the bud exposed

f.4. Flute budding

This is a slight modification of ring budding.

Instead of removing the complete ring, a narrow portion of
the bark, about 1/8 of its circumference, is left on the stock.
A similar portion of the scion is removed along with the bud
and is fitted on the cut portion of the stock. The bark of the
stock and bud are tied with a polyethylene strip, exposing
the growing point
f.3. Forkert budding

In forkert budding, the stock is prepared by giving two vertical cuts and a transverse cut above the
vertical cuts to join them. The bark is removed carefully along the cuts, so the flap of bark hangs
down. The scion is prepared in a fashion similar to patch budding, having the size similar to cuts
made on the stock. The scion is then slipped into the exposed portion of the stock and the flap is
drawn over the inserted bud patch. It is then tied with a suitable wrapping material. After
successful growth of bud, the portion of stock above the union is removed carefully.

f.4. Chip budding

This method is followed when the bark is thin and

cannot be removed easily. In this method, a piece of thin
bark, along with some wood pieces, is removed between
two nodes of the rootstock, and the same size chip, which is
similar in shape and is collected from the scion, is placed on
the rootstock. This is mostly practiced in February−March.
Fruits like apples, grapes, and pears can be propagated
through this technique.
 Types used when scion is Smaller than a stock
1. Side graft cleft graft
2. Wedge, notch or saw-kerf graft
3. Bark or bark inlay graft
4. Top working

Types used when Bark is Slipping

1. T-bud
2. Inverted T-bud
3. I-bud
4. Patch bud
5. Ring bud
6. Flute bud

Types used when Bark is not Slipping

1. Chip bud
 Reasons for grafting and budding
1. Plants cannot be propagated by other means, ex. Plants in adult phase
2. Decrease time to flowering and fruiting, especially fruit and nut trees
3. Obtain desirable characteristics of rootstock, such as:
a. Disease resistance
b. Adapted to soil or climate in various regions
c. Dwarfing
1. Change variety, top work mature trees
2. Special forms, usually for ornamental purposes, ex. tree roses
3. Repair damage (inarching, brace graft, bridge graft)
4. Virus indexing, used for diagnosing virus diseases
Factors Affecting Success of Grafting and Budding
1. Plant type – can only graft dicots and gymnosperms, not monocots (lack a cambium).
2. Plant Relationship – within species is most successful.
3. Incompatibility – sometimes graft or bud is rejected, even within species.
4. Season and growth state – best when cambium is active but without leaf growth.
5. Environment – must supply proper temperature, humidity, etc.
3. Micropropagation

▪ Multiplication of genetically identical copies of a cultivar by asexual reproduction is called clonal

propagation.

▪ Clonal propagation occurs by apomixis (seed development without meiosis and fertilization)
and/or vegetative propagation (regeneration of new plants from vegetative parts).

▪ Tissue culture has become a popular method for vegetative propagation of plants.

▪ The aseptic method of clonal propagation is called Micropropagation, and it offers the
advantage of producing a large number of true-to-type plantlets in a relatively short time and
space from a single individual.
▪ Micropropagation is the only commercially viable method of clonal propagation of most
horticultural crops.
Explants used in micropropagation
Different kinds of explants were used in micropropagation. For example, in case of
orchids, shoot tip (Anacamptis pyramidalis, Aranthera, Calanthe, Dendrobium), axillary bud
(Aranda, Brassocattleya, Cattleya, Laelia), inflorescence segment (Aranda, Ascofinetia, Neostylis,
Vascostylis), lateral bud (Cattleya, Rhynocostylis gigantean), leaf base (Cattleya), leaf tip (Cattleya,
Epidendrum), shoot tip (Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Odontioda, Odontonia), nodal segment
(Dendrobium), flower stalk segment (Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis) and root tips (Neottia, Vanilla)
are being used in micropropagation.
 Tissue Culture- an asexual propagation technique in which small pieces of excised tissue or
individual cells are placed in sterile in vitro culture containing all the nutrients, carbohydrates and
hormones needed for growth. The tissue grows rapidly and can be induced to produce large
numbers of new plants. Hormones cause the tissue to grow into callus masses, roots or shoots.
This technique is sometimes called micropropagation.

• Rapid clonal propagation. Propagation using clones ensures uniformity in a crop's quality and
rapid production of the desired quantity. It is usually used for plants commonly propagated
slowly, especially for species in high demand.

• Mass production of specific pathogen-free plants. Most plants propagated asexually are
infected with one or more systemic pathogens. Plants can be freed from systemic pathogens
by tissue culture and heat treatments.
• Development of new methods of hybridization. Novel breeding methods using cultures
involving cell suspensions or protoplasts might yield genotypes not attainable by conventional
methods.
• Ease of introduction of plants abroad. To do away with quarantine regulations of many
countries, one of the most convenient ways would be to bring plants in sterile flasks.
• Maintenance of germplasm collection. To maintain germplasm collection or a gene bank,
seeds are stored or plants of the desired varieties are maintained in a field. For crops that do
not produce seeds and are vegetatively propagated, the latter method is used.
• Horticulture plants that have been reported to be commercially propagated by tissue culture
include the following vegetable crops, fruit crops, and plantation crops:

a. Ornamentals

• Orchids – numerous orchids have been commercially propagated by tissue culture. At least 40
or more genera and other intergeneric hybrids have been reported to be successfully multiplied
by this method.
• Foliage plants – Dracaena, Philodendron, Begonia, Nephrolepsis, Adiantum, Dieffenbachia,
Cordyline, Marantha, Bromeliad, Aglaonema, Spathiphyllum.
• Flowering plants – carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, rose, anthurium, gladiolus, poinsettia,
lily, kalanchoe, hyacinth, pelargonium, African violet, geranium.
b. Vegetable crops

• Onion, asparagus, cabbage, broccoli, lettuce, potato, sweet pepper, cucumber, carrot, tomato,
parsley, snap bean, peas, eggplant, gabi (taro), ginger, pigeon pea, sweet potato, sweet corn,
cauliflower and garlic.

c. Fruit crops
• Papaya, banana, citrus, strawberry, pineapple, avocado, grape.

d. Plantation crops

• Coffee, coconut, abaca, oil palm, and grave.

ESTABLISHMENT OF HORTICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

Key to successfully choosing enterprises that suit your small farm

• It is important to spend time identifying the goals of the family and farmer when considering
an alternative agricultural enterprise.

• Small farmers should choose alternative enterprises based on their farms' natural, physical,
financial, and human resources.

• Increasing profitability is a common goal, but many other factors often play a role in this
process on small farms.

• include decreasing financial risk, reducing investment, bringing in another family member or
partner, providing opportunities to keep labor busy year-round, using other natural resources
on the farm, and increasing community involvement in the farm.
Key points to consider

The "considerations" chart

shows the expenses
associated with establishing
and running various
enterprises and the risks and
potential returns from each
enterprise. The information
should help farmers identify
the key points to consider
when evaluating an
alternative enterprise.

Key points to consider when

selecting an alternative
enterprise.
Credit: UF/IFAS
CONSIDERATION

Land costs are dependent on many factors that vary greatly for each situation.
Questions that should be considered for each unique business plan include:

Land quality: Not all land is suitable for every farming operation. Soil type and drainage are two
factors that should be considered before assuming that the land is ideal for crop production. The
US Department of Agriculture classifies soil types and the ability of these different soil types to
sustain crop production. Land poorly suited for watermelon production may be suited for hay
production and grazing. Conversely, land that cannot support any crop production may be
perfectly suited for supporting greenhouse construction.

Soil type is the classification of soil based on its composition, texture, structure, and
other physical and chemical properties. Different soil types have distinct characteristics that
influence their suitability for various agricultural, engineering, and environmental purposes.
Some common soil types include:

1.Clay: Clay soils have fine particles that hold water and nutrients well but can become compacted
and poorly drained.
2.Silt: Silt soils have medium-sized particles between clay and sand, offering good fertility and
drainage properties.
3.Sand: Sandy soils have large particles that drain quickly but may lack nutrients and water
retention.
4.Loam: Loam soils are a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, offering a balance of drainage, fertility,
and moisture retention ideal for many plants.
5.Peat: Peat soils are rich in organic matter, found in wetlands, and can be high in nutrients but
may have low pH and require drainage.
6.Chalk: Chalky soils are alkaline and often rocky, providing good drainage but may limit plant
choices due to high pH.
7.Limestone: Limestone soils are alkaline and contain calcium carbonate, influencing plant
growth and nutrient availability.
8.Podzol: Podzolic soils are acidic and found in coniferous forests, with distinct layers and low
fertility.
9.Laterite: Lateritic soils are red and rich in iron and aluminum oxides, common in tropical regions
and often low in fertility.
Drainage- movement or removal of excess water from the surface or subsurface of the soil.
Effective drainage is crucial for various purposes, including agriculture, construction, landscaping,
and environmental management. Proper drainage helps prevent waterlogging, erosion, and soil
degradation, as well as promotes healthy plant growth and structural stability.

There are several types of drainage systems and techniques:

1.Surface Drainage: This involves shaping the land's surface to facilitate water flow away from the
area of interest. It often includes grading, contouring, and installing surface channels, ditches, or
swales to direct water runoff.
2.Subsurface Drainage: Subsurface drainage systems remove water below the soil surface. This
can include the installation of drain tiles, pipes, or tubing buried beneath the soil to collect and
transport excess water to an outlet such as a drainage ditch, culvert, or storm sewer.
3.French Drains: French drains are gravel or rock-filled trenches lined with permeable fabric. They
are designed to collect and redirect groundwater away from areas prone to waterlogging, such
as building foundations or low-lying areas in yards.
4. Drainage Swales: Drainage swales are shallow channels or depressions designed to collect and
convey surface water runoff. They are often landscaped with vegetation to slow down and filter
water as it moves across the landscape.
5. Stormwater Management: Stormwater management techniques aim to control and treat
runoff from rainfall and snowmelt to prevent flooding and reduce pollution. This may involve
using retention ponds, bio-swales, infiltration basins, and green infrastructure such as rain
gardens and permeable pavement.
6. Agricultural Drainage: In agriculture, drainage systems such as tile drainage, open ditches, and
contour farming are used to improve soil aeration, reduce waterlogging, and increase crop yields.
Land Site: The old business adage that "location is everything" is true for your farming operation.
One needs to consider the type of business and the importance of locating that business close to
clientele. Land costs closer to urban areas may increase dramatically. A U-pick blueberry
operation needs to be located in an area where traffic flow is relatively high and where farming
operations will not bother the neighbors. On the other hand, an organic egg facility may be
located in a more remote location where the business and its attendant odors will not disrupt the
lives of others. Other considerations may include access to water, electricity, sewage treatment,
telephone, and internet (consider access speed). Frontage access, potential development
pressure, and taxes are other essential considerations. Make a list of important considerations
for your operation and use it as a guideline for selecting the ideal location.

Land Ownership: Should one buy or rent land for the agricultural operation? Again, the answer
depends on the business. Does the land meet all the above considerations if it is already owned?
Owning the land may be good if the business requires infrastructure development. However,
ownership ties a company to a particular site, and one may incur debt when purchasing the land.
Renting land may reduce the upfront cost to get the business started. It is important to work out
the land lease terms and have them in a signed lease agreement before starting the business.
START-UP CAPITAL

• Agricultural enterprises vary significantly in the need for capital.

• It is important to know which enterprises will require high capital investments.

• Often, enterprises that have the highest potential returns will also require a very high initial
investment.

• Enterprises such as greenhouse hydroponics, nurseries, or vegetable farms will likely require
more capital than other enterprises.

• The other consideration regarding capital is the sources available for credit. Not all lending
institutions make agricultural loans.

• The Farm Credit System specializes in agricultural loans.

• Other sources may include the Small Business Administration, local agriculture businesses that
carry credit, insurance companies, or individuals. Grants from various entities, Department of
Agriculture, private foundations, etc., are also possible sources of capital.
BUILDING NEEDS

• The expenses tied to construction needs vary with the type of business.

• Generally, the more buildings required, the more upfront costs will be incurred.

• Livestock operations need structures different from those of a greenhouse orchid business.

• For vegetable production, a pole barn with a cement slab for equipment storage and product
grading may be all that is necessary.
EQUIPMENT

• Equipment can be one of the largest expenditures in a new farming operation.

• There are ways to reduce the upfront costs of new equipment. The first step in estimating
equipment costs is to chart all production steps in the new business.

• The second step is to chart each piece of equipment necessary for every step in the
production process. For instance, the list for a roadside produce stand might include
everything from the equipment needed to grow the crops to the cash register at the roadside
stand.

• Used equipment is available at auctions.

• Remember, when starting a new business, keep unnecessary equipment purchases to a

minimum by following your equipment needs list.
• Some equipment can also be leased or rented.

• Another option is to contract out the work to be done. For instance, it may be possible to
contract the land preparation out with a local grower. This will reduce upfront costs and allow
time to fine-tune future equipment needs.

EXPERIENCE AND/OR KNOWLEDGE

• Agricultural enterprises require considerable technical knowledge.

• In fact, the most successful farmers, whatever the size of their operations, are the ones who gain
and use new technology or knowledge before their competitors do.

• The greater an enterprise's requirement for technical knowledge or experience, the more difficult
it may be for a beginner to succeed in that enterprise.

• Farmers should consider how they will obtain the knowledge they lack.
• Are there other farmers, suppliers, consultants, and extension agents in the local area who will
be able to help? Evaluate your own skills and knowledge and develop a strategy to meet the
requirements of any new enterprise before you adopt it.

MANAGEMENT

• Farm management responsibilities on small farms often reside with a single individual.

• This is a serious challenge to many modern-day small farmers because the tasks are diverse (for
instance, record keeping, keeping up with certifications and permits, and maintaining quality
assurance and food security).

• Many small farmers admit that farm management was an under-emphasized area in their planning
process.

• Carefully evaluate the new management demands that an alternative enterprise will present to
determine if the manager or the management "team" can reasonably expect to manage the new
enterprise.
LABOR

• Agricultural labor availability and quality have become critical issues for all farms.

• Alternative enterprises needing a large or skilled labor force will require plans to identify, recruit,
and retain workers.

• Some enterprises will require a large labor pool for specific tasks during a short period, such as
planting and harvesting.

• Small farms may have the extra challenge of providing consistent working hours to retain
employees.

• This may be especially true for enterprises such as vegetable production, where labor demands
may be large but only during short periods of time.

• In other enterprises, smaller labor pools will be required, but special skills will be needed. These
enterprises may include hydroponics, nursery, etc.
OPERATING COSTS

• Also called variable or direct costs, they are associated with producing a commodity for a specific
production cycle, usually one year.

• Occur only if the commodity is produced and includes such things as seed, transplants,
heating/cooling costs, feed, labor, veterinary and breeding services, fertilizer, pest control,
machinery operating costs (such as labor, fuel, and repairs), harvesting, hauling, and marketing.

MARKETING

• As with all new businesses, you should develop a thorough business plan before you produce the
first "widget.“

• A business plan should include precise information on who will buy your product.

• Develop a marketing strategy that will reach your targeted audience.

• For instance, is the target audience everyone who drives past your nursery business on the local
highway? Or is it everyone in Davao del Sur who likes dried gourmet mushrooms and has access
to the internet? Is the business seasonal, or is your product available year-round? Will marketing
be limited to a sign in front of the business and an ad in the local paper, or will you purchase ad
space on www.foodnetwork.com to bring customers to your website?

• Budget and prepare carefully to stretch your marketing peso and maximize product sales, and
make sure to figure in your marketing costs when determining your overall monetary needs.

PACKING AND SHIPPING

• Most or all of a farm's products may be sold at the farm; however, many farms require packaging
and transportation of products to the market.

• The main considerations are the specific types of packaging required and the type and size of
equipment needed.
• Is the farm small enough that a small pickup truck can do the job, or will you need a truck and
trailer or more? Will your products require refrigeration or other environmental control during
shipping?

• Even small farmers find it important to consider the need to handle palletizing products being
shipped or delivered to the farm.

• A small forklift and loading area may be a valuable investment or even a necessity at some point.

• Finally, if you are transporting mixed loads of various products, you'll likely need additional
equipment since optimal shipping temperature varies greatly among different products and since
ethylene-producing products must be stored separately from ethylene-sensitive ones.
REGULATIONS

• Agricultural regulations, once a minor issue, have become a major consideration to a modern
farm.

• Basic county zoning requirements may limit certain types of agricultural activities.

• County government personnel handle building permits, which would be a logical place to start
learning regulations.

• Enterprises involved in the processing of foods require licensing and inspection by the state.

• Farmers applying restricted-use pesticides require certification and license renewal.

• Certain markets require a food safety certification or a third-party audit for the farm

• Selling at a community farmers' market will usually require memberships and farmer certification
through that market.
• Farm laborers must follow certain requirements. Proper worker requirements may include
determining lawful age for certain tasks, certification of legal alien status, wage and
compensation requirements, and social security requirements.

• The local Water Management District will be a necessary visit for most enterprises.

• Water Management Districts handle irrigation permitting and storm water runoff.

• Animal operations will require permitting and may need approved waste management plans.

• Most agricultural enterprises have recently become involved in agreements for voluntary best
management practices, especially regarding nutrient management. This process provides the
farmer a presumption of compliance in cases of water quality issues.
MANAGEMENT OF PESTS

• With the use of pesticides or organic farming?

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

• What could go wrong in your operation? What do you do if the potato harvester breaks down at
the season’s peak and you have customers waiting? Does your meat packing facility need to be
washed and sanitized after each workday? Who will do this? What happens if the computer
responsible for watering and fertilizing your greenhouse crops gets a virus?

• The more your business depends on equipment, the more money you should budget for
maintenance and repair.
INSURANCE

• Insurance is the best way to protect your business investment against unforeseen circumstances.
For a small business owner, insurance products may include crop, liability, health, and auto
insurance. To obtain personalized costs, contact an insurance representative qualified to write
policies for small business owners.

RISK OF INVESTMENT

• Don't produce it unless you can sell it.

• The best way to reduce your investment risk is to develop a comprehensive business plan.

• The business plan should be reviewed by qualified individuals who can offer constructive criticism.

• It is better to seek out all the potential pitfalls in your plan before you open for business than to
experience problems when it is critical to make a profit.
• Ask yourself at the outset: "How much money am I willing to lose?“

• Generally, it can be assumed that the more volatile the market, the higher your potential for both
profit and loss.

• If the data are available, plot the market price for your product over the last decade. What are the
trends? What were the high and low prices, and when did they occur?

• For other types of businesses, what is the state of the economy? For instance, if you are growing
specialty sod for new homes, what is the trend in the housing market? In this case, the more
volatile the housing market, the more risk there may be in your business investment.
POTENTIAL RETURNS

• Alternative enterprises vary in their potential to return high profits back to the farm.

• Although profit may not always be a major factor in choosing an enterprise, it usually is the main
motivation.

• Generally those enterprises with the greatest potential returns are also the ones with the
greatest risk or the greatest capital investment required.

• In addition, a farmer must determine the desired time frame for the returns to be realized.

• Some enterprises, many vegetable crops, for instance, result in income in just a few months.

• Other enterprises, like fruit trees, certain nursery crops, large livestock, or forestry products, may
not result in any returns for a few years.
TAKE STOCK BEFORE YOU GET STARTED

• A current, realistic, complete, and accurate list of available resources is useful in strategic
planning for a new farm venture.

• Whether you're an existing farmer making a change in a traditional operation or a novice

beginning a new farm, you should inventory what you have to work with and what you stand to
lose if the venture is unsuccessful.

• A formal inventory may alert you to some missing but necessary resources. It may also ensure
that you are not practicing self-deception in planning a venture that will take a commitment of
your time and your family’s time for a long period with little chance of success.

• An inventory of resources is the sound basis for building your production, financial, and marketing
plans.
• Classic economics indicates that agriculture requires a mix of 1) land, 2) labor and
3) capital resources.

• But that overlooks some critical resources for successful farming: management or human capital.

• That's know-how, experience, management ability, resourcefulness, and specialized skills such as
carpentry, welding, bookkeeping, and law knowledge. Here, we'll group the resources into the
place, the people, and the money critical for success.

• Your resource inventory may show that you lack sufficient resources to "make a go" of your farm
plan.

• If that's the case, revise the plan or start smaller and grow as you gain experience and cash flow.
• If you need to borrow money to fill gaps in your place or people resources, lenders will want most
of this information before releasing their resources to help you finance your plan.

• Bankers likely will want to see documentation to back up the inventory you claim.

• This inventory will define "What you've got." Considering alternative resources, you'll discover
"what you need" to produce and market the farm products.

• That, in turn, will help you determine "the gap between the two" so that you can devise a plan or
strategy to overcome or narrow the gap. The inventory may take many forms, but it should be
written and revised occasionally as you develop and carry out your farm plan.
UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RIGHT LOCATION FOR AGRIBUSINESS

• The location dictates the availability of resources, market access, and the ability to compete in the
agricultural industry.

• The right location can also contribute to the region’s economic development, creating a positive
ripple effect.

• suitable location for your agribusiness, you're not only securing the present but also laying a
strong foundation for future growth and expansion.

• it's essential to recognize the significance of this decision and approach it with a strategic mindset
that aligns with your long-term objectives.

• The right location can provide your agribusiness access to skilled labor, efficient transportation
networks, and a conducive environment for innovation and technological advancements.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A LOCATION FOR YOUR AGRIBUSINESS

• When evaluating potential locations for your agribusiness, several key factors demand careful
consideration.

• Soil quality, climate, water availability, and topography are fundamental aspects that directly
influence the type of crops that can be grown and the overall success of agricultural activities.

• these natural elements are crucial in determining the suitability of a location for specific
agribusiness operations.

• proximity to markets and distribution channels plays a pivotal role in ensuring efficient access to
consumers and reducing transportation costs.

• assessing the availability of necessary infrastructure, such as storage facilities, processing plants,
and transportation networks, is vital for streamlining operations and maintaining the quality of
agricultural produce.
• The regulatory environment and legal framework of a location also warrant thorough
examination.

• Understanding local laws, zoning regulations, and land use policies is essential to avoid potential
conflicts and ensure compliance with industry standards and environmental regulations.

CONDUCTING A FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR POTENTIAL AGRIBUSINESS LOCATIONS

• This study should encompass a detailed analysis of the geographical, environmental, and
economic aspects of the potential locations under consideration.

• By systematically evaluating each location's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats,

you can make an informed decision that aligns with your agribusiness goals.

• feasibility study should involve soil testing, climate analysis, and water resource assessment to
gauge the agricultural potential of each location.
• it should include a thorough examination of the local market dynamics, consumer preferences,
and competitive landscape to identify opportunities for growth and market penetration.

• A financial feasibility analysis should be conducted to assess the cost of land acquisition,
infrastructure development, and operational expenses associated with each potential location.

• This analysis will provide a clear understanding of the financial implications and potential returns
associated with each location, aiding in selecting the most viable option for your agribusiness.

ANALYZING MARKET AND CONSUMER DEMOGRAPHICS FOR AGRIBUSINESS LOCATION

• Understanding the demographic profile and consumption patterns of the target market is crucial
when choosing a location for your agribusiness.

• Analyzing factors such as population density, income levels, dietary preferences, and purchasing
behavior can provide valuable insights into the demand for agricultural products within a specific
region.
• Identifying and understanding the needs and preferences of the target consumer base, you can
tailor your agribusiness operations to align with market

• This consumer-centric approach can significantly enhance the marketability and profitability of
your agribusiness in the chosen location.

• Analyzing market trends, seasonal fluctuations, and consumption patterns can help develop a
robust marketing strategy and production planning that addresses the dynamic nature of the
agricultural market.

• A proactive approach enables your agribusiness to adapt to changing consumer preferences and
market dynamics, ensuring sustainable growth and resilience in the face of market fluctuations.
REGULATORY AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR AGRIBUSINESS LOCATION

• Compliance with local, state, and federal regulations is critical to avoid potential legal disputes,
operational disruptions, and reputational risks.

• It's essential to engage legal experts and regulatory consultants to comprehensively understand
the legal requirements and obligations associated with your chosen location.

• The regulatory framework can significantly impact the establishment and operation of your
agribusiness, from land acquisition and property rights to environmental permits and agricultural
zoning.

• Ensuring compliance with labor laws, food safety regulations, and environmental standards is
paramount to uphold ethical business practices and foster long-term sustainability.

• Staying abreast of evolving regulations and policy changes is vital to adapting your agribusiness
operations accordingly and mitigating the risks associated with non-compliance.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FOR AGRIBUSINESS LOCATION

• Assessing the environmental impact of your agribusiness location is essential to mitigate

potential ecological risks and uphold sustainable practices.

• Conducting an environmental impact assessment enables you to evaluate the potential effects of
agricultural activities on the surrounding ecosystems, natural resources, and biodiversity.

• By identifying and addressing potential environmental concerns, such as soil erosion, water
pollution, and habitat disruption, you can implement mitigation measures and sustainable
practices that minimize your agribusiness's ecological footprint.

• Integrating environmental conservation practices and resource-efficient technologies into your

agribusiness operations can yield long-term benefits, such as reduced resource consumption,
enhanced ecosystem resilience, and improved brand reputation.
INFRASTRUCTURE AND LOGISTICS FOR AGRIBUSINESS LOCATION

• Availability of reliable infrastructure and efficient logistics is a critical factor in determining the
suitability of a location for your agribusiness.

• Access to well-maintained roads, transportation networks, and storage facilities is essential for
seamless supply chain management and timely delivery of agricultural products to markets and
distribution centers.

• Proximity to ports, railroads, and airports can significantly impact your agribusiness’s export
potential, enabling access to international markets and expanding the reach of your agricultural
products.

• Evaluating the existing infrastructure and logistics capabilities of a location is imperative to assess
the operational efficiency.

• Investing in modern technologies, such as cold storage facilities, automated processing

equipment, and real-time tracking systems, can further enhance the operational efficiency and
quality control measures of your agribusiness.
CASE STUDIES OF SUCCESSFUL AGRIBUSINESS LOCATIONS

• Examining case studies of successful agribusiness locations provides valuable insights into the
strategies and decisions that led to their prosperity.

• Analyzing real-world examples of thriving agribusinesses, you can gain practical knowledge and
inspiration.

• Studying the geographical advantages, market positioning, and community engagement

strategies of successful agribusiness locations can illuminate the interconnected factors
contributing to their sustained success.

• Offer a glimpse into the innovative approaches and technological advancements that have
propelled agribusinesses to prominence in their respective locations.

• Learning from the experiences of successful agribusinesses, you can refine your decision-making
process and optimize your operational strategies to emulate their achievements and surpass
industry standards.
WORKING WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND STAKEHOLDERS FOR AGRIBUSINESS LOCATION

• Collaborating with local communities and stakeholders is integral to establishing a harmonious

relationship with the surrounding environment and ensuring the sustainability of your
agribusiness operations.

• Engaging in transparent communication and participatory decision-making processes with local

communities fosters mutual respect, understanding, and support for your agribusiness
endeavors.

• Involving local stakeholders, such as farmers, residents, and community leaders, in the planning
and development of your agribusiness location, you can gain valuable insights

• Inclusive approach facilitates the integration of local knowledge and expertise, leading to
mutually beneficial outcomes for your agribusiness and the surrounding community.

• Establishing partnerships with local suppliers, cooperatives, and agricultural associations can
create a network of support and collaboration that enhances the resilience and competitiveness
of your agribusiness.
MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Soil Management for Horticulture

• Good soil structure is vital for optimizing water and nutrient-use efficiency and sustaining
profitable horticultural cropping systems.

• A recent survey of soil condition and management practices indicated signs of structural
degradation in many soils under annual and perennial horticultural crops and found that soil
cultivation practices often do not match soil conditions.
MANAGEMENT OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Soil Management for Horticulture

• Good soil structure is vital for optimizing water and nutrient-use efficiency and sustaining
profitable horticultural cropping systems.

• A recent survey of soil condition and management practices indicated signs of structural
degradation in many soils under annual and perennial horticultural crops and found that soil
cultivation practices often do not match soil conditions.
Soil Texture

• relates to the proportions of sand (coarse), silt (medium), and clay (fine) particles (i.e., particle
size distribution) and soil organic matter content.

• Texture can be assessed by hand, and soils with more than 50% sand and less than 18% clay feel
predominantly rough and gritty (sands, loamy sands, and sandy loams);

• with over 20% sand and under 35% clay, feel predominantly smooth and silky (silt loams and silty
clay loams);

• those with more than 30% clay feel predominantly sticky, mold to form a strong ball and take a
polish (sandy clays, clays, and silty clays).

• Organic (peaty) soils have an organic matter content greater than 20%.
Soil Texture

• relates to the proportions of sand (coarse), silt (medium), and clay (fine) particles (i.e., particle
size distribution) and soil organic matter content.

• Texture can be assessed by hand, and soils with more than 50% sand and less than 18% clay feel
predominantly rough and gritty (sands, loamy sands, and sandy loams);

• with over 20% sand and under 35% clay, feel predominantly smooth and silky (silt loams and silty
clay loams);

• those with more than 30% clay feel predominantly sticky, mold to form a strong ball and take a
polish (sandy clays, clays, and silty clays).

• Organic (peaty) soils have an organic matter content greater than 20%.
Soil structure

• The overall relationship between solids and spaces is determined by how the soil particles (sand,
silt, clay, and organic matter) are held together into aggregates (or structural units).

• A well-structured topsoil has small, rounded aggregates associated with a dense, fibrous root
structure and a range of pore shapes and sizes that form a continuous network, allowing good
aeration, root proliferation (to access nutrients and water), and better drainage.

• Compacted soils have restricted pore space and aggregates that are either large, angular, or
absent (structureless or ‘massive’).

• Compacted soil layers are dense, restrict water movement, and roots cannot proliferate, tending
to run horizontally along the upper surface of the layer
Soil structure

• The overall relationship between solids and spaces is determined by how the soil particles (sand,
silt, clay, and organic matter) are held together into aggregates (or structural units).

• A well-structured topsoil has small, rounded aggregates associated with a dense, fibrous root
structure and a range of pore shapes and sizes that form a continuous network, allowing good
aeration, root proliferation (to access nutrients and water), and better drainage.

• Compacted soils have restricted pore space and aggregates that are either large, angular, or
absent (structureless or ‘massive’).

• Compacted soil layers are dense, restrict water movement, and roots cannot proliferate, tending
to run horizontally along the upper surface of the layer
Soil condition

• the overall assessment of the whole soil regarding the nature of soil structure in different soil
layers.

• Soil condition controls soil functions, the efficiency of nutrient and water use, and the
sustainability of production.

• Soils in good condition are generally well-structured;

• moderate soil condition is characterized by larger and more angular aggregates and restricted
pore space;

• and soils in poor condition are severely degraded with very large angular or platy aggregates
and/or a very dense compacted layer.
 • Crop growth relies on good soil aeration
(for respiration) and drainage and the
efficient supply of nutrients and water.

• Soil drainage (how quickly water drains

from the land) is determined by soil
texture and soil structure.

• Well-structured sandy and light silty soils

(<18% clay) tend to drain more quickly than
medium-textured soils (18–30% clay);

• and medium soils more rapidly than heavy

Importance of good Soil Structure soils (>30% clay).

• Soil is the fundamental resource from which • However, if the soil is compacted, drainage
crops take up nutrients and water – two of the can be slow, irrespective of the soil texture
three yield and quality building blocks.
Impacts of Poor Soil Condition

Soil compaction can impact on the efficiency and economics of production in a number of ways,
resulting in:

• Poor rooting and reduced crop yield and quality

• Less crop uniformity
• Poor drainage
• Reduced timeliness (fewer days when land can be worked by machinery)
• Increased fuel use: 50%+
• Higher weed/disease pressure
• Higher irrigation costs

Soils that are compacted or cap easily are more vulnerable to erosion and surface run-off, which
can result in soil loss, declining productivity, and off-site impacts involving neighbors and local
authorities.

Conversely, better-structured soils are less prone to erosion and surface run-off, increase
opportunities to access land (improved timeliness), reduce irrigation and tillage costs, and can
improve the uniformity and overall yield of commercial crops
How to Identify Soil Texture?

1. Take a small block of soil that you can mold between your fingers and thumb.

2. Use extra water to work the soil (if necessary).

3. Follow the flow chart below to give a soil type.

Current conditions of Horticultural soils

• The pressures of establishment and harvesting schedules inevitably lead to some soil structural
damage.

How are Horticultural Soils bearing up in the face of these production pressures?

• In 2016, a survey of 75 fields covering a range of crop types

identified soil compaction in 70% of annual crops and 60% of
perennial crops

• Topsoil structure: The majority of soils under annual and

perennial cropping were in moderate condition, and none were
in poor condition (i.e., topsoil severely degraded).

• cultivations before planting improved soil conditions for the

established crop.
• The majority of soil cultivations were effective at removing compaction.

• cultivation had no effect or resulted in further compaction through smearing (spreading soil by
sliding pressure when soil sticks to implements), puddling (dispersion of soil aggregates), or
compression, when carried out in moist or wet field conditions.

• Cultivating or traveling on wet soils or at the same depth over several years can develop a tillage
pan (a compacted layer) at or just below cultivation depth.

• A well-developed pan can significantly reduce productivity and the overall efficiency of
production by restricting drainage and root growth. Around 60% of fields growing annual crops
and 50% of fields with perennial crops had a well-developed tillage pan.
How to assess soil structure and condition?

• The soil structure survey identified a clear need to improve the assessment and management of
soil structure for greater efficiency and productivity of production.

• Growers can use their experience and knowledge of past field operations to assess whether soil
compaction is likely to have occurred.

• Soils should be assessed when they are moist and soil aggregates are easy to break up by hand.
If the soil is too wet, soil units may stick together, and a spade or fork can smear it.

• There are a number of methods and guides to help growers assess and score soils.
Soil structural descriptions

Macroporosity: Soil with good structure has abundant pores and fissures, allowing good drainage,
aeration, root growth, and biological activity. Soil with poor structure has few pores (within soil
structural units) and fissures (between the units).

Soil structure

• Spherical structures are termed granular. Square shapes are called blocks. Flattened structural
units are called plates.

• Where blocks have mainly curved/rounded faces, they are termed subangular. Where faces are
mostly fat, the blocks are termed angular.

• Small blocks are called very fine when under 5mm, fine when 5–10mm, and medium when 10–
20mm. Large blocks are called coarse when 20–50mm and coarse when over 50mm.
• Soils with coarse and very coarse angular blocks and those with plates have poor drainage and
aeration because blocks and plates can fit tightly together. Conversely, fine granules and fine
subangular blocks allow good drainage and aeration.

• Other soil assessment methods allow comparison between fields and tracking changes over
time (e.g., applying organic amendments to increase organic matter content, subsoiling to
remove a pan, or cover cropping to add roots).

• Some scoring methods require very little expertise to develop a robust score of soil condition
(e.g. VSA or Simply Sustainable Soils). Others need more experience before you can confidently
assign a score to a soil or soil layer (e.g., VESS).
• The Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) focuses on assessing soil structure, porosity, and
the degree of layering in soils.

• It involves extracting a soil block about the width and depth of a spade or fork and pulling apart
the block by hand to assess ease of breakup, visual appearance (size, shape, and arrangement
of soil structures, pores, and roots), color, and smell.

• It enables users to assess the nature and depth of soil layers and relate conditions to the depth
and nature of recent cultivations.

• This information helps with decisions on whether deeper soil cultivations are needed to remove
a compacted layer and the most appropriate depth of cultivation.
• The most important step for any method focusing on visually assessing soil structure is the
extraction of the soil block to be assessed.

• It is vital that when extracting the block, one of the vertical faces of the block is undisturbed,
with roots, pores, and soil structures intact.

• This is most effectively done by cutting down on three sides with a spade or fork and then
levering the soil upwards to leave one face uncut as the undisturbed face.

• It may be easier to extract a first block before extracting a second adjacent block on which to
carry out your assessment.

• If you want to check for presence of a tillage pan, either dig a little deeper into the transition
layer between the topsoil and subsoil when extracting the block or frst dig out a block to just
above topsoil depth and then extract a second block to include the transition layer.
Assessing the Subsoil

• SRUC has developed the SubVESS method for visually assessing subsoil.

• The method uses similar indicators of structure and porosity to the VESS tool but is adapted for
the specific nature and properties of subsoils. Compared with topsoil, subsoils tend to have
lower organic matter content, larger structures, fewer roots, and lower porosity.

• The SubVESS method can be used in combination with a penetrometer to give you a good
indication of whether or not your subsoil is compacted.

• Compaction in the subsoil is important and can afect the productivity of your land, but it is more
difcult to assess and even more difcult to remove; most agricultural subsoilers work efectively
to a depth of around 45cm (18 inches)
Use roots and soil drainage as indicators of good/poor structure.

• Roots are often the best indicators of soil compaction.

• Finer roots will run horizontally across the surface of a compacted layer, and taproots will
become pronged and run laterally if they cannot push through the soil.

• Drainage in winter is another good indicator. Soils will often ‘sit wet’ above a compacted layer,
making the saturated layer susceptible to further compaction. This layer may be duller in colour
Earthworm lifestyles

There are three main earthworm lifestyles in the soil:

• Surface-dwelling (epigeic) worms that feed on

leaf litter and other organic material on the
surface; these are common in woodlands but
rarely found in agricultural soils

• Shallow-burrowing (endogeic) worms live in the

soil and feed on organic matter there. They make
vertical and horizontal burrows in the topsoil

• Deep-burrowing (anecic) worms come to the soil

surface in the evening and gather organic material
into permanent burrows deeper down the soil
profle. These worms leave casts on the soil
surface
Count Earthworms

Earthworms are useful indicators of soil condition and deep-burrowing (anecic) species provide
channels to drain water and help roots access deeper into the subsoil. Earthworms also feed on
soil organic matter, crop residues and leaf litter and are vital to the turnover of organic matter
and the mixing of organic and mineral components of the soil.

Counting earthworms can provide a quick and easy way of assessing soil condition. The best time
to count earthworm populations is early to mid-spring or after the soil has wetted up in autumn.

A series of measurements taken in a number of fields, or over a number of years or crop

rotations, can give an indication of long-term trends in soil condition.

Dig out 10 cubes of soil 20cm x 20cm and approximately 20cm deep across the field, and hand-
sort the blocks for worms.

Worm numbers are affected by a range of factors, including soil type, weather and land
management. However, a soil in good condition will typically contain 10–15 worms per soil block
Use the look, feel, and smell of the Soil

Crumb and granular structures crumble in your hands, are associated with abundant fine roots,
are normally dark brown in color, have abundant pores and smell earthy.

Compacted soil is firm or hard to break up by hand, normally paler in color, has few roots, is
dominated by horizontal cracks/fissures and platy structures, and has few visible pores

Use a knife or trowel

Create an undisturbed face to your soil pit (shallow or deep) and push or twist a knife or trowel
into the vertical face at various points down the profle and relate the degree of resistance to soil
structure, porosity, rooting, drainage and colour.
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE AND MAINTAIN SOIL STRUCTURE

• Successful soil management should avoid or limit soil structural damage and alleviate
compaction when it occurs.

• Any soil management strategy should include methods to improve soil condition and
resilience and repair damage.

• Generally, soils that are low in soil organic matter are more susceptible to soil compaction and
structural deterioration
a. Prevention is better than cure

• Tyre pressure, wheel loads, and controlling traffic – many growers use low ground pressure
(LGP) tires to reduce ground contact pressure. These include very high flexion (VF), increased
flexion (IF), and variable-pressure tires with on-board Central Tyre Inflation Systems (CTIS).

• Keeping applied pressure low – less than 0.7 bar – will allow most roots to grow enough for
crops to alleviate compression caused in dry to moist conditions.

How to limit compaction by machinery

Following heavy rainfall, if possible, keep fields off for 24-48 hours as wet soil is
extremely vulnerable to compaction damage.

• Consider the ‘8–8 rule’: under wet conditions, the depth of compaction beyond 30cm depth
increases by 8cm for each 1-tonne increase in wheel load (above 1 ton) and by 8cm for each
doubling of the tyre inflation pressure (above 1 bar)
Reduce machine size and total axle loads, as
wheel loads greater than 3.5 tons can cause
serious, permanent, deep-seated compaction,
even with large low-pressure tyres –

• The greater the weight of the vehicle, the

deeper the potential compaction –

• The greater the tyre pressure, the greater

the degree of compaction in the topsoil
and upper subsoil
b. Soil Physical State (consistency) When soil is above the lower plastic
limit:
Consistency- the strength with which soil materials are
held together (in clay soils, it increases with moisture • Soil can be rolled/molded into a
content up to the plastic limit, then decreases rapidly as “worm” or ring without
soils become saturated). cracking/crumbling.

• Soil aggregated are unable to

reform after compression from
machinery/cultivation (moisture
and air are expelled), and so
compaction/ panning can result.

• Avoid cultivating/ travelling on soil

to prevent compaction and poor
crop development.
c. Improving soils

• Where soils are compacted, they can be improved by increasing organic matter content.

• Can be done over several years by applying bulky organic materials or using cover crops, green
manures, and grass leys over a longer period.

• If there are clear signs of compaction (e.g., a well-developed tillage pan), appropriate
cultivation will be necessary.

• Field drainage- On soils with clay, slowly permeable subsoils, even with the best topsoil
structure, it is vital to install and maintain field drains to sustain efficient production
c.1. Well-targeted cultivations

• If you suspect that there is a compact layer in the upper subsoil and are considering improving
it by subsoiling, then it is important to confirm this by digging a hole and assessing the soil.

➔ Do NOT subsoil unless you have identified clear signs of compaction.

➔ Subsoiling soils in good condition are likely to do more harm than good!

Suitable conditions – Subsoiling should only be carried out when the soil at working depth is dry
and friable so that it will shatter rather than smear. Examine soils early in the operation to ensure
effective shattering is occurring.

Both the soil surface and the compacted layer should be dry to avoid soil structural damage.
Choice of equipment- Winged subsoilers shatter the soil much more effectively than conventional
subsoilers. They require higher draught force but can disturb a volume of soil two to three times
greater than a conventional subsoiler, resulting in more effective disturbance.

The use of leading tines can result in an increased volume of soil disturbed without increasing
draught.

Depth- – It is best practice to use a depth wheel or rear packer roller to maintain a constant tine
depth. Aim for tines to be about 25–50mm below the base of the compacted layer, up to a
maximum depth of approximately 450mm below ground level.

Maximum depth may be limited by shallow field drains, rock, or the critical depth of the tine
(related to tine width and soil conditions). Normal drain depth is around 70-90cm below the soil
surface.
Do not cultivate any deeper than you have to, because:

• Doubling the tine working depth can quadruple the draught force requirement.
• Increasing the working depth by 5cm (two inches) can easily double the fuel requirement.

Spacing between tines- many subsoiler manufacturers now have fixed tine spacings on their
subsoilers. However, it is important to use the following tine spacing where possible.
Do not cultivate any deeper than you have to, because:

• Doubling the tine working depth can quadruple the draught force requirement.
• Increasing the working depth by 5cm (two inches) can easily double the fuel requirement.

LIGHT MANAGEMENT AND WIND PROTECTION FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Light management and wind protection are essential considerations for successfully
cultivating horticultural crops, especially in areas with varying climatic conditions. Some strategies for
light management and wind protection:
LIGHT MANAGEMENT

1. Site Selection: Choose a site with appropriate light conditions for the specific crop. Consider
factors such as sunlight exposure, shade from nearby structures or trees, and the orientation
of the planting area.

2. Row Orientation: Arrange rows of crops in a north-south direction to maximize sunlight

exposure throughout the day. This ensures uniform light distribution and reduces shading
between rows.

3. Pruning and Training: Regularly prune plants to remove excess foliage that may shade lower
leaves or nearby plants. Training vines or tall crops to grow vertically can also optimize light
penetration.

4. Shade Structures: Install shade structures such as shade cloth or shade nets to reduce direct
sunlight exposure during peak hours, especially for delicate plants or during periods of intense
heat.
4. Reflective Mulches: Use reflective mulch materials around plants to redirect sunlight towards
lower foliage, enhancing photosynthesis and overall plant growth.

5. Greenhouse or High Tunnel: Utilize greenhouse or high tunnel structures to control light
exposure, temperature, and humidity levels. These structures provide protection from harsh
sunlight, frost, and wind while extending the growing season.

WIND PROTECTION

1.Windbreaks: Plant windbreaks such as trees, shrubs, or tall crops around the perimeter of the
horticultural area to reduce wind speed and turbulence. Evergreen trees or dense shrubs are
particularly effective for year-round protection.

2.Fences: Install solid or semi-permeable fences to create wind barriers without obstructing airflow
completely. Mesh or slatted fences allow some wind to pass through while providing partial protection
to crops.

3.Hedges: Grow dense hedges of wind-tolerant plants along field edges or between rows to deflect
wind and minimize damage to crops. Trim hedges regularly to maintain their effectiveness.
4. Windbreak Fabrics: Erect temporary windbreak structures using permeable windbreak fabrics or
screens. These can be positioned strategically to shield specific areas or sensitive crops during
windy periods.

5. Low Tunnels or Row Covers: Set up low tunnels or row covers made of lightweight materials to
shield individual rows or plants from wind while allowing sunlight penetration. These are
particularly useful for protecting young or delicate crops.

6. Sturdy Support Structures: Ensure that trellises, stakes, and other support structures for
climbing plants are securely anchored to withstand windy conditions. Reinforce structures as
necessary to prevent damage or collapse.
PEST MANAGEMENT FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Pest management is a critical aspect of horticultural crop production to minimize the

damage caused by pests and ensure healthy plant growth.

Cultural Methods:

1. Crop Rotation: Rotate crops to disrupt pest life cycles and reduce the buildup of pest
populations in the soil. Avoid planting the same crop or related species in the same area year
after year.

2. Sanitation: Remove and destroy crop residues, weeds, and plant debris that may harbor pests
or their eggs. Keep the growing area clean to eliminate potential breeding grounds for pests.

3. Plant Selection: Choose pest-resistant crop varieties whenever possible. Selecting varieties
that are naturally resistant to common pests can reduce the need for chemical interventions.

4. Companion Planting: Plant pest-repellent or pest-attracting companion plants strategically to

deter pests or attract beneficial insects that prey on pests.
Mechanical and Physical Controls:

1. Handpicking: Handpicking involves physically removing pests from plants by hand. This
method is effective for controlling pests such as caterpillars, beetles, slugs, and snails. It's
labor-intensive but can be practical for small-scale growers or for managing localized pest
outbreaks.

2. Barriers: Physical barriers such as row covers, netting, or screens can prevent pests from
reaching plants. These barriers are particularly useful for protecting crops from flying insects,
birds, and larger animals. Row covers made of lightweight fabric allow sunlight, air, and water
to reach plants while keeping pests out.

3. Traps and Lures: Traps and lures are used to monitor pest populations and capture adult
insects. Sticky traps coated with a substance that attracts insects can be placed in the field to
catch pests like whiteflies, thrips, and aphids. Pheromone traps use synthetic versions of insect
pheromones to attract and trap specific pest species.
4. Mulching: Applying mulch around plants can help suppress weeds, conserve soil moisture, and
regulate soil temperature. Organic mulches such as straw, wood chips, or shredded leaves can also
create a physical barrier that impedes the movement of certain pests, such as slugs and snails,
across the soil surface. Additionally, mulches can make it more difficult for pests to lay eggs or
access plant roots.

Biological Control

1. Augmentation: Augmentative biological control involves the release of natural enemies in large
numbers to supplement existing populations or to establish new populations in a target area. This
method is commonly used to control pests that have become established in agricultural or
horticultural settings. Examples include releasing predatory insects like ladybugs or parasitic wasps
to control aphids, mealybugs, or caterpillars.
2. Conservation: Conservation biological control focuses on enhancing populations of natural
enemies already present in the environment by providing suitable habitat, food sources, and
shelter. Conservation methods include planting flowering plants to attract beneficial insects,
maintaining hedgerows or wildflower strips as refuge areas, and reducing pesticide use to avoid
harming natural enemies. Conservation biological control promotes the establishment and
persistence of diverse predator and parasitoid populations, leading to more effective and
sustainable pest control.

3. Microbial Pathogens: Microbial pathogens are naturally occurring microorganisms, such as

bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa, that infect and kill pest insects. Microbial insecticides
containing these pathogens are used to control a wide range of pests, including caterpillars,
beetles, aphids, and mosquitoes
4. Parasitoids: Parasitoids are insects that lay their eggs inside or on the bodies of other insects,
known as hosts. The parasitoid larvae develop inside the host, eventually killing it. Parasitoids are
highly effective natural enemies of many pest species and play a crucial role in regulating pest
populations.

5. Predatory Insects: Predatory insects feed on pest insects, helping to reduce their populations
and prevent crop damage. Predatory insects include species such as ladybugs, lacewings,
hoverflies, ground beetles, and predatory mites. These natural enemies prey on a variety of pest
species, including aphids, thrips, mites, caterpillars, and insect eggs. Predatory insects can be
attracted to the growing area by providing suitable habitat, such as flowering plants for nectar and
pollen, and by reducing pesticide use to avoid harming them.
6. Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Entomopathogenic nematodes are microscopic roundworms
that infect and kill insect pests in the soil. These nematodes enter the bodies of insects through
natural openings or by penetrating the cuticle, where they release bacteria that multiply and cause
septicemia, ultimately killing the host. Entomopathogenic nematodes are effective against soil-
dwelling pests such as grubs, root maggots, and larvae of beetles and moths. They are applied to
the soil as a liquid suspension and can be used as part of an integrated pest management (IPM)
program to control pest populations without harming beneficial organisms or the environment.

CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS

1. Insecticides: Insecticides are pesticides specifically formulated to control insect pests. They work
by interfering with the nervous system, metabolism, or growth and development of target insects.
Insecticides can be classified based on their mode of action, chemical structure, or target pest
species.
• Organophosphates: These insecticides inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme
involved in nerve signal transmission, leading to paralysis and death of insects.

• Pyrethroids: Pyrethroid insecticides are synthetic chemicals derived from natural pyrethrins
found in chrysanthemum flowers. They disrupt nerve function in insects, leading to paralysis
and death.

• Neonicotinoids: Neonicotinoid insecticides act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the insect

nervous system, causing overstimulation and eventual paralysis.

• Biological Insecticides: Biological insecticides are derived from naturally occurring substances
such as bacteria, fungi, or plant extracts. Examples include Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which
produces toxins lethal to certain insect larvae, and spinosad, derived from a soil bacterium and
effective against a wide range of pests.
2. Herbicides: Herbicides are pesticides designed to control weeds by inhibiting their growth,
interfering with photosynthesis, or disrupting cellular processes. Herbicides can be selective,
targeting specific weed species while leaving crops unharmed, or non-selective, killing all plants
they contact.

• Glyphosate: Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum, non-selective herbicide that inhibits the enzyme

EPSP synthase, disrupting the synthesis of essential amino acids in plants and leading to their
death.

• 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D): 2,4-D is a selective herbicide commonly used to control

broadleaf weeds in cereal crops, turfgrass, and pastures. It mimics the plant hormone auxin,
causing uncontrolled growth and eventually killing the target weeds.

• Imazapyr: Imazapyr is a systemic herbicide used to control annual and perennial grasses and
broadleaf weeds. It inhibits the production of branched-chain amino acids in plants, leading to
their death.
3. Fungicides: Fungicides are pesticides used to control fungal diseases in crops by inhibiting fungal
growth, spore germination, or penetration into plant tissues. Fungicides can be applied preventively to
protect plants from infection or curatively to control existing infections.

• Chlorothalonil: Chlorothalonil is a broad-spectrum fungicide effective against a wide range of

fungal diseases, including leaf spots, blights, and mildews. It works by inhibiting enzymes
involved in fungal cell wall synthesis.

• Azoxystrobin: Azoxystrobin is a systemic fungicide that inhibits mitochondrial respiration in

fungi, disrupting energy production and preventing fungal growth. It is used to control
diseases such as powdery mildew, rusts, and leaf spots in various crops.

• Copper-based Fungicides: Copper-based fungicides, such as copper hydroxide or copper

sulfate, are used to control bacterial and fungal diseases in crops. Copper ions disrupt cell
membranes and enzyme function in pathogens, preventing disease development.
4. Rodenticides: Rodenticides are pesticides designed to control rodent populations by poisoning
or incapacitating them. They are used to protect crops, stored grains, and infrastructure from
damage caused by rats and mice. Rodenticides can be classified based on their mode of action and
formulation.

• Anticoagulant Rodenticides: Anticoagulant rodenticides interfere with blood clotting in

rodents, leading to internal bleeding and death. Common anticoagulant active ingredients
include warfarin, bromadiolone, and brodifacoum.

• Zinc Phosphide: Zinc phosphide is a fast-acting rodenticide that releases toxic phosphine gas in
the stomach of rodents, causing cellular damage and metabolic disruption. It is used in bait
formulations to control rats and mice in agricultural and urban settings.
5. Nematicides: Nematicides are pesticides used to control plant-parasitic nematodes in
agricultural and horticultural crops. They work by killing nematodes directly or by interfering with
their sensory perception, movement, or reproduction. Nematicides can be applied as soil
treatments, seed treatments, or foliar sprays.

• Fumigant Nematicides: Fumigant nematicides, such as methyl bromide or 1,3-

dichloropropene, are volatile chemicals that penetrate soil pores and kill nematodes
through inhalation or contact. They are applied as soil fumigants before planting to
sterilize the soil and control nematode populations.

• Non-fumigant Nematicides: Non-fumigant nematicides, such as organophosphates,

carbamates, or organophosphonates, are applied as granules, liquids, or emulsions to the
soil surface or incorporated into the soil to target nematodes in the root zone.
PHYSICAL CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Physical control of growth and development involves manipulating environmental

factors or employing physical techniques to regulate the growth, form, or physiology of plants.
These methods are used to optimize crop performance, enhance product quality, or manage plant
size in horticultural and agricultural production systems.

1.Pruning and Training: Pruning involves the selective removal of plant parts such as branches,
shoots, or roots to shape the plant, promote desired growth habits, and improve overall plant
health. Training refers to guiding plant growth along a desired path or structure, such as trellises,
stakes, or wires. Pruning and training are commonly used in orchards, vineyards, and nurseries to
manage plant size, increase light penetration and air circulation, and facilitate harvesting and
maintenance.
2. Topiary and Espalier: Topiary is the art of shaping and sculpting plants into ornamental forms,
often using shears or pruning tools to create geometric shapes, animals, or other designs. Espalier
involves training woody plants, such as trees or shrubs, to grow flat against a wall or trellis in a
specific pattern. Topiary and espalier techniques are used for decorative purposes in gardens,
parks, and landscapes and to maximize space in small urban or backyard gardens.

3. Thinning and Pruning of Fruit: Thinning involves removing excess fruit from trees or bushes to
improve fruit size, quality, and yield. Thinning helps reduce competition among developing fruits,
promotes uniform ripening, and prevents branches from overloading and breaking. Pruning fruit
trees also helps maintain an open canopy structure, allowing sunlight to reach all tree parts, and
facilitating fruit production and harvest.

4. Girdling and Ringing: Girdling or ringing involves removing a strip of bark or phloem tissue from
the circumference of a tree trunk or branch. This disrupts the flow of nutrients and carbohydrates
from the leaves to the roots or vice versa, leading to growth, flowering, or fruiting changes.
Girdling stimulates fruit production, induces flowering, or controls tree size in orchards and
vineyards.
5. Light Management: Manipulating light exposure through shading, reflective materials, or light
deprivation techniques can influence plant growth and development. Shading structures such as
shade cloth or shade netting are used to reduce light intensity and temperature, protect plants
from sunburn or heat stress, and extend the growing season for cool-season crops. Reflective
mulches or films are applied to the soil surface to redirect sunlight towards plants, increase
photosynthesis, and improve fruit ripening or color development.

6. Temperature Control: Maintaining optimal temperatures within greenhouses or high tunnels

through heating, cooling, and ventilation systems can regulate plant growth and development.
Temperature control influences processes such as seed germination, flowering induction, fruit set,
and ripening. For example, cooling systems such as evaporative cooling or shade curtains are used
to lower temperatures during hot weather, while heating systems such as heaters or heat mats are
used to raise temperatures during cold weather to protect plants and promote growth.
7. Root Pruning and Root Restriction: Root pruning involves severing or trimming the roots of
container-grown plants to encourage the development of new root growth and prevent root
circling. Root restriction techniques, such as using root barriers or containers with limited space,
constrain root growth and promote compact root systems. Root pruning and restriction are used
in container gardening, bonsai cultivation, and nursery production to control plant size, improve
transplant success, and enhance root-to-shoot ratios.

8. Hydroponic and Aeroponic Systems: Hydroponic and aeroponic systems provide plants with
essential nutrients and water directly to their roots without the need for soil. These soilless
cultivation methods allow precise control over nutrient levels, pH, and water availability,
optimizing plant growth and development. Hydroponic systems use water-based nutrient
solutions, while aeroponic systems mist nutrient solutions onto plant roots suspended in air. These
systems are used in commercial greenhouse production, indoor farming, and vertical farming to
maximize yields, conserve resources, and produce high-quality crops.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Chemical control of growth and development involves the use of synthetic or naturally
occurring chemical substances to regulate various physiological processes in plants, such as
growth, flowering, fruiting, and dormancy. These chemicals, known as plant growth regulators
(PGRs) or plant hormones, can be applied externally to plants or incorporated into growing media
to manipulate plant growth and development in desired ways.

1.Gibberellins (GAs):

• Stem Elongation: Gibberellins promote stem elongation by stimulating cell division and
elongation in the stem internodes. Synthetic gibberellin formulations are used in
agriculture to increase stem length and internode spacing in crops such as grapes, hops,
and ornamental plants.

• Fruit Set and Seed Germination: Gibberellins promote fruit set and seed germination by
breaking seed dormancy and stimulating embryo growth. Exogenous application of
gibberellins can enhance fruit development and seedling emergence in crops with seed
dormancy issues.
2. Auxins:

• Root Initiation: Auxins stimulate root initiation and development by promoting cell division
and elongation in the root meristem. Synthetic auxins such as indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and
naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) are commonly used in horticulture to stimulate root formation
in cuttings and promote root growth in transplants.

• Apical Dominance: Auxins inhibit lateral bud growth and promote apical dominance by
redistributing growth hormones within the plant. Pruning or applying synthetic auxins to the
apical bud can reduce apical dominance and encourage branching in woody and herbaceous
plants.
3. Cytokinins:

• Cell Division and Shoot Proliferation: Cytokinins promote cell division and shoot proliferation
by stimulating the production of cytokinesis-related proteins and enzymes. Synthetic
cytokinins such as kinetin and benzyladenine (BA) are used in tissue culture and
micropropagation to induce shoot formation and enhance shoot multiplication in vitro.

• Delaying Senescence: Cytokinins delay leaf senescence and promote chlorophyll retention by
regulating gene expression and nutrient mobilization in plant tissues. Foliar applications of
synthetic cytokinins can extend the shelf life of cut flowers and ornamental plants by delaying
senescence and prolonging flower quality.
4. Abscisic Acid (ABA):

• Dormancy Induction: Abscisic acid induces dormancy in seeds and buds by inhibiting
germination and growth processes under unfavorable environmental conditions.
Synthetic ABA analogs are used in agriculture to synchronize flowering and fruit set,
manage bud dormancy, and regulate fruit ripening in deciduous fruit trees.

• Stress Response: Abscisic acid mediates plant responses to various environmental

stresses, such as drought, salinity, and cold, by regulating stomatal closure, osmotic
adjustment, and antioxidant defense mechanisms. Foliar applications of synthetic ABA can
help plants tolerate stress and maintain productivity under adverse growing conditions.
5. Ethylene:

• Fruit Ripening: Ethylene promotes fruit ripening by stimulating the expression of genes involved in
fruit softening, color change, and aroma production. Ethylene-releasing compounds such as
ethephon are used in agriculture to accelerate fruit ripening and improve fruit quality in
climacteric fruits such as tomatoes, bananas, and apples.

• Senescence and Abscission: Ethylene induces leaf senescence and promotes leaf abscission by
triggering programmed cell death and tissue degradation processes. Ethylene inhibitors such as 1-
methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) are used in postharvest management to delay senescence and
prolong the shelf life of cut flowers, ornamental plants, and harvested fruits and vegetables.
POSTHARVEST AND POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY

• Postharvest refers to the period following the harvesting of agricultural or horticultural crops,
during which the harvested produce is handled, processed, stored, and transported to maintain
quality, freshness, and nutritional value.

• Postharvest activities play a crucial role in preserving the quality and extending the shelf life of
perishable crops, reducing losses, and ensuring food safety.

• Postharvest technology encompasses a range of practices, techniques, and technologies aimed

at optimizing postharvest handling, storage, and distribution processes.
1. Harvesting: Harvesting marks the beginning of the postharvest period and involves the gathering
of mature, ripe, or marketable crops from the field or orchard. Proper harvesting techniques, such
as selecting the right time of day, using sharp tools, handling crops gently to avoid bruising or
damage, and sorting produce based on size, color, and maturity, help maintain quality and
minimize postharvest losses.

• Timing: Harvesting at the optimal stage of ripeness ensures produce quality and flavor. For
example, harvesting tomatoes when they reach full color but are still firm reduces postharvest
losses due to overripening during transportation.

• Mechanical Harvesting: Machinery such as fruit harvesters or vegetable pickers automate the
harvesting process, increasing efficiency and reducing labor costs. For instance, mechanical grape
harvesters gently shake vines to dislodge grapes, minimizing damage compared to handpicking.
•
2. Handling and Sorting: After harvesting, crops undergo initial handling and sorting processes to
remove field debris, damaged or diseased produce, and foreign material. Handling practices such
as washing, brushing, grading, and sorting help improve appearance, remove surface
contaminants, and prepare produce for further processing, packaging, or storage.

• Washing Systems: Automated washing systems in packinghouses use brushes, jets of water,
and food-grade sanitizers to remove soil, debris, and pathogens from produce surfaces. An
example is a hydrocooler, which sprays produce with chilled water to remove field heat and
reduce microbial growth.

• Packaging Materials: Packaging materials with built-in antimicrobial properties, such as films
containing silver nanoparticles or essential oils, help inhibit microbial growth and extend the
shelf life of packaged fruits and vegetables.
3. Cleaning and Sanitizing: Cleaning and sanitizing are essential steps in postharvest handling to
remove dirt, dust, residues, and pathogens from the surface of produce and processing
equipment. Washing with clean water, scrubbing with brushes or pads, and applying sanitizing
agents such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, or organic acids help reduce microbial contamination
and maintain food safety during handling and processing.

• Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): MAP involves altering the composition of gases
surrounding packaged produce to slow down respiration and inhibit microbial growth. For
example, storing strawberries in MAP with reduced oxygen levels and elevated carbon dioxide
levels delays decay and extends shelf life.

• Cold Chain Management: Maintaining a consistent cold chain from harvest to retail preserves
quality and freshness. Refrigerated trucks equipped with temperature monitoring systems
transport perishable goods such as leafy greens and berries to prevent temperature
fluctuations that can accelerate spoilage.
4. Packaging and Storage: Proper packaging and storage are critical for preserving the quality and
extending the shelf life of perishable crops during transportation and distribution. Packaging
materials such as boxes, crates, bags, or trays provide protection from physical damage, moisture
loss, and microbial contamination, while also allowing for adequate ventilation and airflow. Cold
storage facilities, controlled atmosphere storage, and modified atmosphere packaging help
maintain optimal temperature, humidity, and gas composition to slow down physiological
processes, inhibit microbial growth, and prevent spoilage.

• 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP): 1-MCP is a gas used to block ethylene receptors in fruits and
vegetables, delaying ripening and senescence. It is applied postharvest to extend the storage
life of apples, bananas, and other climacteric fruits.

• Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2): ClO2 is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent used to sanitize wash
water and surfaces in packinghouses. It effectively reduces microbial contamination on
produce, minimizing the risk of foodborne illnesses.
5. Temperature Management: Temperature management is a key factor in postharvest handling
and storage to prevent premature ripening, decay, and quality deterioration in perishable crops.
Cooling produce to the appropriate temperature soon after harvest and maintaining cold chain
integrity during transportation and storage help minimize metabolic activity, reduce respiration
rates, and extend the shelf life of fruits, vegetables, and other fresh products.

• Non-Destructive Testing: Technologies such as near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and digital

imaging analyze internal quality attributes of produce without damaging it. NIRS can
determine sugar content in apples, while digital imaging assesses external defects like bruising
or blemishes.

• Data Loggers: Temperature and humidity data loggers track environmental conditions in
storage facilities and transportation vehicles. Wireless sensors transmit real-time data to
monitoring systems, enabling timely intervention to prevent quality deterioration or spoilage.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PROCESSING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Primary and secondary processing are essential steps in converting harvested fruits and
vegetables into value-added products suitable for consumption, distribution, and storage.

PRIMARY PROCESSING: Primary processing involves the initial steps of cleaning, sorting, grading,
and packing fresh fruits and vegetables immediately after harvest. The goal is to remove field
debris, foreign materials, and damaged or diseased produce while preserving quality and
freshness. Primary processing prepares crops for further handling, storage, and distribution.

1. Cleaning And Washing- Primary processing begins with cleaning and washing fresh fruits and
vegetables to remove dirt, debris, and surface contaminants acquired during harvesting and
handling. This step ensures food safety and improves the visual appearance of produce.
Techniques include:
• Hydrocooling: Immersing produce in chilled water or spraying it with cold water to remove
field heat and reduce microbial growth.

• Brushing and Scrubbing: Using mechanical brushes or scrubbers to agitate produce surfaces
and dislodge soil particles and residues.

• Sanitizing Washes: Treating produce with sanitizing agents such as chlorine, hydrogen
peroxide, or organic acids to reduce microbial contamination.

2. Sorting and Grading: After cleaning, fruits and vegetables undergo sorting and grading to
classify them based on size, color, shape, ripeness, and quality attributes. Automated sorting
systems use various sensors and criteria to separate produce into uniform grades. Methods
include:

• Optical Sorting: Using cameras and computer algorithms to detect defects, blemishes, and
foreign materials on produce surfaces and sort them accordingly.

• Weight Grading: Weighing produce and sorting it into different grades or categories based on
predefined weight ranges.
• Manual Inspection: Employing trained workers to visually inspect produce and remove
damaged or defective items by hand.

3. Packaging and Storage: Once sorted and graded, fruits and vegetables are packaged in suitable
containers or packaging materials for transportation and storage. Packaging serves to protect
produce from physical damage, moisture loss, and microbial spoilage. Common packaging options
include:

Plastic Bags and Pouches: Providing lightweight, flexible packaging for fresh produce such as leafy
greens, herbs, and mushrooms.

Trays and Clamshells: Offering rigid, stackable containers with compartments for displaying fruits
and vegetables in retail settings.

Pallet Bins and Bulk Bins: Using large, reusable containers for transporting bulk quantities of
produce to distribution centers and markets.
4. Cooling and Storage: Proper cooling and storage conditions are critical for preserving the quality
and extending the shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables. Cold storage facilities, refrigerated
trucks, and controlled atmosphere storage help maintain optimal temperature, humidity, and gas
composition. Techniques include:

• Precooling: Quickly lower harvested produce’s temperature to the desired storage

temperature using forced-air cooling, hydrocooling, or vacuum cooling.

• Cold Chain Management: Ensuring a continuous cold chain from harvest to retail by maintaining
consistent temperatures during transportation and storage.

• Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA): Modifying the composition of gases surrounding stored
produce to slow down respiration and inhibit ripening and decay.
SECONDARY PROCESSING: Secondary processing involves transforming fresh fruits and vegetables
into processed products such as juices, purees, canned goods, frozen foods, dried fruits, and
snacks. Secondary processing adds value to raw materials, extends shelf life, and enhances
convenience for consumers. Processed products undergo various techniques such as washing,
peeling, cutting, cooking, and preservation to achieve desired characteristics.

1. Juices and Beverages:

Secondary processing involves converting fresh fruits and vegetables into value-added products
such as juices, purees, and beverages. Processing techniques include:

• Juice Extraction: Crushing or pressing fruits and vegetables to extract their liquid content,
which is then pasteurized, filtered, and bottled for consumption.

• Blending and Mixing: Combining fruit juices with other ingredients such as water, sugar,
flavors, and preservatives to create beverages like fruit punches, smoothies, and flavored
waters.
2. Frozen Foods: Freezing is a popular method of preserving the freshness and nutritional value of
fruits and vegetables. Frozen products undergo washing, peeling, cutting, blanching, and freezing
before packaging. Examples include:

• Frozen Vegetables: Pre-cut, pre-cooked, or blanched vegetables such as peas, corn, and
broccoli packaged in sealed bags or containers for long-term storage.

• Frozen Fruits: Whole, sliced, or diced fruits like strawberries, mangoes, and blueberries
individually quick-frozen (IQF) and packaged for use in desserts, smoothies, and baking.

3. Canned and Jarred Products: Canning and jarring involve heat-processing fruits and vegetables
to sterilize them and seal them in airtight containers. Canned goods are shelf-stable and have an
extended shelf life. Processing steps include:

• Sterilization: Heating fruits and vegetables in cans or jars to high temperatures to destroy
spoilage microorganisms and enzymes.
• Sealing: Sealing cans or jars under vacuum or pressure to create a hermetic seal that prevents
air and contaminants from entering.

4. Dried Fruits and Snacks: Drying or dehydrating fruits and vegetables removes moisture and
preserves them for long-term storage. Dried products retain flavor, nutrients, and shelf stability.
Techniques include:

• Sun Drying: Exposing sliced or whole fruits and vegetables to sunlight on drying racks or trays
until they reach the desired moisture content.

• Mechanical Drying: Using specialized equipment such as food dehydrators or oven-drying

systems to remove moisture from produce at controlled temperatures.

5. Purees and Sauces: Processing fruits and vegetables into purees or sauces enhances their
culinary versatility and convenience. Purees are smooth, homogeneous mixtures suitable for
cooking, baking, and baby food.
• Fruit Purees: Blending cooked or mashed fruits like apples, bananas, and peaches into smooth,
uniform textures for use in sauces, desserts, and spreads.

• Vegetable Sauces: Cooking, pureeing, and seasoning vegetables such as tomatoes, peppers,
and carrots to create savory sauces for pasta, pizza, and soups.
PREHARVEST FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF HARVESTED COMMODITY

Preharvest factors significantly influence the quality of harvested commodities,

encompassing a range of environmental, cultural, and management practices that affect crop
growth, development, and physiological processes before harvest. Understanding and managing
these factors are crucial for maximizing yield, quality, and marketability of agricultural and
horticultural crops.

1. Climate and Weather Conditions:

• Temperature: Extreme temperatures can affect crop development, flowering, fruit set, and
ripening. Heat stress during flowering and fruit development can lead to poor fruit quality,
reduced size, and uneven ripening. Frost or cold damage can cause tissue injury, water loss,
and discoloration in fruits and vegetables.
• Precipitation: Adequate water supply is essential for plant growth and fruit development.
Drought stress can lead to reduced fruit size, poor flavor, and increased susceptibility to
physiological disorders. Excessive rainfall or humidity can promote fungal diseases, fruit
cracking, and decay.

• Light Intensity and Duration: Light influences photosynthesis, pigment synthesis, and fruit
ripening. Insufficient light can result in poor fruit coloration, reduced sugar content, and
delayed ripening. Excessive light exposure may cause sunburn, bleaching, or bitter flavors in
fruits.

2. Soil and Nutrient Management

• Soil Fertility: Balanced soil fertility and nutrient availability are essential for plant growth,
flowering, and fruiting. Deficiencies or imbalances in essential nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients can negatively impact fruit quality, size, and
nutritional content.
• pH and Soil Moisture: Soil pH affects nutrient availability and uptake by plants. Acidic or alkaline
soils can limit nutrient absorption and result in nutrient deficiencies or toxicities. Soil moisture
levels influence plant water uptake, turgor pressure, and fruit development. Water stress can
lead to fruit cracking, irregular shape, and poor texture.

3. Cultural Practices

• Pruning and Training: Proper pruning and training techniques promote light penetration, air
circulation, and fruit exposure, leading to uniform fruit development and quality. Improper
pruning can result in overcrowded canopies, reduced sunlight, and increased disease
susceptibility.

• Thinning: Thinning excess fruits or flowers improves fruit size, uniformity, and quality by
reducing competition for resources and preventing branch breakage. Overcrowded fruit
clusters may result in small, misshapen fruits with poor flavor and color.
• Irrigation Management: Adequate irrigation scheduling ensures consistent soil moisture levels
and optimal plant water uptake. Under-irrigation can lead to water stress, reduced fruit size,
and increased susceptibility to physiological disorders. Over-irrigation may cause waterlogging,
root suffocation, and nutrient leaching.

4. Pest and Disease Management

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Effective pest and disease control measures minimize
crop damage and preserve fruit quality. Pests such as insects, mites, and rodents can cause
physical injury, contamination, and transmission of pathogens. Diseases such as fungal,
bacterial, and viral infections can result in fruit rot, discoloration, and spoilage.

• Biological Control: Beneficial insects, predators, parasites, and microorganisms can be used to
control pest populations and reduce pesticide usage. Biological control agents target specific
pests while minimizing harm to beneficial organisms and pollinators, promoting ecological
balance and sustainable pest management.
5. Pollination and Fruiting Factors:

• Pollination: Proper pollination is essential for fruit set, development, and quality. Inadequate
pollination can result in poor fruit formation, misshapen fruits, and reduced seed viability.
Pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and other insects play a crucial role in transferring pollen
between flowers.

• Fruit Thinning and Pruning: Thinning excess fruits and removing diseased or damaged fruits
promote uniform fruit size, shape, and maturity. Pruning overcrowded branches or canopies
improves light penetration, air circulation, and fruit quality by reducing competition and
shading.

6. Genetic Factors

• Varietal Selection: Crop varieties differ in their characteristics, including yield potential, fruit
quality attributes, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability. Choosing suitable
varieties adapted to local growing conditions and market preferences is essential for
optimizing yield and quality.
• Hybrid Vigor: Hybrid crops often exhibit hybrid vigor or heterosis, resulting in increased yield,
uniformity, and quality compared to open-pollinated varieties. Hybrids may possess desirable
traits such as disease resistance, fruit size, flavor, and shelf life.
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

• Landscape architecture is a multidisciplinary profession that combines elements of art, design,

ecology, and urban planning to create functional, aesthetically pleasing outdoor spaces.

• work to design and plan outdoor environments, including parks, gardens, campuses, residential
developments, urban plazas, and transportation corridors.

• encompasses both natural and built environments, with a focus on sustainable design,
environmental stewardship, and social well-being.
1. Design and planning

Site Analysis:

• Landscape architects conduct detailed site analyses that go beyond physical characteristics to
include socio-cultural, historical, and ecological aspects.
• They study factors such as microclimates, biodiversity, cultural significance, and site context to
inform design decisions and create responsive landscapes.

Conceptual Design:

• During conceptual design, landscape architects explore multiple design concepts and develop initial
sketches, diagrams, and renderings to communicate ideas.
• They consider user needs, functional requirements, site constraints, and design goals to develop
innovative and contextually appropriate solutions.
Master Planning:

• Master planning involves strategic thinking and long-term visioning to guide the development
of large-scale landscapes and urban areas.

• Landscape architects collaborate with stakeholders, policymakers, and community members

to establish goals, priorities, and implementation strategies for sustainable development.

2. Elements of Design

Hardscape Design:

• In hardscape design, landscape architects integrate architectural elements such as paving,

walls, fences, and structures into the landscape.

• They explore materials, textures, colors, and patterns to create visually compelling and
functional spaces that enhance connectivity, circulation, and user experience.
Softscape Design:

• Softscape design focuses on the selection, arrangement, and maintenance of plants to create
dynamic and resilient landscapes.

• Landscape architects consider plant characteristics such as growth habits, seasonal interest,
and ecological functions to create diverse and sustainable plant palettes.

Water Features:

• Water features add beauty, tranquility, and ecological value to landscapes while also serving
functional purposes such as stormwater management and habitat creation.

• Landscape architects design water features to integrate seamlessly with the surrounding
environment and enhance sensory experiences for users.
3. Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship

Ecological Design:

• Ecological design principles guide landscape architects in creating landscapes that support
biodiversity, ecosystem services, and resilience to climate change.

• They incorporate native plants, wildlife habitat, green infrastructure, and natural drainage
systems to enhance ecological function and promote environmental health.

Green Infrastructure:

• Green infrastructure interventions such as green roofs, rain gardens, and bioswales help
manage stormwater runoff, reduce heat island effects, and improve air and water quality.

• Landscape architects integrate green infrastructure into urban design projects to enhance
resilience to climate-related challenges and create more livable and sustainable cities.
•
Sustainable materials

• Landscape architects prioritize the use of sustainable materials, renewable resources, and low-
impact construction techniques to minimize environmental footprint and promote resource
conservation.

• They specify materials with recycled content, low embodied energy, and durability to create
landscapes that are environmentally responsible and aesthetically pleasing.

4. Social and Cultural Considerations

Universal Design:

• Universal design principles ensure that landscapes are accessible, inclusive, and accommodating to
people of all ages, abilities, and backgrounds.

• Landscape architects design accessible pathways, seating areas, and recreational facilities to
promote social equity and enhance the quality of life for diverse user groups.
Community Engagement:

• Community engagement processes involve meaningful dialogue, collaboration, and

participation of stakeholders in the design and planning of public spaces.

• Landscape architects facilitate community workshops, charrettes, and visioning sessions to

solicit feedback, build consensus, and foster a sense of ownership among residents and users.

Cultural Identity:

• Cultural identity is expressed through landscape design elements that reflect local traditions,
history, values, and aesthetics.

• Landscape architects incorporate cultural symbols, storytelling, and art installations into
landscapes to create meaningful connections between people and place and celebrate diverse
cultural heritage.
5. Implementation and Management:

Construction Oversight:

• During construction, landscape architects provide oversight to ensure that design intent is
realized and quality standards are met.

• They collaborate with contractors, craftsmen, and artisans to address technical challenges,
resolve conflicts, and ensure adherence to project specifications.

Maintenance Planning:

• Maintenance planning involves developing guidelines and schedules for ongoing care and
management of landscapes.

• Landscape architects specify maintenance requirements for plants, irrigation systems, lighting,
and hardscape elements to preserve design integrity and ensure long-term sustainability.
Post-Occupancy Evaluation:

• Post-occupancy evaluation allows landscape architects to assess the performance and user
satisfaction of completed projects.

• They gather feedback from users, monitor site conditions, and evaluate the effectiveness of
design solutions to inform future design decisions and continuous improvement.
PRINCIPLE OF DESIGNS

The principles of design are fundamental concepts that guide the creation and
arrangement of elements within a composition to achieve visual harmony, balance, and
effectiveness. These principles provide a framework for designers across various disciplines,
including graphic design, interior design, architecture, and landscape architecture.

1. Balance: Balance refers to the distribution of visual weight within a composition. Achieving
balance creates stability and equilibrium, ensuring that no single element dominates the
design. There are three types of balance:

•Symmetrical Balance: Elements are evenly distributed on either side of a central axis, creating a
mirror image. It conveys a sense of formality, order, and stability.

•Asymmetrical Balance: Visual weight is distributed unevenly but still achieves equilibrium through
careful arrangement of elements with varying sizes, shapes, and colors.

•Radial Balance: Elements radiate outward from a central point, creating a circular or spiral
composition. It emphasizes movement and dynamic energy.
2. Unity/Harmony:

Unity or harmony refers to the coherence and consistency of a design achieved through
the integration of diverse elements into a cohesive whole. It ensures that all parts of the
composition work together harmoniously to convey a unified message or theme. Unity can be
achieved through repetition, proximity, alignment, and continuity.

3. Emphasis/Focal Point:

Emphasis is the technique of highlighting or drawing attention to a particular element or

area within a composition. It creates visual interest and directs the viewer's gaze toward the focal
point. Emphasis can be achieved through contrast, scale, color, texture, or placement to make
certain elements stand out and convey importance.

4. Rhythm/Repetition:

Rhythm is the visual flow and movement created by the repetition or alternation of
elements within a composition. It establishes a sense of continuity, pacing, and predictability,
leading the viewer's eye through the design. Rhythm can be regular, irregular, or progressive,
depending on the pattern and spacing of repeated elements.
5. Proportion/Scale:

Proportion and scale refer to the size relationships between elements within a
composition and their relation to the overall design. Maintaining appropriate proportions and scale
ensures visual harmony and balance. It involves careful consideration of relative sizes, dimensions,
and spatial relationships to create a sense of proportionate unity.

6. Contrast/Variety:

Contrast is the juxtaposition of different elements within a composition to create visual

interest, drama, and emphasis. It involves the use of opposing or complementary elements such as
light and dark, large and small, or rough and smooth to create dynamic tension and highlight
differences. Contrast adds excitement, depth, and complexity to the design.

7. Hierarchy:

Hierarchy establishes a clear visual order and organization within a composition, guiding
the viewer's attention and understanding of the content. It involves arranging elements according
to their relative importance, significance, or function, creating a structured hierarchy of
information or visual elements.
8. Movement:

Movement refers to the visual path or direction that guides the viewer's eye through a
composition. It creates a sense of dynamic flow, rhythm, and progression, enhancing visual
interest and engagement. Movement can be achieved through implied motion, directional cues,
and sequential arrangement of elements.

9. Pattern:

Pattern is the repetition of visual elements or motifs in a systematic and orderly manner.
It adds texture, interest, and visual richness to a design while creating a sense of order and
predictability. Patterns can be simple or complex, geometric or organic, and contribute to the
overall aesthetic appeal of the composition.

10. Space:

Space refers to the area within and around elements in a composition. It includes
positive space occupied by objects and negative space, the empty or unoccupied areas between
and around objects. Effective use of space creates balance, depth, and visual clarity, allowing
elements to breathe and interact within the design.
HORTICULTURAL PLANT ARTS: refers to the creative and artistic expression of plants through
various horticultural practices, including topiary, espalier, bonsai, and floral design. These practices
involve shaping, training, and manipulating plants to create intricate and aesthetically pleasing
forms, patterns, and arrangements.

Topiary:

Topiary is the art of sculpting and shaping living plants,

typically evergreen shrubs or trees, into geometric
shapes, animals, or other decorative forms. It involves
meticulous pruning and trimming to control growth and
create precise outlines and silhouettes. Topiary designs
range from simple geometric shapes to elaborate
sculptures, adding whimsy and charm to gardens, parks,
and formal landscapes.
Espalier:

Espalier is a horticultural technique for training and

pruning fruit trees or ornamental plants against a flat
surface, such as a wall, fence, or trellis, to create a two-
dimensional, espaliered form. It involves guiding the
growth of branches and limbs along horizontal or vertical
lines, often in intricate patterns such as fans, tiers, or
cordons. Espaliered plants maximize space efficiency,
enhance visual interest, and promote fruit production in
limited garden areas.
Bonsai:

Bonsai is the Japanese art of growing miniature

trees in containers, replicating the appearance
of full-sized trees in nature. Bonsai cultivation
involves careful pruning, wiring, and shaping of
branches, roots, and foliage to create balanced
and harmonious compositions. Bonsai trees
exhibit qualities such as proportion, balance,
and age, evoking a sense of tranquility and
contemplation. Bonsai enthusiasts appreciate
the craftsmanship, patience, and artistic
expression involved in bonsai cultivation.
Floral Design:

Floral design is the creative arrangement of cut

flowers, foliage, and other plant materials to create
expressive and artistic compositions. It
encompasses various styles, techniques, and forms,
including bouquets, centerpieces, wreaths, and
installations. Floral designers combine color,
texture, form, and scent to evoke emotions, convey
messages, and enhance environments for special
occasions, events, and everyday enjoyment.
Ikebana:

Ikebana, also known as Japanese flower

arrangement, is a disciplined art form
that emphasizes simplicity, asymmetry,
and minimalism. Ikebana practitioners
arrange flowers, branches, and leaves in
elegant, yet dynamic compositions that
reflect seasonal themes, natural
landscapes, and philosophical principles.
Ikebana designs incorporate space, line,
and balance to evoke harmony and
mindfulness, serving as a meditative
practice and aesthetic expression.
Garden Sculpture and Installation Art:

In addition to traditional horticultural

practices, garden sculpture and
installation art involve the integration of
sculptural elements, structures, and
artworks within garden settings. Artists
and designers create site-specific
installations, sculptures, and
environmental artworks that interact
with the natural landscape, enhancing
its beauty, meaning, and sensory
experience. Garden sculpture and
installation art offer opportunities for
artistic experimentation, cultural
expression, and dialogue between
nature and culture.
Living Walls and Vertical Gardens:

Living walls, also known as green walls or vertical gardens, are vertical structures
covered with vegetation, typically planted in modular panels or containers. Living
walls incorporate a variety of plants, including ferns, succulents, and flowering
perennials, to create lush and vibrant vertical landscapes. They serve as living
works of art, providing visual interest, air purification, and habitat for wildlife in
urban environments.
Floral Carpets and Mosaiculture:

Floral carpets and mosaiculture involve

the intricate arrangement of colorful
plants and flowers to create large-scale
designs, patterns, and images on the
ground or vertical surfaces. These living
artworks often feature elaborate floral
displays, geometric patterns, or
representational motifs, attracting
visitors and photographers to botanical
gardens, parks, and public spaces. Floral
carpets and mosaiculture celebrate the
beauty, diversity, and ephemeral nature
of plants, inviting contemplation and
appreciation of the natural world.
 FILIPINO FARMERS IN THE COTEXT OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS; NEEDS AND
ASPIRATIONS

The Filipino holds a significant position within the fabric of Philippine society, deeply
intertwined with both socio-cultural traditions and economic realities. Let's delve into each aspect:

SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEXT

1. Cultural Identity: Agriculture is not merely an occupation but a way of life deeply rooted in
Filipino culture. The farmer is often romanticized as the steward of the land, embodying values
of hard work, resilience, and respect for nature.

The cultural identity of Filipinos is rich, diverse, and shaped by a variety of historical,
geographical, and socio-cultural influences. Here are some key aspects of Filipino cultural identity:
a. Malay Heritage: The Philippines has a predominantly Malay heritage, with influences from
neighboring Southeast Asian cultures. This heritage is reflected in language, customs, and
traditions, as well as in elements of cuisine, music, dance, and attire.

b. Spanish Influence: More than three centuries of Spanish colonization have left a lasting impact
on Filipino culture. This influence is evident in the predominance of Roman Catholicism, Spanish-
derived vocabulary in the Filipino language (Tagalog), and architectural styles seen in colonial-era
buildings.

c. American Influence: The Philippines was under American colonial rule for nearly 50 years, which
introduced elements of American culture such as English language proficiency, education system
reforms, and democratic ideals. American pop culture, including music, film, and fashion, continues
to influence contemporary Filipino society.

d. Indigenous Traditions: Pre-colonial indigenous cultures and traditions remain an integral part of
Filipino identity, particularly in rural areas. These include indigenous languages, belief systems,
rituals, art forms, and craftsmanship, which vary widely among the numerous ethnic groups across
the archipelago.
e. Cultural Festivals: The Philippines is known for its vibrant festivals, which celebrate a diverse
range of religious, cultural, and historical themes. Festivals such as the Ati-Atihan, Sinulog, Pahiyas,
and Dinagyang showcase colorful costumes, music, dance, and culinary specialties unique to each
region.

f. Bayanihan Spirit: The concept of "bayanihan," or communal unity and cooperation, is deeply
ingrained in Filipino culture. It emphasizes the importance of helping one another, especially in
times of need, and fosters a strong sense of community and solidarity.

g. Filipino Hospitality: Filipinos are renowned for their hospitality and warmth towards guests and
strangers alike. Hospitality is often expressed through acts of generosity, sharing of food, and
making guests feel welcome and valued.

h. Filipino Cuisine: Filipino cuisine is a fusion of indigenous, Malay, Spanish, Chinese, and American
culinary traditions. It features a diverse array of dishes, flavors, and cooking techniques, with
staples such as adobo, sinigang, lechon, and halo-halo reflecting the country's culinary diversity.
i. Filipino Arts and Crafts: Filipino arts and crafts encompass a wide range of expressions, including
traditional weaving, pottery, woodcarving, and indigenous textile arts. These artistic traditions
showcase the creativity, craftsmanship, and cultural heritage of Filipino artisans.

j. Filipino Family Values: Family plays a central role in Filipino culture, with strong bonds and close-
knit family ties. Respect for elders, filial piety, and collective decision-making are important values
that shape familial relationships and social interactions.

2. Community Cohesion: Farming communities in the Philippines often exhibit strong social bonds
and collective support systems. Farmers rely on each other for assistance during planting,
harvesting, and other agricultural activities, fostering a sense of camaraderie and solidarity.

Community cohesion among Filipino farmers is a fundamental aspect of rural life in the
Philippines.
a. Mutual Assistance: Farming communities in the Philippines often operate on principles of mutual
assistance and cooperation. Farmers frequently come together to help each other during critical times
such as planting, harvesting, or rebuilding after natural disasters. This spirit of "bayanihan" fosters
solidarity and strengthens social bonds within the community.

b. Collective Decision-Making: Important decisions regarding farming practices, resource

management, or community development are often made collectively within farming communities.
Meetings or gatherings may be held where community members discuss issues, share ideas, and reach
consensus on matters affecting the community as a whole. This participatory approach ensures that
the needs and concerns of all members are taken into account.

c. Sharing of Resources: In many rural areas, resources such as farming equipment, seeds, or water
sources may be shared among community members. This sharing not only helps to maximize resource
utilization but also builds trust and reciprocity within the community. Farmers recognize that they can
achieve more collectively than individually, leading to a sense of interdependence and cooperation.
d. Social Support Networks: Farming communities serve as social support networks where
individuals can seek assistance, advice, or emotional support from their peers. Whether it's
providing childcare, lending a listening ear, or offering financial assistance in times of need,
community members rely on each other for various forms of support, strengthening social
cohesion and resilience.

e. Cultural Traditions and Festivals: Cultural traditions and festivals significantly foster community
cohesion among Filipino farmers. Festivals celebrating agricultural cycles, patron saints, or local
customs bring community members together in joyful celebration, reinforcing shared cultural
identity and values. These events provide opportunities for social interaction, bonding, and
solidarity among farmers and their families.

f. Community Organizations and Cooperatives: Many farming communities have established

formal organizations or cooperatives to address common interests, advocate for their rights, and
access resources or services more effectively. These organizations serve as platforms for collective
action, resource mobilization, and capacity building, further enhancing community cohesion and
empowerment.
g. Resilience to Challenges: In the face of various challenges such as natural disasters, market
fluctuations, or government policies, community cohesion among Filipino farmers becomes
particularly important. By pooling resources, sharing knowledge, and supporting each other,
communities are better equipped to cope with adversity and bounce back from setbacks,
demonstrating the strength of their bonds and solidarity.

3. Challenges of Rural Life: Despite the cultural significance of farming, rural areas in the
Philippines often lack access to basic amenities such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure.
Many farmers face isolation and limited opportunities for personal and professional development,
leading to challenges in improving their quality of life.

Filipino farmers in rural areas face a multitude of challenges that impact their livelihoods,
well-being, and overall quality of life.
a. Poverty and Income Inequality: Poverty rates are often higher in rural areas compared to urban
centers, and many Filipino farmers live below the poverty line. Limited access to education,
healthcare, and economic opportunities exacerbate income inequality, trapping farmers in a cycle
of poverty.

b. Land Tenure Issues: Land ownership in the Philippines is often concentrated in the hands of a
few wealthy landowners, leaving many farmers landless or with insecure land tenure. Land reform
efforts have been slow and incomplete, perpetuating inequality and hindering agricultural
productivity.

c. Lack of Access to Credit and Capital: Many smallholder farmers lack access to formal financial
services such as credit, savings, and insurance. Without access to capital, farmers struggle to invest
in inputs, equipment, or technologies that could improve productivity and income.
d. Limited Market Access: Poor infrastructure, inadequate transportation networks, and
fragmented markets make it difficult for farmers to access markets and receive fair prices for their
produce. Middlemen often exploit farmers by offering low prices and taking a significant share of
the profits.

e. Climate Change and Environmental Degradation: Filipino farmers are vulnerable to the impacts
of climate change, including erratic weather patterns, droughts, floods, and typhoons. Soil erosion,
deforestation, and degradation of natural resources further exacerbate environmental challenges,
affecting agricultural productivity and sustainability.

f. Lack of Agricultural Extension Services: Extension services, which provide farmers with technical
assistance, training, and information on best practices, are often inadequate or inaccessible in rural
areas. This hinders farmers' ability to adopt modern technologies, improve farming techniques,
and mitigate risks.
g. Health and Nutrition Challenges: Access to healthcare services, sanitation, and clean water is
often limited in rural areas, impacting farmers' health and productivity. Malnutrition and food
insecurity are prevalent, especially among farming families with limited access to diverse and
nutritious foods.

h. Education and Skills Gap: Limited access to quality education and vocational training prevents
many rural youth from acquiring the skills and knowledge needed for alternative livelihoods or
non-farm employment opportunities. This perpetuates the cycle of poverty and dependence on
agriculture.

i. Social and Gender Inequities: Women farmers often face discrimination and barriers to accessing
resources, land ownership, and decision-making opportunities. Gender disparities in access to
education, healthcare, and economic opportunities further exacerbate social inequities in rural
communities.

j. Political and Policy Challenges: Inconsistent government policies, bureaucratic red tape,
corruption, and lack of political will hinder efforts to address rural development and agricultural
reform. Farmer advocacy groups often struggle to make their voices heard and influence policy
decisions that affect their livelihoods.
ECONOMIC STATUS

1. Poverty and Marginalization: Despite the cultural reverence for farming, Filipino farmers often
face poverty and marginalization. Limited access to resources, including land, credit, and
technology, constrains their ability to improve productivity and income levels.

Poverty and marginalization are pervasive issues faced by many Filipino farmers,
particularly those in rural areas. Factors contributing to their difficulties.

a. Land Tenure Inequality: Land ownership in the Philippines is highly unequal, with a significant
portion of agricultural land controlled by a small number of wealthy landowners. Many farmers
either lack secure land tenure or are landless, forcing them to work as tenants or farm laborers
under exploitative conditions.

b. Limited Access to Resources: Filipino farmers often lack access to crucial resources such as
land, credit, seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural machinery. Without access to these inputs,
farmers struggle to increase productivity and improve their livelihoods.
c. Low Productivity and Income: Smallholder farmers in the Philippines typically have low levels of
productivity due to limited access to modern farming techniques and technologies. As a result,
their income remains insufficient to meet basic needs such as food, shelter, healthcare, and
education for their families.

d. Volatile Market Prices: Farmers often face uncertainty and risk due to fluctuating market prices
for agricultural commodities. Middlemen and traders may exploit their vulnerability by offering low
prices for produce, further exacerbating their economic hardship.

e. Lack of Infrastructure: Poor rural infrastructure, including roads, irrigation systems, and post-
harvest facilities, hinders farmers' ability to transport their products to markets efficiently and
store them properly. This lack of infrastructure adds to production costs and reduces farmers'
competitiveness.
f. Climate Change Vulnerability: Filipino farmers are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change, including extreme weather events such as typhoons, droughts, and floods. These events
can destroy crops, damage infrastructure, and erode livelihoods, pushing farmers deeper into
poverty.

g. Limited Access to Education and Healthcare: Many farming communities in rural areas lack
access to quality education and healthcare services. This limits opportunities for farmers and their
families to improve their skills, knowledge, and overall well-being.

h. Social and Gender Inequities: Women farmers, in particular, face discrimination and barriers to
accessing resources such as land, credit, and extension services. Gender disparities in education,
decision-making, and social norms further exacerbate inequalities within farming households.

i. Political and Policy Challenges: Inconsistent government policies, bureaucratic red tape,
corruption, and lack of political will hamper efforts to address rural poverty and marginalization.
Farmer advocacy groups often struggle to make their voices heard and influence policy decisions
that affect their livelihoods.
2. Vulnerability to External Factors: Filipino farmers are highly vulnerable to external factors such
as natural disasters, market fluctuations, and policy changes. Climate change exacerbates these
risks, leading to crop failures, loss of livelihoods, and increased indebtedness.

Filipino farmers are highly vulnerable to a range of external factors that can significantly
impact their livelihoods and well-being.

a. Climate Change: Filipino farmers are particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate
change, including changes in rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, and more frequent and
intense extreme weather events such as typhoons, droughts, and floods. These climatic
disruptions can lead to crop failures, livestock losses, soil erosion, and damage to
infrastructure, resulting in significant economic losses for farmers.

b. Natural Disasters: The Philippines is situated in a typhoon-prone region and is also prone to
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These natural disasters can devastate agricultural lands,
destroy crops and infrastructure, and displace farming communities. Recovery from such
disasters is often slow and challenging, further exacerbating farmers' vulnerability.
c. Market Fluctuations: Filipino farmers often face volatile market conditions characterized by
fluctuating prices for agricultural commodities. Changes in global demand, currency exchange
rates, trade policies, and domestic supply and demand dynamics can all impact farmers' incomes.
Market fluctuations can leave farmers vulnerable to price shocks and financial instability.

d. Pests and Diseases: Pests, diseases, and crop pathogens pose significant threats to agricultural
productivity in the Philippines. Invasive species, pest outbreaks, and plant diseases can damage
crops, reduce yields, and increase production costs. Farmers may lack access to effective pest
management strategies and technologies, further exacerbating their vulnerability to these threats.

e. Limited Access to Inputs and Resources: Many Filipino farmers struggle to access essential
agricultural inputs and resources, including seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water.
Limited access to credit, land, machinery, and technology further compounds this challenge,
hindering farmers' ability to increase productivity and adapt to changing conditions.
f. Political and Policy Instability: Political instability, governance issues, and policy changes can create
uncertainty and disrupt agricultural activities in the Philippines. Inconsistent policies, bureaucratic
inefficiencies, corruption, and lack of support for smallholder farmers can undermine efforts to
address their needs and vulnerabilities.

g. Globalization and Trade Liberalization: Globalization and trade liberalization policies can expose
Filipino farmers to increased competition from imported agricultural products. Cheap imports can
undercut local prices, reduce market opportunities for domestic producers, and threaten the
livelihoods of smallholder farmers who may struggle to compete with larger, more efficient producers
abroad.
3. Lack of Diversification: Many farmers rely on monocropping or subsistence farming, limiting
their income potential and resilience to shocks. Diversification into high-value crops, agroforestry,
or livestock can offer opportunities for increased profitability and sustainability.

The lack of diversification in agriculture is a significant challenge faced by many Filipino

farmers.

a. Monocropping and Crop Dependence: Many Filipino farmers rely heavily on monocropping,
where a single crop is cultivated year after year on the same piece of land. This practice makes
farming systems vulnerable to pests, diseases, and market fluctuations associated with that
specific crop. For example, farmers who exclusively grow rice may struggle if rice prices drop
or if their crops are affected by pests or diseases.

b. Limited Crop Variety: Due to factors such as land constraints, market demand, and access to
resources, farmers may have limited options for crop diversification. They may stick to
traditional crops or those with established markets, even if they are not the most profitable or
sustainable choices. This lack of crop variety can increase farmers' exposure to risks and limit
their ability to adapt to changing conditions.
c. Income Instability: Dependence on a single crop can lead to income instability for farmers, as
their earnings are tied to the success or failure of that particular crop. Fluctuations in market
prices, weather conditions, and input costs can have a significant impact on farmers' income levels
from year to year. This instability can make it challenging for farmers to plan for the future, invest
in their farms, or cope with financial emergencies.

d. Soil Degradation and Nutrient Depletion: Monocropping can lead to soil degradation and
nutrient depletion, as the same crop is continuously grown without rotation or diversification. This
can result in reduced soil fertility, increased erosion, and susceptibility to pests and diseases.
Without adequate soil management practices or crop rotation, farmers may face declining yields
and productivity over time.

e. Market Risks: Farmers who rely on a single crop are more vulnerable to market risks, as their
income is tied to the performance of that specific commodity. Changes in consumer preferences,
market demand, or global supply and demand dynamics can impact prices and market
opportunities for their crops. Farmers may struggle to find alternative markets or value-added
opportunities if demand for their primary crop declines.
NEEDS AND ASPIRATION

1. Access to Resources: Filipino farmers need access to land tenure, credit, inputs, and markets to
enhance productivity and income. Land reform and agrarian reform programs can address
issues of landlessness and inequality, while microfinance initiatives and farmer cooperatives
can provide financial support and collective bargaining power.

Access to resources is a crucial determinant of the productivity, profitability, and

sustainability of Filipino farmers.

a. Land: Land ownership and tenure are critical issues for Filipino farmers. Many smallholder
farmers lack secure land rights, either because they are landless or because they only have
informal or insecure land tenure arrangements. Land reform efforts have been slow and
incomplete, leaving many farmers vulnerable to eviction, land grabbing, or exploitation by
landlords.
b. Credit and Finance: Access to credit and finance is essential for farmers to invest in seeds,
fertilizers, equipment, and other inputs necessary for farming operations. However, many Filipino
farmers, especially smallholders and those in remote rural areas, face challenges in accessing
formal financial services such as loans, savings, and insurance. High interest rates, collateral
requirements, and limited outreach of financial institutions are common barriers.

c. Inputs and Technology: Access to quality seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural
inputs is critical for improving yields and productivity. However, many farmers struggle to access
these inputs due to factors such as high costs, limited availability, and lack of distribution networks
in rural areas. Additionally, adoption of modern agricultural technologies and practices, such as
mechanization, irrigation systems, and precision farming tools, may be limited by affordability,
awareness, or technical capacity.

d. Infrastructure: Adequate rural infrastructure, including roads, irrigation systems, storage

facilities, and market linkages, is essential for connecting farmers to markets and improving access
to inputs and services. However, many rural areas in the Philippines lack basic infrastructure,
hindering farmers' ability to transport their products, access markets, and access essential services
such as healthcare and education.
e. Extension Services: Agricultural extension services play a crucial role in providing farmers with
technical assistance, training, and information on best practices for crop production, pest
management, soil conservation, and other aspects of farming. However, extension services in the
Philippines may be limited in coverage, outreach, and effectiveness, particularly in remote or
marginalized communities.

f. Market Access: Access to markets and fair prices for agricultural products is essential for
farmers' livelihoods. However, many Filipino farmers face challenges in accessing markets due to
factors such as limited transportation infrastructure, lack of market information, and dominance of
middlemen and traders who may exploit farmers by offering low prices. Strengthening market
linkages, promoting value-added processing, and supporting farmer cooperatives and collective
marketing initiatives can help improve market access for smallholder farmers.
2. Technology and Innovation: Adoption of modern agricultural technologies and practices can
boost productivity and resilience. Investments in irrigation infrastructure, mechanization, crop
insurance, and climate-smart agriculture can help farmers adapt to changing conditions and
improve yields.

Technology and innovation play a crucial role in improving the productivity, efficiency, and
sustainability of Filipino farmers.

a. Information and Communication Technology (ICT):

1. Mobile phones and internet access can provide farmers with valuable information on
weather forecasts, market prices, agronomic practices, and pest management techniques.

2. Mobile applications and online platforms can facilitate access to agricultural extension
services, e-commerce platforms, and digital payment systems, allowing farmers to
connect with buyers, input suppliers, and service providers more efficiently.
b. Precision Agriculture:

1. Precision agriculture technologies, such as GPS-guided tractors, drones, and satellite imagery,
enable farmers to optimize resource use, minimize input costs, and improve crop yields.

2. Soil sensors and monitoring systems can provide real-time data on soil moisture, nutrient
levels, and pH levels, allowing farmers to make data-driven decisions on irrigation scheduling,
fertilizer application, and soil management practices.

c. Mechanization and Automation

1. Farm machinery and equipment, such as mechanical planters, harvesters, and threshers, can
help reduce labor requirements, increase efficiency, and improve productivity on smallholder
farms.

2. Post-harvest technologies, such as solar dryers, mechanical threshers, and grain storage
facilities, can reduce post-harvest losses and improve the quality and marketability of
agricultural products.
d. Climate-Smart Agriculture:

1. Climate-resilient crop varieties, drought-tolerant seeds, and heat-tolerant livestock breeds

can help farmers adapt to climate change and mitigate the impacts of extreme weather
events.

2. Agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated farming systems can improve soil
health, water management, and biodiversity conservation while enhancing farmers'
resilience to climate variability.

e. Value-Added Processing and Agribusiness:

1. Food processing technologies, such as solar drying, fermentation, and canning, can add
value to agricultural products, extend shelf life, and create new market opportunities for
farmers.

2. Agribusiness models, such as contract farming, farmer cooperatives, and agri-tourism

ventures, can empower farmers to engage in higher-value activities along the agricultural
value chain and capture a greater share of the value-added.
f. Capacity Building and Training:

1. Training programs, workshops, and capacity-building initiatives can enhance farmers' skills
and knowledge in adopting and using new technologies and innovations effectively.

2. Public-private partnerships, academic collaborations, and farmer-led initiatives can provide

access to training, technical assistance, and demonstration plots to promote technology
adoption and innovation diffusion in rural communities.

g. Policy Support and Investment:

1. Government policies, incentives, and investment in research and development (R&D) can
foster an enabling environment for technology and innovation in agriculture.

2. Funding mechanisms, grants, and subsidies for technology adoption, research projects,
and entrepreneurial ventures can stimulate innovation and entrepreneurship in the
agricultural sector.
3. Market linkages: Strengthening market linkages and value chains is essential for farmers to
access markets and receive fair prices for their produce. This may involve improving transportation
and storage facilities, establishing farmer cooperatives or associations, and promoting direct
marketing channels.

Market linkages are essential for Filipino farmers to access broader markets, receive fair
prices for their products, and improve their livelihoods.

a. Establishment of Market Information Systems: Develop market information systems that

provide farmers with timely and accurate information on prices, demand trends, and market
requirements. This information can help farmers make informed decisions about what crops to
grow, when to sell, and where to sell their products.

b. Formation of Farmer Cooperatives and Producer Groups: Encourage the formation of farmer
cooperatives, associations, and producer groups to enable smallholder farmers to collectively
market their products, pool resources, negotiate better prices, and access larger markets.
These organizations can also facilitate collective bargaining, bulk purchasing of inputs, and
value-added processing.
c. Direct Market Linkages: Promote direct market linkages between farmers and buyers, including
supermarkets, restaurants, hotels, food processors, exporters, and e-commerce platforms.
Establishing direct relationships with buyers can help farmers bypass middlemen, reduce
transaction costs, and capture a larger share of the value chain.

d. Development of Agri-Tourism and Farm-to-Table Initiatives: Support agri-tourism initiatives that

allow farmers to diversify their income streams by offering farm tours, agritourism experiences,
and farm-to-table dining options. These initiatives can create opportunities for farmers to sell
value-added products, such as farm-fresh produce, processed foods, and handicrafts, directly to
consumers.

e. Promotion of Contract Farming: Facilitate contract farming arrangements between farmers and
agribusiness companies, food processors, or exporters. Contract farming provides farmers with
assured markets, technical support, and access to credit, while buyers benefit from a secure supply
of quality produce.
f. Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure, including roads, bridges, cold storage
facilities, and market centers, to improve connectivity, reduce transportation costs, and enhance
market access for farmers. Public-private partnerships can be leveraged to develop and maintain
market infrastructure in rural areas.

g. Value-Adding and Product Differentiation: Encourage farmers to add value to their products
through processing, packaging, branding, and labeling. By differentiating their products based on
quality, origin, or unique attributes, farmers can command higher prices in niche markets and
compete more effectively against imported products.

h. Capacity Building and Training: Provide training, technical assistance, and capacity-building
programs to farmers on topics such as post-harvest handling, quality control, food safety
standards, marketing skills, and business management. Empowering farmers with the knowledge
and skills needed to engage effectively in market-oriented agriculture is critical for enhancing
market linkages and competitiveness.
i. Policy Support and Market Access Initiatives: Advocate for supportive policies and initiatives
that promote fair trade, reduce trade barriers, and facilitate market access for Filipino agricultural
products in domestic and international markets. This includes tariff reductions, trade agreements,
export promotion programs, and quality certification schemes.

4. Education and Capacity Building: Training programs and extension services are crucial for
equipping farmers with the knowledge and skills needed to succeed. This includes training in
sustainable farming techniques, financial management, marketing strategies, and climate
adaptation measures.

Education and capacity building are essential for empowering Filipino farmers with the
knowledge, skills, and resources needed to improve their agricultural practices, increase productivity,
and enhance their livelihoods.
a. Agricultural Extension Services: Strengthen agricultural extension services to provide farmers
with technical assistance, training, and information on best practices in crop production, pest
management, soil fertility, water management, and post-harvest handling. Extension workers
can conduct on-farm demonstrations, field schools, and farmer field days to disseminate
practical knowledge and build farmers' skills.

b. Farmers' Field Schools: Establish farmers' field schools (FFS) where farmers learn by doing,
experimenting, and observing in their own fields. FFS provide hands-on training on topics such
as integrated pest management (IPM), organic farming, conservation agriculture, and climate-
smart practices, allowing farmers to apply new techniques and technologies in a supportive
learning environment.

c. Training Workshops and Seminars: Organize training workshops, seminars, and capacity-
building programs for farmers on topics such as crop diversification, value-added processing,
entrepreneurship, marketing skills, financial literacy, and cooperative management. These
programs can be conducted by government agencies, agricultural universities, research
institutions, NGOs, and private sector partners.
d. Digital and ICT-Based Learning: Utilize digital technologies and information communication
technologies (ICTs) to deliver agricultural training and extension services to farmers, even in
remote or hard-to-reach areas. Mobile apps, online courses, video tutorials, and interactive
multimedia platforms can provide farmers with access to timely, relevant, and context-specific
information and training materials.

e. Farmer-to-Farmer Learning Networks: Facilitate farmer-to-farmer learning networks and peer-

to-peer exchanges where experienced farmers share their knowledge, skills, and successful
practices with their peers. Farmer-to-farmer learning can be a powerful tool for promoting
innovation, adoption of new technologies, and social learning within farming communities.

f. Partnerships and Collaborations: Foster partnerships and collaborations among government

agencies, academic institutions, research organizations, NGOs, farmer organizations, and private
sector companies to leverage their expertise, resources, and networks in delivering education and
capacity-building programs for farmers. Multi-stakeholder collaborations can ensure a holistic and
integrated approach to farmer training and development.
g. Gender-Sensitive Approaches: Ensure that education and capacity-building programs for
farmers are gender-sensitive and inclusive, taking into account the specific needs, priorities, and
constraints faced by women farmers. Promote women's participation in agricultural training,
decision-making, and leadership roles to enhance gender equality and women's empowerment in
the agricultural sector.

h. Recognition of Indigenous Knowledge: Recognize and respect indigenous knowledge,

traditional farming practices, and local wisdom that have been passed down through generations.
Incorporate indigenous knowledge systems and practices into formal education and capacity-
building programs, fostering a culture of mutual learning and collaboration between traditional
and scientific knowledge systems.

i. Continuous Learning and Adaptation: Promote a culture of continuous learning, adaptation, and
innovation among farmers, extension workers, and other agricultural stakeholders. Encourage
farmers to experiment with new ideas, technologies, and practices, and provide ongoing support
and mentorship to facilitate their learning journey.
5. Policy Support: Government policies should prioritize the needs of smallholder farmers and
promote inclusive growth in the agricultural sector. This may involve subsidies for inputs, price
support mechanisms, investment in rural infrastructure, and incentives for sustainable farming
practices.

Policy support is crucial for creating an enabling environment that empowers Filipino
farmers, promotes sustainable agriculture, and fosters rural development.

a. Reform and Tenure Security: Implement and enforce comprehensive land reform policies that
address land inequality, provide secure land tenure for farmers, and promote equitable access
to land. Land redistribution, agrarian reform, and land titling programs can empower
smallholder farmers, improve land productivity, and reduce rural poverty.

b. Agricultural Financing and Credit: Develop and implement policies to improve access to
agricultural financing and credit for smallholder farmers, including subsidized credit programs,
microfinance initiatives, and risk-sharing mechanisms. Establish agricultural credit guarantee
schemes, crop insurance programs, and farmer-friendly lending policies to mitigate financial
risks and promote investment in agriculture.
c. Extension Services and Capacity Building: Strengthen agricultural extension services and
capacity-building programs to provide farmers with technical assistance, training, and information
on best practices in crop production, pest management, soil conservation, and post-harvest
handling. Invest in extension workers, farmer training centers, and ICT-based extension platforms
to enhance outreach and effectiveness.

d. Research and Innovation: Support agricultural research, development, and innovation to

improve crop varieties, enhance agricultural productivity, and address emerging challenges such as
climate change, pests, and diseases. Establish partnerships between government agencies,
research institutions, universities, and the private sector to promote technology transfer,
knowledge sharing, and collaborative research.

e. Market Access and Value Chain Development: Promote policies that facilitate market access for
farmers, including infrastructure development, market information systems, and market linkages
initiatives. Strengthen value chains, promote agribusiness development, and support smallholder
farmers to engage in higher-value activities along the agricultural value chain.
f. Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience: Integrate climate change adaptation and resilience-
building measures into agricultural policies and programs to help farmers cope with climate
variability and extreme weather events. Support the adoption of climate-smart agricultural
practices, such as drought-resistant crops, water-saving technologies, agroforestry, and soil
conservation measures.

g. Environmental Sustainability: Promote policies that promote sustainable agriculture,

conservation of natural resources, and biodiversity conservation. Encourage the adoption of
agroecological farming practices, organic farming methods, and integrated pest management
(IPM) approaches to reduce reliance on synthetic inputs and minimize environmental impacts.

h. Social Protection and Welfare: Implement social protection programs, safety nets, and welfare
policies to support vulnerable farmers, including landless farmers, women farmers, indigenous
communities, and smallholder farmers affected by natural disasters or economic shocks. Provide
access to social services, healthcare, education, and social security for rural populations.
i. Governance and Institutional Strengthening: Strengthen governance structures, institutions, and
regulatory frameworks to ensure effective implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of
agricultural policies and programs. Improve coordination and collaboration among government
agencies, local authorities, civil society organizations, and the private sector to promote policy
coherence and synergy.

j. Participatory and Inclusive Decision-Making: Promote participatory and inclusive decision-

making processes that involve farmers, rural communities, indigenous groups, and other
stakeholders in policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. Ensure transparency,
accountability, and responsiveness in governance processes to address the diverse needs and
priorities of agricultural stakeholders.
INSTITUTIONS AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR FILIPINO FARMERS

Support systems and institutions are essential for providing Filipino farmers with the
necessary resources, services, and assistance to improve their livelihoods and agricultural practices.

1. Department of Agriculture (DA):

• DA is the primary government agency responsible for formulating and implementing policies,
programs, and projects to promote agricultural development, rural productivity, and food
security in the Philippines.

• DA provides various services and support to farmers, including agricultural extension services,
research and development, marketing assistance, credit programs, and irrigation infrastructure
development.
2. Agricultural Training Institute (ATI)

• ATI is a specialized agency under the DA that provides training, capacity-building programs, and
extension services to farmers, agricultural extension workers, rural youth, and other
stakeholders.

• ATI conducts training courses, workshops, and demonstrations on various topics such as crop
production, livestock management, agribusiness, and sustainable farming practices.

3. Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation (PCIC)

• PCIC is a government-owned and controlled corporation that offers crop insurance programs to
protect farmers against losses due to natural calamities, pests, diseases, and other risks.

• Crop insurance provides farmers with financial security and risk mitigation, enabling them to
recover from crop failures and adverse events.
4. Land Bank of the Philippines (LandBank)

• LandBank is a government financial institution that provides agricultural credit and financing
services to farmers, fishers, and agricultural enterprises.

• LandBank offers a range of loan products, including production loans, credit facilities for
agribusiness ventures, and rural infrastructure financing, to support the development of the
agricultural sector.

5. Cooperative Development Authority (CDA)

• CDA is the government agency responsible for promoting and regulating cooperatives in the
Philippines.

• Cooperatives play a crucial role in empowering farmers, providing access to credit, inputs,
marketing services, and other support services, and promoting collective action and self-
reliance among farming communities.
6. Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice)

• PhilRice is a government research institute that conducts research and development activities to
improve rice production, develop high-yielding and resilient rice varieties, and promote sustainable
rice farming practices.

• PhilRice provides technical assistance, training, and extension services to rice farmers and
stakeholders.

7. Philippine Center for Postharvest Development and Mechanization (PhilMech)

• PhilMech is a government agency that focuses on post-harvest research, development, and

mechanization to reduce post-harvest losses, improve food quality and safety, and enhance the
efficiency of agricultural value chains.

• PhilMech develops and disseminates post-harvest technologies, equipment, and infrastructure to

support farmers and agribusinesses.
8. Local Government Units (LGUs)

• LGUs play a critical role in delivering agricultural services and support at the local level.

• Provincial, municipal, and barangay agricultural offices provide extension services, technical
assistance, and support programs tailored to the specific needs and priorities of farming
communities in their respective areas.

9. Non-Government organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)

• NGOs and CSOs play a complementary role in supporting Filipino farmers through various
initiatives, including community-based development projects, farmer cooperatives, advocacy
campaigns, and capacity-building programs.

• They provide additional resources, expertise, and grassroots support to complement

government efforts in empowering farmers and promoting sustainable agriculture.
10. Academic and Research Institutions

• Universities, colleges, and research institutions contribute to agricultural development through

research, technology transfer, and training programs.

• Academic institutions collaborate with government agencies, NGOs, and the private sector to
conduct research on agricultural issues, develop innovative solutions, and build the capacity of
farmers and agricultural professionals.
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