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 The smaller units from which larger
molecules are made

Monomer

Molecules made from a large

number of monomers joined

Polymer together

The monomers from which larger

carbohydrates are made

Monosaccharide
e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose

Formed by the condensation of two

monosaccharides
held together by a glycosidic bond

Disaccharide
e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose
 Formed by the condensation of
many glucose units
held by glycosidic bonds

Polysaccharide
e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose

Polysaccharide in plant cell walls

formed by the condensation of
β-glucose

Cellulose

Polysaccharide in animals
formed by the condensation of
α-glucose

Glycogen

Polysaccharide in plants
formed by the condensation of
α-glucose
contains two polymers - amylose

Starch and amylopectin

 C–O–C link

Glycosidic bond between two sugar molecules

formed by a condensation reaction
it is a covalent bond

Polysaccharide in starch
made of α-glucose
joined by 1,4-glycosidic bonds

Amylose coils to form a helix

Polysaccharide in starch
made of α-glucose
joined by 1,4 and 1,6-glycosidic

Amylopectin
bonds
branched structure

A reaction that joins two molecules

together
Condensation with the formation of a chemical
bond

reaction involves the elimination of a

molecule of water
 A reaction that breaks a chemical

Hydrolysis bond
between two molecules
involves the use of a water molecule
reaction

Long, straight chains of β-glucose

glucose
held together by many hydrogen

Fibrils bonds

Formed by the condensation of one

molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids
Triglyceride forming 3 ester bonds

Formed by the condensation of one

molecule of glycerol and two
molecules of fatty acid
held by two ester bonds

Phospholipid a phosphate group is attached to

the glycerol
 The enzyme active site is not
initially complementary to the
Induced-fit substrate
the active site moulds around the

model substrate
this puts tension on bonds
lowers the activation energy

A molecule that is the same/similar

shape as the substrate
binds to the active site
Competitive prevents enzyme-substrate
complexes from forming

inhibitor

A molecule that binds to an enzyme

at the allosteric site
causing the active site to change

Non-competitive shape
preventing enzyme-substrate
complexes from forming
inhibitor

The sequence of amino acids on a

Primary
polypeptide chain

structure
 The folding or coiling
to create a β pleated sheet or an
α helix

Secondary held in place by hydrogen bonds

structure

The further folding

to create a unique 3D shape
held in place by hydrogen, ionic and
Tertiary sometimes disulfide bonds

structure

More than one polypeptide chain in

a protein

Quaternary
structure

Covalent bond joining amino acids

together in proteins

Peptide bond
C–N link between two amino acid
molecules
formed by a condensation reaction
 At low temperatures, there is not
enough kinetic energy for
What is the effect of successful collisions between the
temperature on enzyme- enzyme and substrate.
At too high a temperature,
controlled reaction enzymes denature, the active site
changes shape and enzyme-
substrate complexes cannot form.

Too high or too low a pH will

interfere with the charges in the
amino acids in the active site.
What is the effect of pH This breaks the ionic and hydrogen
bonds holding the tertiary
on enzyme-controlled structure in place
reaction therefore the active site changes
shape and the enzyme denatures
Different enzymes have a different
optimal pH

What is the effect of At low substrate concentrations,

there will be fewer collisions
substrate concentration between the enzyme and substrate.

on enzyme-controlled At high substrate concentrations,

the rate plateaus
reaction because all the enzyme active sites
are saturated

At low enzyme concentrations,

What is the effect of there will be fewer collisions
between the enzyme and substrate.
enzyme concentration At high enzyme concentrations, the
rate plateaus
on enzyme-controlled because there are more enzymes
reaction than the substrate, so many empty
active sites.
 –COO– chemical bond
formed between glycerol and fatty
Ester bond acids

The ability to mix, interact or

Hydrophilic attract water

Hydrophobic
The tendency to repel and not mix
with water

Monosaccharide that exists as two

isomers
β glucose and α glucose

Glucose
α glucose β glucose
 An example of a monosaccharide
Galactose that forms lactose

An example of a monosaccharide
Fructose that forms sucrose

Molecules with the same molecular

Isomer formula
but the atoms are arranged
differently

Disaccharide
formed by the condensation
of two glucose molecules

Maltose
 Disaccharide
formed by the condensation

Lactose of a glucose molecule and a

galactose molecule

Disaccharide
formed by the condensation

Sucrose of a glucose molecule and a

fructose molecule

Polymer chain of a protein

made up of amino acids
bonded together by peptide bonds

Polypeptide following condensation reactions

The monomer of a protein

formed from C,H,O,N
contains a carboxyl group, amine
group and an R group

Amino acid
 COOH group
made up of a C with hydroxyl (OH)
and carbonyl (double-bonded O)
group bonded to it

Carboxyl group found in amino acids and fatty

acids

NH group found on amino acids

2

Amine group

R group on The variable group

the part of each of the 20 amino

amino acids acids that is different

A secondary structure in proteins

a coiled shape held in place by

α helix
hydrogen bonds
 A secondary structure in proteins
a folded, pleated shape
held in place by hydrogen bonds
β pleated sheet

Weak bond

Hydrogen bonds
forms between H and O
in many biological molecules e.g.
proteins, water, DNA, tRNA

A bond that forms between the R

Ionic bonds groups of different amino acids

in the tertiary structure of proteins

A strong covalent bond

Disulfide bonds
between two sulfur atoms in the R
groups of different amino acids
in the tertiary structure of proteins
 Unique-shaped part of an enzyme
that the substrate binds to

Active site

Activation The minimum amount of energy

required for a reaction to occur

energy

forms when an enzyme and

substrate collide and bind

Enzyme-substrate resulting in a lowered activation

energy

complex

When the active site changes shape

Denature so the substrate can no longer bind

 The structure that forms when an
Enzyme-inhibitor enzyme and inhibitor collide and
bind
complex prevents enzyme-substrate
complexes from forming

A long hydrocarbon chain with a

Saturated carboxyl group at one end

only single bonds between carbon
atoms

fatty acid

A long hydrocarbon chain with a

carboxyl group at one end
Unsaturated at least one double bond between
carbon atoms

fatty acid

Polar molecule A molecule that has an uneven

distribution of charge
 Phospholipids have two charged
regions

Phospholipid
in water, they are positioned so
that the heads are exposed to
water and the tails are not

bilayer

Phospholipid bilayer
Plasma cell surface membranes and
organelle membranes

membrane

sugars that can reduce Cu2+ions in

Reducing sugar Benedict’s reagent to Cu+ ions in the

form of copper (I) oxide
which forms a brick-red precipitate

Add Benedict's reagent

heat

Test for
observe green/yellow/orange/brick
red precipitate

reducing sugar
 large ratio of energy-storing
carbon-hydrogen bonds compared
to the number of carbon atoms; a
How does the structure lot of energy is stored in the
of a triglyceride relate molecule
high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
to it's function? atoms they act as a metabolic
water source
do not affect water potentials and
osmosis
have a relatively low mass

Phospholipids have two charged

How does the structure of regions, so they are polar
a phospholipid relate to In water, they are positioned so
that the heads are exposed to
it's function? water and the tails are not.
This forms a phospholipid bilayer
which makes up the plasma
membrane around cells.

How does the

structure of a A phospholipid has one fewer
2+
fatty
+
acid chain
triglyceride and which is replaced by a phosphate
group
phospholipid differ?

A saturated fatty acid has no

What is the difference double bonds between carbon
atoms
between saturated and where as unsaturated fatty acids
had at least one double bond
unsaturated fatty between carbon atoms
acid?
 a sugar unable to reduce Cu2+

Non-reducing the glycosidic bond must be

hydrolysed to expose the reducing
group

sugar e.g. sucrose

Following a negative Benedict's test

boil sample in acid and then
neutralise with alkaline
Test for non- add Benedict's reagent and heat
observe orange/brick red colour

reducing sugar

Add iodine

Test for starch turns blue/black

Add ethanol and shake

to dissolve
then add water
Test for lipids white emulsion forms
 Add biuret

Test for protein

turns purple

The monomer of DNA and RNA

contains a pentose sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous
base

Nucleotide

Nitrogenous
Part of a nucleotide
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
and uracil

base

The monomer of DNA

contains a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous
base

DNA nucleotide

Deoxyribose
 DNA polymer
many nucleotides
joined together via

Polynucleotide
a condensation
reaction
joined by
phosphodiester
bonds

Phosphodiester
Bond joining two nucleotides
together
forms between a phosphate group

bond and the pentose sugar

The base pairs that align opposite

each other and form hydrogen

Complementary bonds
adenine and thymine/uracil
guanine and cytosine
base pairs

Ribose pentose sugar

found in RNA nucleotide and ATP
 Nitrogenous base
Uracil found in RNA instead of thymine

a copy of a gene
single-strand polymer of RNA

mRNA

found only in the cytoplasm

single-stranded but folded to
create a shape that looks like a
cloverleaf

tRNA held in place by hydrogen bonds

rRNA combines with protein to

rRNA make ribosomes
 A DNA strand that is used to make a
DNA template new DNA copy from
both DNA strands in the double

strand helix are used as templates in DNA

replication

DNA polymerase An enzyme in DNA replication

joins together adjacent nucleotides

DNA replication is semi-

Semi-conservative conservative replication
one strand is from the parental

replication DNA and one strand is newly

synthesised

Enzyme that breaks hydrogen

bonds between the two chains of
DNA in a double helix
DNA helicase causes the two strands to separate
involved in DNA replication and
transcription
 a lot of energy is required to convert
water from its liquid state to a

Large latent heat gaseous state

this is due to the hydrogen bonds,

of vaporisation as energy is needed to break these

to turn it into a gas
means water can provide a cooling
effect

a lot of energy is required to raise

High specific the temperature of the water
because some of the heat energy is

heat capacity used to break the hydrogen bonds

between water molecules
important so water can act as a
temperature buffer

Water is involved in many reactions

Metabolite such as photosynthesis, hydrolysis,

and condensation reactions

Water is a good solvent

meaning many substances dissolve
in it
Solvent polar (charged) molecules dissolve
readily in water due to the fact
water is polar
 water molecules ‘stick’ together
due to hydrogen bonds
Strong results in water moving up the
xylem as a continuous column of

cohesion water
provides surface tension, creating
a habitat on the surface of the
water for small invertebrates

Enzyme that catalyses the

ATP synthase synthesis of ATP from ADP + Pi

ATP hydrolase Enzyme that catalyses the

hydrolysis of ATP into ADP +Pi

The addition of a phosphate group

Phosphorylation to a molecule
making the molecule more
reactive/it gains energy
 Water is a polar molecule
the oxygen atom is slightly
negative

Structure of the hydrogen atoms are slightly

positive

water

Two amino acids bonded together

by a peptide bond
Dipeptide formed by a condensation reaction

monomer of RNA
composed of a phosphate group,
ribose and a nitrogenous base

RNA nucleotide has the base uracil instead of

thymine

Ribose

determine the pH
Role of the more hydrogen ions, the more
acidic the conditions are

hydrogen ions an important role in chemiosmosis

in respiration and photosynthesis
 Role of a compound of haemoglobin
involved in oxygen transport
iron ions

involved in co-transport for

Role of sodium ions absorption of glucose and amino
acids in the ileum
in co-transport

as a component of DNA, RNA and

Role of ATP
phosphodiester bond in DNA and
RNA forms between the phosphate
phosphate ions group and the pentose sugar

carboxyl group and a long

hydrocarbon chain
Fatty acid can be saturated or unsaturated

structure