Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 1

ARML: Polynomials

Authors
Justin Stevens
 1

Polynomials

1.1 Lecture
A polynomial P (x) is defined as being of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + ai xi + a1 x + a0 for 0 ≤ i ≤ n

We define the degree of a polynomial to be the highest degree of the

polynomial. In the above form, degP = n.

Example√1.1.1. P (x) = x2 + 5x + 9 is a polynomial

√ as is P (x) =
3 2 1 1
π × x + 3 × x + 9 , while P (x) = x+2 and P (x) = x are both not
polynomials.

Polynomials can similarly be defined in terms of their roots. Let r1 be a

root of P (x) and we get

P (x) = (x − r1 )P1 (x) for degP = n − 1

Now,
P1 (x) = (x − r2 )P2 (x) for degP = n − 2
and repeating this process we arrive at

P (x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r3 ) · · · (x − rn )

2
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 3

Example 1.1.2 (Canada). For real a, the polynomials 1988x2 + ax +

8891 = 0 and 8891x2 + ax + 1988 = 0 share a common root. Find all
possible values of a.

Solution. Subtract the two equations results in

(8891 − 1988)x2 + (1998 − 8891) = 0 =⇒ x2 − 1 = 0

Therefore, x = ±1. If x = 1, we get a = −10879, which results in both

polynomials having the common root of x = 1. If x = −1, we get a = 10879,
which results in both polynomials having the common root of x = −1.
The answer is therefore a = ±10879.

Example 1.1.3 (ARML). If P (x) is a polynomial in x, and x23 +23x17 −

18x16 − 24x15 + 108x14 = (x4 − 3x2 − 2x + 9) × P (x) for all values of x,
compute the sum of the coefficients of P (x).

Solution. The sum of the coefficients of P (x) is the same as P (1). Now just
plug x = 1 into the above equation.
For a quadratic of the form P (x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and roots r1 , r2 , you
are likely aware of the relations r1 + r2 = −a a2
1
and r1 r2 = aa02 . We will now
attempt to derive similar relations for a cubic.
For P (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , we can also express P (x) in terms of
its roots as P (x) = a3 (x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r3 ). Expanding this we get

P (x) = a3 (x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r3 ) = a3 x3 − x2 (r1 + r2 + r3 ) + x (r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 ) − r1 r2 r3

= a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

Setting the coefficients equal, we arrive at:


a2
r1 + r2 + r3 = − a3

a1
r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 = a3
r1 r2 r3 = −a

 0
a3
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 4

Example 1.1.4. Find the sum and the product of all the roots of x3 +
2x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.

Solution. By the above relations, r1 + r2 + r3 = − 21 and r1 r2 r3 = − 19 =

−9.

Example 1.1.5. Suppose 5x3 + 4x2 − 8x + 6 = 0 has three real roots

a, b, and c. Find the value of a(1 + b + c) + b(1 + a + c) + c(1 + a + b).

Example 1.1.6. Find all ordered pairs (x, y, z) that satisfy

x + y + z = 17,
xy + xz + yz = 94,
xyz = 168

Solution. Set up the polynomial f (a) = a3 − 17a2 + 94a − 168 with roots
x, y, z

Problem 1.1.1 (A bit harder than the previous one). Find all ordered pairs
(x, y, z) that satisfy

x+y−z = 0
zx − xy + yz = 27
xyz = 54

Before we delve into Vieta’s formula, we need some notation.

X
σk = ra1 ra2 · · · rak
1≤a1 ≤a2 ≤···≤ak ≤n

This notation may look incredibly intimidating, but I promise it is a lot

easier than it looks. All it really is saying is that you are summing the
product of k different numbers.
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 5

Example 1.1.7. For n = 3, all possible products of 2 numbers are σ2 =

r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 . All possible products of 1 number is σ1 = r1 + r2 + r3
and all possible products of 3 numbers are σ3 = r1 r2 r3 . Therefore, we
can rewrite the above cubic relations as
−a0 −a2 a1
σ3 = , σ2 = , σ1 =
a3 a3 a3

Theorem 1.1.1 (Vieta’s). For a polynomial P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +

an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 and roots r1 , r2 , · · · , rn , we have
an−k
σk = (−1)k ×
an

For example, for n = 4, we have

a0
σ4 = r1 r2 r3 r4 =
a4
−a1
σ3 = r1 r2 r3 + r1 r2 r4 + r1 r3 r4 + r2 r3 r4 =
a4
a2
σ2 = r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r1 r4 + r2 r3 + r2 r4 + r3 r4 =
a4
−a3
σ1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 =
a4

Example 1.1.8. Find the product of the roots of 50x50 +49x49 +· · ·+1 =
0.

1
Solution. The product is σ50 = (−1)50 a0
a50
= .
50

Example 1.1.9. Three of the roots of x4 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 are 2, −3, 5.

Find the values of a + b + c.
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 6

Solution. By Vieta’s, σ1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 = −a
a4
3
, but a3 = 0 since there is
3
no x term, therefore r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 = 0. We are given the roots 2, −3, 5,
therefore the fourth root must be −4. This gives

x4 + ax2 + bx + c = (x − 2)(x − (−3))(x − (−4))(x − 5)

Now set x = 1 in the above equation.

Example 1.1.10. Let p(x) = x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 19 have roots a, b, and

1
c. Find the value of ab + bc1 + ac
1
.

1 1 1 5
Solution. ab
+ bc
+ ac
= 19

Example 1.1.11. Find (2 + r)(2 + s)(2 + t)(2 + u) if r, s, t, and u are

the roots of f (x) = 3x4 − x3 + 2x2 + 7x + 2.

f (−2)
Solution. f (x) = 3(x − r)(x − s)(x − t)(x − u) The desired value is 3
=
2
3

Example 1.1.12. Find the two values of k for which 2x3 −9x2 +12x−k
has a double root.

Solution. Set the roots to be a, a, and b. Then 2a + b = 29 and a2 + 2ab =

12
2
= 6. Solving this system gives a = 1, 2 which results in k = 4, 5. Checking
gives 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 5 = (x − 1)2 (2x − 5) and 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 4 =
(x − 2)2 (2x − 1).

Example 1.1.13. Suppose the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 4x − 11 = 0 are a, b,

and c and the roots of x3 + rx2 + sx + t = 0 are a + b, b + c, a + c. (i)
Find r. (ii) Find t.
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 7

Solution. (i) Using Vieta’s,

r = − [(a + b) + (b + c) + (a + c)] = −2 (a + b + c)

Also, a + b + c = −3, therefore r = −2 (−3) = 6.

(ii) Using Vieta’s,

t = − (a + b) (b + c) (a + c)

Now, also by Vieta’s, we have a + b + c = −3. Therefore

t = −(−3 − c)(−3 − a)(−3 − b)

Next, factor x3 + 3x2 + 4x − 11 = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c). Substituting

x = −3 into the above equation results in (−3)3 + 3 (−3)2 + 4 (−3) − 11 =
(−3 − a)(−3 − b)(−3 − c) or therefore (−3 − a)(−3 − b)(−3 − c) = −23. To
finish, we get t = −(3 − c)(3 − a)(3 − b) = 23.

Example 1.1.14. Let r1 , r2 , r3 be the roots of the polynomial 5x3 −

11x2 + 7x + 3. Evaluate r13 + r23 + r33 .

Solution. Use

r13 + r23 + r33 − 3r1 r2 r3 = (r1 + r2 + r3 ) r12 + r22 + r32 − (r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 )

 

Example 1.1.15 (Transformations). Given the polynomial p(x) = an xn +

an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 with roots r1 , r2 , · · · , rn . (i) Find the poly-
nomial with roots r11 , r12 , · · · , r1n . (ii) Find the polynomial with roots
mr1 , mr2 , · · · , mrn . (iii) Find the polynomial with roots r1 + 1, r2 +
1, · · · , rn + 1.

Example 1.1.16. Consider the polynomial f (x) = x3 −9x2 +8x−17 = 0

1 1 1
with roots a, b, c. Compute a+3 + b+3 + c+3 .
Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 8

1.2 Problem Solving Time!

Problem 1.2.1. Let r1 , r2 , and r3 be the three roots of the cubic x3 + 3x2 +
4x − 4. Find the value of r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 .
Problem 1.2.2. Suppose the polynomial 5x3 + 4x2 − 8x + 6 has three real
roots a, b, and c. Find the value of a(1 + b + c) + b(1 + a + c) + c(1 + a + b).
Problem 1.2.3. Let m and n be the roots of the quadratic equation 4x2 +
5x + 3 = 0. Find (m + 7)(n + 7).
Problem 1.2.4. What is the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the
2003
equation 2004 x + 1 + x1 = 0?
Problem 1.2.5. The equation x3 − 4x2 + 5x − 1.9 = 0 has real roots r, s,
and t. Find the length of an interior diagonal of a box with sides r, s, and t.
Problem 1.2.6. Determine (r + s)(s + t)(t + r) if r, s, and t are the three
real roots of the polynomial x3 + 9x2 − 9x − 8.
Problem 1.2.7. Determine all real numbers a such that the two polynomials
x2 + ax + 1 and x2 + x + a have at least one root in common.
Problem 1.2.8. Let p, q, and r be the distinct roots of x3 − x2 + x − 2 = 0.
Find p3 + q 3 + r3 .

2001
Problem 1.2.9. Find the sum of the roots of x2001 + 12 − x = 0.
Problem 1.2.10. Let P (x) be a quadratic polynomial with real coefficients
satisfying x2 − 2x + 2 ≤ P (x) ≤ 2x2 − 4x + 3 for all real numbers x, and
suppose P (11) = 181. Find P (16).
Problem 1.2.11. For certain real values of a, b, c, and d, the equation x4 +
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 has four nonreal roots. The product of two of these
roots is 13 + i and the sum of the other two roots is 3 + 4i. Find b.
Problem 1.2.12. ζ1 , ζ2 , and ζ3 are complex numbers such that

ζ1 + ζ2 + ζ3 = 1
ζ12 + ζ22 + ζ32 = 3
ζ13 + ζ23 + ζ33 = 7

Compute ζ17 + ζ27 + ζ37 .

Polynomials Justin Stevens Page 9

Problem 1.2.13. Let P be the product of the nonreal roots of x4 − 4x3 +

6x2 − 4x = 2005. Find bP c.

Problem 1.2.14. The equation 2333x−2 + 2111x+2 = 2222x+1 + 1 has three

real roots. Given that their sum is m
n
where m and n are relatively prime
positive integers, find m + n.

Problem 1.2.15. For how many real numbers a does the quadratic equation
x2 + ax + 6a = 0 have only integer roots for x?

Problem 1.2.16. In the polynomial x4 − 18x3 + kx2 + 200x − 1984 = 0, the

product of 2 of its roots is −32. Find k.

Problem 1.2.17. Consider the polynomials P (x) = x6 − x5 − x3 − x2 − x

and Q(x) = x4 − x3 − x2 − 1. Given that z1 , z2 , z3 , and z4 are the roots of
Q(x) = 0, find P (z1 ) + P (z2 ) + P (z3 ) + P (z4 ).
1+a
Problem 1.2.18. If α, β, γ are the roots of x3 − x − 1 = 0, compute 1−a
+
1+b
1−b
+ 1+γ
1−γ

Problem 1.2.19. Let α1 and α2 be the roots of the quadratic x2 −5x−2 = 0,

and let β1 , β2 , and β3 be the roots of the cubic x3 − 3x − 1 = 0. Compute
(α1 + β1 )(α1 + β2 )(α1 + β3 )(α2 + β1 )(α2 + β2 )(α2 + β3 ).