Heart Cancer Prediction using Machine Learning

A Major Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of the Degree
of Bachelor of Technology in Information Technology
To
Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
LUCKNOW
Submitted by:
Ved Prakash Srivastava(1900100130106)
Saurabh Mishra (1900100130081)
Mohd Shazan (1900100130060)
Shivam Malaviya(1900100130086)
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
Mr. Vivek Pandey
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UNITED COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH,
PRAYAGRAJ
MAY 2023

/ INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

CANDIDATE DECLARATION
We, hereby certify that the project entitled “Prediction Of Heart Cancer By Using
Machine Learning” submitted by us in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of degree of the B. Tech. (Information Technology) submitted to Dr. A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow at United College of Engineering and
Research, Prayagraj is an authentic record of our own work carried out during a
period from June, 2022 to May, 2023 under the guidance of Assistant Prof. Vivek
Pandey, Department of Computer Science & Engineering). The matter presented in
this project has not formed the basis for the award of any other degree, diploma,
fellowship or any other similar titles.
Signature of the Student
(Ved Prakash Srivastava, Roll No; 1900100130106)
Signature of the Student
(Saurabh Mishra, Roll No; 1900100130081)
Signature of the Student
(Mohd. Shazan, Roll No; 1900100130060)
Signature of the Student
(Shivam Malaviya, Roll No; 1900100130086)
Place:Prayagraj
Date:

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled “Prediction Of Heart Cancer By Using
Machine Learning” is the bonafide work carried out by Ved Prakash Srivastava
(1900100130106), Saurabh Mishra (1900100130081), Mohd. Shazan
(1900100130060) and (Shivam Malaviya, Roll No; 1900100130086) in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of the B. Tech. (Information
Technology) submitted to Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow at
United College of Engineering and Research, Prayagraj is an authentic record of their
own work carried out during a period from June, 2022 to May, 2023 under the
guidance of Assistant Prof. Vivek Pandey, Department of Computer Science &
Engineering). The Major Project Viva-Voce Examination has been held on
__________________.
Signature of the Guide _________________________________
[Mr. Vivek Pandey]
Signature of Project Coordinator ________________________
[Mr. Shyam Bahadur Verma]
Signature of the Head of Department _____________________
[Dr. Vijay Kumar Dwivedi]
Place:
Date:
ABSTRACT
The Heart are the centre of breath control and ensure that every cell in the body
receives oxygen. At the same time, they filter the air to prevent the entry of useless
substances and germs into the body. The human body has specially designed defence
mechanisms that protect the Heart. However, they are not enough to completely
eliminate the risk of various diseases that affect the Heart. Infections, inflammation or
even more serious complications, such as the growth of a cancerous tumour, can
affect the Heart. Heart cancer generally occurs in both male and female due to
uncontrollable growth of cells in the Heart. This causes a serious breathing problem in
both inhale and exhale part of chest. Cigarette smoking and passive smoking are the
principal contributor for the cause of Heart cancer as per world health organization.
The mortality rate due to Heart cancer is increasing day by day in youths as well as in
old persons as compared to other cancers. Even though the availability of high-tech
medical facility for careful diagnosis and effective medical treatment, the mortality
rate is not yet controlled up to a good extent. Therefore, it is highly necessary to take
early precautions at the initial stage such that it’s symptoms and effect can be found at
early stage for better diagnosis. Machine learning now days has a great influence to
health care sector because of its high computational capability for early prediction of
the diseases with accurate data analysis. The Heart are the centre of breath control and
ensure that every cell in the body receives oxygen. At the same time, they filter the air
to prevent the entry of useless substances and germs into the body. The human body
has specially designed defence mechanisms that protect the Heart. However, they are
not enough to completely eliminate the risk of various diseases that affect the Heart.
Infections, inflammation or even more serious complications, such as the growth of a
cancerous tumour, can affect the Heart. In this work, we used machine learning (ML)
methods to build efficient models for identifying high-risk individuals for incurring
Heart cancer and, thus, making earlier interventions to avoid long-term complications.
The suggestion of this article is the Rotation Forest that achieves high performance
and is evaluated by well-known metrics, such as precision, recall, F-Measure,
accuracy and area under the curve (AUC). More specifically, the evaluation of the
experiments showed that the proposed model prevailed with an AUC of 99.3%,
F-Measure, precision, recall and accuracy of 97.1%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our sincere gratitude to the Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Lucknow for giving us the opportunity to work on the Major Project during our final
year of B.Tech. (IT) is an important aspect in the field of engineering. We would like
to thank Dr. H.P. Shukla, Principal and Dr. Vijay Kumar Dwivedi, Head of
Department, CSE at United College of Engineering and Research, Prayagraj for their
kind support. We also owe our sincerest gratitude towards Assistant Prof. (Mr. Vivek
Pandey) for his valuable advice and healthy criticism throughout our project which
helped us immensely to complete our work successfully. We would also like to thank
everyone who has knowingly and unknowingly helped us throughout our work. Last
but not the least, a word of thanks for the authors of all those books and papers which
we have consulted during our project work as well as for preparing the report.
List of Figure
Figure 1. CT Scan image for Heart Cancer 2
Figure 2. Distribution of participants among the age groups in the balanced data 24
Figure 3. Models Evaluation Based on AUC ROC Curves 24
List of Table
Table 1: Various Methodologies are Analysed for Cancer Prediction 13-14
Table 2. The order of features in the balanced data 19
Table 3. The breakdown of participants in the balanced data by feature 21
Table 4. Machine learning models’ settings 23
Table 5. Evaluation of performance 24
Table 6. Models’ comparison in terms of accuracy, recall and precision 24

Table of Contents
Title Page i
Declaration of the Student ii
Certificate iii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgement v
List of Figure vi
List of Table vi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Types of Heart Cancer 2
1.1.1 Heart Nodules 2
1.1.2 Heart Cancer without small cell 2
1.1.3 Tiny Cell Heart Cancer 3
1.1.4 Mesothelioma 3
1.1.5 Breast Cancers 3
1.1.5.1 Chest Wall Tumour Types 4
1.1.6 Metastasized Cancer 4
1.2 Risk Factors for Heart Cancer? 4
1.2.1 Smoulder 4
1.2.2 Smoke inhalation 5
1.2.3 Radon 5
1.2.4 Various Substances 5
1.3 Radiation Therapy to the Chest 6
Heart cancer risk is increased for cancer patients who underwent chest radiation
therapy. 6
1.3.1 Diet 6
1.4 Symptoms of Heart Cancer? 6
7
1.5 What are the first signs of Heart cancer? 7
1.6 Heart cancer staging 7
1.7 Limited vs. extensive stage 7
1.8 What tests are done to identify Heart cancer? 8
1.8.1 Blood tests 8
1.8.2 Imaging 8
1.8.3 Biopsy 8
1.9 Types of Treatment for Heart Cancer 8
1.10 Side effects of the treatment 9
2. Literature Survey 11
2.1 Existing System 11
2.2 ANALYSIS 13
2.3 Our Proposed System 15
2.3.1 Support Vector Machine 15
2.3.2 Random Forest Classifier 15
2.3.3 K-Nearest Neighbours Algorithm 16
2.3.4 Introduction to Django Framework 17-28
2.3.5 Conclusion 29
3. System Analysis & Design 30
3.1 Dataset Description 31
3.2 Data Pre-processing 32
3.3 Training and Testing Samples 32
3.4 Features Analysis 32
3.4 Machine Learning Models 33
3.5 Evaluation Metrics 34
4. Results and Discussion 36
4.1 Experiments Setup 36
8
4.2 Evaluation 36
4.3 Discussion 37
5. Conclusions 40
Future Work 41
References 46
9

1. INTRODUCTION
When bodily cells proliferate unchecked, a condition named as cancer outcomes.
When cancer develops in the Heart, it is referred to as Heart cancer. Other bodily parts,
such as lymph nodes, organs including the brain, the Heart can also be the site of the
start of Heart cancer. Heart cancer has the potential to spreading out to further organs.
The term "cancer cells" refers to cells which have spread from one organ to another.
The two main groups into which they are commonly separated are tiny cell and
non-tiny cell Heart malignancies, which include adenocarcinoma and squamous cell
carcinoma. These numerous types of Heart cancer have distinctive patterns of
development and therapeutic responses [1]. While small cell Heart cancer is more
common, non-small cell Heart cancer is more common. Heart cancer, which is also the
worst disease, is thought to be the main factor in high mortality in the modern world.
Compared to other cancers, Heart cancer has a greater impact on people, and as
expected, it currently occupies position seven in the fatality rate index, contributing
1.6% of world death [2]. The brain is affected by Heart cancer after it has spread to the
Heart. There are two primary classifications of Heart cancer. The two forms of Heart
cancer are tiny cell and non-tiny cell. Acute chest hurt, a dry wheeze, shortness of
inhalation, body weight loss, and other symptoms are possible in patients [3]. Doctors
who study the causes and progression of cancer emphasise the role of smoking and
passive Heart cancer is primarily caused by smoking. Heart cancer is treated with
abscission, chemo, diffraction, immune remedy, and other procedures. Despite this,
doctors can only diagnose Heart cancer once it has advanced, making the diagnosis
relatively weak [4]. To quickly and effectively lower the mortality rate with effective
control, early prediction prior to the last phase is essential. Even with the right
treatment and diagnosis, the prediction for Heart cancer is quite encouraging[5]. The
prognosis for Heart cancer varies depending on the patient's age and gender, and race
are all factors, as well as health status. The American Cancer Society calculates that a
patient's likelihood of surviving Heart cancer is 47% if it is identified at a young stage.
It is extremely improbable that Heart cancer in its early stages will be accidently
discovered on an X-ray image [6]. Lesions with a diameter of 510 millimetres or less

that are spherical are notoriously difficult to find. Figure 1 displays a CT scan of a
patient with Heart cancer.
Figure 1. CT Scan image for Heart Cancer
1.1 Types of Heart Cancer
The Heart own tissue is where the majority of Heart cancers are most frequently found.
The chest wall and Heart may also be affected by other, more uncommon kinds of
cancer [7].
1.1.1 Heart Nodules
A Heart nodule is microscopic substance growths. They could be metastatic tumours
that have spread from several body regions, benign, precancerous, or both [8]. In
general, a bigger nodule has a greater likelihood of having cancer than a smaller one.
A patient is treated when examined for inconsistent symptoms like an accident or
abdominal pain, Heart nodules are frequently discovered [9].
1.1.2 Heart Cancer without small cell
A majority typical among Heart cancers, non-tiny cell Heart cancer is one. More slowly
compared to Heart cancer with tiny cells, it grows and spreads. According to the kind
of cells that make up the tumour, in total, three basic category of Heart Cancer without
tiny cell:
11
● The form of non-tiny cell Heart cancer is the most familliar type that occurs
most frequently. It grows and spreads slower than Heart cancer with tiny cells
[10]. Heart cancer that is not tiny cell can be classified three primary categories
based on the type of cells that comprise tumour.
● Giant, abnormal-looking cells are present in a variety of malignancies known
as giant cell carcinomas [11]. These tumours frequently advance swiftly and
can start anywhere in the Heart.
● Epidermoid carcinoma is another name for squamous cell cancer. It frequently
starts in the bronchi close to the centre of the Heart [12].
1.1.3 Tiny Cell Heart Cancer
Smoking causes tiny cell Heart cancer in almost all situations. In contrast to other
forms of Heart cancer, it spreads swiftly and grows quickly. The two forms of small
cell Heart carcinoma are as follows [13]:
● Tiny cell carcinoma (oat cell cancer, which accounts for the majority of tiny
cell Heart malignancies);
● Tiny cell carcinoma combined
1.1.4 Mesothelioma
The most frequent source of the uncommon cancer of the lining of the chest,
mesothelioma, is asbestos exposure. It is the root due to around 5% of Heart cancer
cases. It takes between 30 and 50 years between being exposed to asbestos and getting
the disease for mesothelioma to appear [14]. The majority of those who get
mesothelioma worked in environments where asbestos fibres were breathed. When
mesothelioma is found, it is staged, which tells the patient and the treating doctor how
big the tumour is and where it has spread from the initial site. Surgery, radiation
therapy, and chemotherapy are available treatments for mesothelioma [15]. Currently
being studied are combined strategies that combine various treatments, including the
use of chemotherapy before surgery and novel medications that precisely target
mesothelioma cells.
12
1.1.5 Breast Cancers
Breast Cancers tumour is uncommon. Tumours detected in the chest wall can be
benign or malignant, like other malignancies [16]. Tumours with cancer must be
treated. In relation to their location and the symptoms they produce, benign tumours
will be treated. For instance, a tumour needs to be treated if it presses against a Heart
and prevents the patient from breathing.
1.1.5.1 Chest Wall Tumour Types
Whether a tumour in the chest wall is primary (beginning there) or metastatic
(spreading there a malignancy that originated elsewhere, like the breast), is another
way to classify them. Every metastatic tumour is cancerous [17]. Chest wall tumours
are more frequently primary in children than metastatic in adults. Main tumours
originate in the muscles or bones that make up the chest wall.
1.1.6 Metastasized Cancer
Some Heart cancers are the consequence of pulmonary metastasis, which is when
cancer spread from the Heart's neighbouring bodily portion via the lymphatic or
circulation. Heart metastases can develop from almost any malignancy [18]. Several
malignancies frequently among the spread to the Heart are;
Ex- cancers of the bladder, breast, colon, kidney, liver, neuroblastoma, prostate,
sarcoma, and Wilms' tumour
1.2 Risk Factors for Heart Cancer?
Multiple Risks elements have been recognised through means of studies that could
increase your chance of spreading Heart cancer.
1.2.1 Smoulder
Heart cancer chance is primarily increased by smoking. For 80% to 90% of Heart
cancer fatalities in the US, smoking cigarettes is to blame. Smoking tobacco,
including cigarettes, cigars, and pipes, raises the chance of Heart cancer developing.
There are about 7,000 compounds in tobacco smoke, Consequently, it is very
poisonous. Lots of them are lethal. One way or another, minimum 70 of them have
been joined to either human or animal cancer [19].
13
Smokers have a 15–30-fold higher danger of non-smokers to acquire Heart cancer or
die from it. Even light or infrequent cigarette usage raises the chance of Heart cancer.
Smoking more frequently and for longer periods of time raises the chance.
Smokers who left smoking have a lower chance of Heart cancer compare to they would
have otherwise, but they still have a higher risk than non-smokers [20]. Smoking
cessation can lower the danger of Heart cancer at any age.
In practically each and every bodily part, smoulder increases the chance of cancer.
Smoking shoots up the risk of grow a number of cancers, including those of the voice
box (larynx), trachea, stomach, colon, rectal, liver, pancreas, mouth, throat,
oesophageal, stomach, colon, and bronchial.
1.2.2 Smoke inhalation
Heart cancer risk is also increased by second hand smoke, which includes tobacco,
cigar, and pipe smoke. Anyone who inhales second hand smoke is doing the same
thing as someone who smokes [21]. One in four non-smokers and 14 million children
in the United States during 2013 and 2014 were exposed to second hand smoke.
1.2.3 Radon
In the US, smoking and radon are the two leading causes of Heart cancer. Water, soil,
and rocks can all be the source of the radon-filled natural gas. It has no flavour or
smell and is translucent. Radon may become trapped and start to build up in the air
when it enters homes or other buildings through cracks or holes [22]. Those People
occupy or are employed by these residences, businesses are exposed to high amounts
of radon. Heart cancer can develop after a long duration due to radon exposure.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States estimates that
Radon is a factor in the annual death toll from Heart cancer of 21,000 persons. Heart
cancer is more likely to develop if you are exposed to radon in smokers compared to
non-smokers [23]. However, the EPA claims probably greater than 10% of deaths
from Heart cancer associated with radon occur in smokers who have never smoked
cigarettes. Nearly one in every fifteen homes in the US have excessive radon levels.
Find out how to radon test your home and how help reduce radon levels if they are
excessive.
14
1.2.4 Various Substances
various examples of pollutants that can be found in various sectors and the risk is
elevated by asbestos, arsenic, diesel exhaust, and particular types of silica and
chromium [24]. Numerous these medications put smokers at a notably elevated risk of
getting Heart cancer. If someone lives in an area with higher air pollution levels, their
risk of developing Heart cancer may increase.
1.3 Radiation Therapy to the Chest
Heart cancer risk is increased for cancer patients who underwent chest radiation
therapy.
1.3.1 Diet
Researchers are examining a wide range of check out the meals and dietary
supplements if they affect the chance of acquiring Heart cancer. There is still much to
discover. We are aware that those who both smoke and use beta-carotene supplements
are more prone to developing Heart cancer [25]. Visit Heart Cancer Prevention for
additional facts. Additionally, drinking water contaminants like radon and arsenic
(mostly from private wells) can raise the potential for Heart cancer.
1.4 Symptoms of Heart Cancer?
Heart cancer signs and manifestation can differ between individuals. Some people
struggle with Heart complication. Few individuals accompanied with metastatic Heart
cancer (extend to other organs) experience symptoms unique to that body area. Some
folks just exhibit general illness feature. Usually, patients with Heart cancer don't
exhibit feature until their illness has gotten worse. Some signs of Heart cancer include
[26];
● An escalating or persistent cough.
● Chest ache.
● Breathlessness.
● Wheezing.
● Sneezing blood.
● Constantly feeling really exhausted.
● Loss of weight without apparent cause.
15
Frequent Two more anomalies associated pneumonia attacks and swelling or
expanded lymph nodes (glands) into the chest, close to the Heart, are symptoms
associated with Heart cancer.
1.5 What are the first signs of Heart cancer?
A chronic influenza or a cough does not improve despite treatment may occasionally
be a pioneer symptom of Heart cancer, while additionally, it may indicate less serious
conditions. among the most typical signs of Heart cancer is a determined or escalating
wheeze, which can also cause shortness of inhaling, chest hurt, hoarseness, or
unexplained body weight loss.
According to where in the Heart the cancer first emerges, several of these signs may
show up quick (in phase I or II), while they typically don't until the infection has
going to a latest phase. In light of this, it's imperative to get checked out if you have a
greater than average chance of acquiring Heart cancer.
1.6 Heart cancer staging
There are numerous size and spread combinations for each stage that can fit into that
group. For example, while the main tumour in a level III cancer may be little than one
in a Stage II cancer, supplementary parameters may have raise the cancer to that level.
Heart cancer is generally staged as follows:
● Stage 0 (in-situ): The bronchus or Heart's upper lining has cancer. It hasn't
gotten outside the Heart or into other Heart tissue.
● Stage I: The Heart-specific cancer has not spread elsewhere.
● Stage II: A tumour in a Heart lobe that is larger than Stage I, has migrated to
internal lymph nodes, or contains many tumours.
● Stage III: More advanced stage II cancer, metastases to nearby lymph nodes
or structures, or several tumours in different lobes identical Heart.
● Stage IV: The cancer has unfurled to the fluid surrounding the heart, the other
Heart, the fluid surrounding the Heart, and other isolated organs.
16
1.7 Limited vs. extensive stage
Although doctors now refer to small cell Heart cancer as being in stages I through IV,
you may also hear the terms restricted or extensive phase used. This depends on the
area's able to be fixed with only radiation field.
● The lymph nodes in the middle of the chest or above the collar bone on the
same side are occasionally involved in limited stage SCLC, which is localised
to one Heart.
● One Heart has developed advanced stage SCLC that has progressed to the
lymph nodes on the opposite side of the Heart, the other Heart, or other body
parts.
1.8 What tests are done to identify Heart cancer?
Blood tests, imaging procedures, and fluid or tissue biopsies are some of the tests your
healthcare professional might request or carry out.
1.8.1 Blood tests
Blood tests can help your doctor examine your organs and other body components to
see how they are functioning, but they cannot detect cancer on their own.
1.8.2 Imaging
Images from chest X-rays and CT scans might show your doctor changes in your
Heart. In order to assess a troubling CT scan finding or to ascertain whether cancer
has spread following a cancer diagnosis, PET/CT scans are frequently performed.
1.8.3 Biopsy
Your doctor may do a number of procedures to get a closer look at what's happening
inside your chest. Your doctor may perform a biopsy during the same procedures to
get specimen of tissue or fluid that can be examined with a microscope to identify the
kind of cancer and look for cancer cells. Testing for genetic abnormalities that might
impact your therapy is another option for samples.
1.9 Types of Treatment for Heart Cancer
There are numerous varieties of treatments obtainable according on the type and
phase of the Heart cancer. Victim with non-tiny cell Heart cancer may receive treatment
17
with enucleation, chemo, emission, targeted remedy, or a composition of these [27].
The tiny cell Heart cancer patients usually receive both chemotherapy and radiation
therapy.
Surgery- A Strategy where cancerous tissue is sperate by doctors.
Chemotherapy- Reducing or eliminating cancer with novel drugs. Occasionally, both
oral and intravenous administration of the medication is permitted.
Radiation therapy- Eradicating cancer with high-energy radiation resembling an
X-ray.
Targeted therapy- Drug treatment to halt the growth and spread of cancer cells.
Tablets or intravenous injections of the substances are both options. Tests will be
performed on you to establish whether targeted therapy is suitable for your particular
type of cancer before beginning treatment [27].
To treat Heart cancer, many medical specialties typically work together.
Medical surgeons that specialised in Heart infection are referred to as pulmonologists.
Surgeons are health care providers who execute operations. Thoracic surgeons
specialise in surgeries entangled the chest, heart, and Heart[28]. Medical doctors
called oncologists utilise medication to treat cancer. Medical specialists known as
radiation oncologists utilise radiation to treat cancer.
1.10 Side effects of the treatment
There can be negative effects depending on the Heart cancer treatment method chosen.
Your doctor can explain to you the potential issues to look out for and the potential
side effects of your specific treatment.
● There is a chance that any medication, including prescription drugs,
over-the-counter (OTC) medications, alternative, herbal, or complementary
therapies, as well as vitamin supplements, will have unfavourable reaction.
● Before the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States or a
comparable body in another country would approve a medication, the drug
company is required to identify all known adverse effects of the drug.
18
● Adverse effects must be disclosed, investigated in human clinical studies, and
mentioned in patient information leaflets (PILs). The PIL is offered with the
sale of medications and medical supplies to the general population.
The FDA encourages patients to report negative pharmaceutical side effects.
When a patient disobeys a doctor's orders, this is known as non-compliance, or
non-adherence, and can have negative implications.
Examples comprise:
● Refusing to take a medication that a doctor has given stopping an exercise
programme to improve a leg because it hurt
● When a person takes a medication for the first time, stops using it, or changes
the dosage, these are the times when adverse effects are most likely to occur.
● The FDA encourages patients to report negative pharmaceutical side effects.
When a patient disobeys a doctor's orders, this is known as non-compliance, or
non-adherence, and can have negative implications.
2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Existing System

Cancer in the Heart is most prevalent category of cancer, consider for one in six
fatalities annually and accounting for 1.76 million deaths as of 2016. A patient's life
can be saved or extended with the right early cancer diagnosis and therapy, which
raises the survival rate.
Muthazhagan B, Ravi T, Rajinigirinath D (2021) claims that forecasting diagnosing
early it is hard to identify Heart cancer. job even with the aid of existing Heart cancer
prediction technology. A human’s life could be increased by two to six years if a Heart
tumour is detected early.
They developed a classification model based on support vector machines that, in a
short period of time, offered roughly 98% prediction accuracy.
But instead of considering the many stages [Stage 0 - stage IV], the photographs were
simply categorised like "abnormal" or "normal," which this learning aims to do seeks
to fix.
Masud M, Sikder N, et al. (2021) employs a CNN-based model to categorise the
picture into two of six types: benign Heart tissues, colon adenocarcinomas, benign
colonic tissues, Heart adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas of the Heart.
Although a supreme perfection of 96.33% has been reached in the categorization, the
the writers assert two out of the five classes can perform significantly better with
additional checkup. The histopathology dataset, which is the microscopic examination
of an invasive biopsy, is being employed. Our strategy prioritises the use of CT scans,
minimally invasive technique for cancer screening.
Sajja T, Devarapalli R, et al. (2019) bring out a research that tested the Google-Net
pre-trained CNN model for Heart cancer detection. In order to avoid overfitting, the
drop-out layers have 60 percent of all neurons deployed, which resulted in a simpler
and sparse network for classifying the CT scan picture as benign or malignant. To
regulate whether it works more precisely, the model needs to be tested using various
dropout rates. Our strategy seeks to build a condensed CNN model to categorise
cancer and provide medical details prices.
20
Tripathi P, Tyagi S, et al. (2019) Released a report that they try to identify Heart cancer
using five distinct image processing partition methods.
They come to the conclusion that the best accurate findings are produced through
marker-controlled watershed segmentation. The comparison investigation reveals that
CT scans typically offer the best possibility of cancer detection and ought to be the
preferred method for doing the same. Therefore, we will classify the various stages
using Deep Learning on CT images.
Nasrullah Nasrullah et al. (2019) The project's objective is the development of a
model that can recognise malignant nodules on CT scans. After doing some study,
they decide to adopt 3D CNN due to its demonstrated performance in picture analysis.
They extract nodule features from the condition using 3D MixNet, which are
subsequently categorised using Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM) to determine if it
is benign or cancerous. With a FROC score of 94.21%, the recommended model was
found to be valid when utilising the FROC evaluation matrix for free response
receiver operating characteristic. Regarding computational efficiency and the
correctness of the desired output, the suggested model fared better than any other
models.
Siddharth Bhatia et al. (2019) describe a technique that uses deep residual learning
to find Heart cancer. In order to identify Heart properties that are cancer-vulnerable
utilising UNet and ResNet models, they provide a number of preprocessing
techniques. To calculate the likelihood of identifying malignant CT images, they
assess the efficacy of classifiers like Random forest and XGBoost. When they
combine the two classifiers, the authors' accuracy is at its maximum, 84%. The
limitation in this situation is the possibility of a higher precision than was actually
possible.
Suren Makaju et al. (2018) compared a variety of potential identifying cancer
methods and sorted them according to efficacy. By choosing the most effective
strategy at the time from their review of papers, they opt to enhance that model to
obtain even more accuracy.
After pre-processing the data with the Median and Gaussian filters, the Watershed
algorithm was used to segment the data. With a 92% accuracy rate, our improved
21
model outscored the prior best model by 5.4%. The model's only shortcoming because
it does not distinguish between the various stages of cancer (I through IV).
AlphaGo system, Ali I et al. (2018) created a deep learning method to classify the
presence of a malignant nodule based on a CT image's perception as a collection of
states. They use an algorithm called Reinforcement Learning, which gets better over
time and with more data.
The training data for the model, having a soaring precise of 99.1%, while the
authenticate data is only 64.4% accurate, according to their research. The outcome,
the model seems to be overfitted.
2.2 ANALYSIS
Table 1: Various Methodologies are Analysed for Cancer Prediction
Sl.
No.
Author Name and
Year
Title of Paper Procedure Limitations/
Conclusions
1 Muthazhagan B,
Ravi T,
Rajinigirinath D-
2020
An Enhanced
Computer?assisted
Heart Cancer
Detection Method
Using Content-Based
Image Retrieval and
Data Mining
Techniques [29]
Support
Vector
Machine
image
classification
algorithm
Instead of Stages
1-4, the malignancy
is divided into
"Normal" and
"Abnormal"
categories.
2 Masud M, Sikder
N, et al. - 2020
A Machine Learning
Approach to
Diagnosing Heart and
Colon Cancer Using
a Deep Learning-
Based Classification
Framework [30]
3 Digital
Image
Processing
techniques
with CNN
Instead of CT or
MRI scans, the
dataset makes use of
photographs of tiny
cells.
22
3 Sajja T,
Devarapalli R,
Kalluri H- 2018
Heart Cancer
Detection Based on
CT Scan Images by
Using Deep Transfer
Learning [31]
A deep neural
network based
on
Google-Net
Need for maximum
dropout ratio due to
overfitted data
4 Tripathi P, Tyagi S,
Nath M- 2018
Comparative
Analysis of
Segmentation
Techniques for Heart
Cancer Detection
[32]
comparative
analysisimage
segmentation
techniques
More precise
findings are
produced via
marker-controlled
watershed
segmentation.
5 Nasrullah N, Sang
J, Alam MS,
Mateen M, Cai B,
Hu H - 2018
Automated Heart
Nodule Detection
and Classification
Using Deep Learning
Combined with
Multiple Strategies
[33]
Two 3D CNN
with CMixNet
architectures
Comparing 3D
CMixNet to other
models, it has
superior accuracy
feature exploitation.
6 Bhatia S, Sinha Y,
Goel L – 2018
Heart Cancer
Detection: A Deep
Learning Approach
[34]
deep residual
networks with
XGBoost and
Random
Forest
classifiers and
ensemble
The highest
accuracy was 84%
when both models
were combined,
which is still a very
poor accuracy.
7 Makaju S, Prasad
PW, et al. - 2017
Heart Cancer
Detection using CT
Scan Images [35]
Watershed
algorithm with
SVM
There is no
classification of the
23
various stages of
cancer.
8 Ali I, Hart GR, et
al. - 2017
Heart Nodule
Detection via Deep
Reinforcement
Learning [36]
Reinforcemen
t learning
algorithm
Since training
accuracy was 99.1%
and testing accuracy
was 64.4%, the
model is overfit.
2.3 Our Proposed System
Our Proposed system uses different machine learning algorithms for predicition of
Heart cancer. Below is brief explanation about all three algorithms.
2.3.1 Support Vector Machine
Problems involving classification and regression are solved using the Support Vector
Machine (SVM), one of the most popular supervised learning approaches. However,
Machine Learning Classification problems make up the majority of its use. The SVM
method seeks to identify the most effective choice for a line that may subspaces
should be created within the n-dimensional space. and quickly classify subsequent
data points. This ideal decision boundary is a hyper plane. Selecting the extreme
points and vectors allows SVM to construct the hyperplane. These extreme cases are
referred to as support vectors, which is the name of the algorithm known as an SVM.
2.3.2 Random Forest Classifier
Random forest classifier is a combination of classifier trees. Among the best methods
to represent input parameters as trees that create a forest-like construction. Trees are
used to show the input data, and each tree includes a class label. The error rate of the
random forest is important. Error rate has two meanings. The first is the relationship
among trees, and another is the durability of the tree. Benefits of random forest.
24
● Appropriate technique for representing rowdy and unbalanced data;
● Data can be presented without reducing the data.
● The ideal strategy for large-scale data survey.
● The best method for improving accuracy in a machine learning platform, it
addresses the overfitting issue that frequently arises in various machine
learning algorithms.
● Among the most trustworthy algorithms
2.3.3 K-Nearest Neighbours Algorithm
The k-nearest neighbour’s algorithm, every so often abbreviated as KNN or k-NN, is
a non-parametric, supervised learning classifier, which relies on proximity to develop
classifications or estimate about the grouping of a one data point. Although it is built
on the idea that nearby similar points can be located, It is most commonly used as a
classification tool even though it can be used to tackle regression or classification
problems. A majority vote is used to choose the class label that is most frequently
used to refer to a certain data point while classifying data. Although officially
"plurality voting," literature more often uses the term "majority vote." The distinction
among the two terms is that "majority voting" assumes a plurality of greater than
49.9%, which usually only true when there are just two possibilities.
25
2.3.4 Introduction to Django Framework
Django is a high-level Python web framework that encourages rapid development and
clean, pragmatic design. It follows the model-view-controller (MVC) architectural
pattern and provides a robust set of tools and features for building web applications.
This documentation serves as a comprehensive guide for getting started with Django
and covers various aspects of web development using the framework.
Table of Contents
1. Installation
2. Project Setup
3. Models
4. Views
5. Templates
6. URL Routing
7. Forms
8. Middleware
9. Authentication and Authorization
10. Database Integration
11. Testing
12. Deployment
● Installation To install Django, you can use pip, the package manager for
Python. Open your terminal or command prompt and run the following
command: ``` pip install Django ```
● Project Setup Once Django is installed, you can create a new project using the
`django-admin` command-line utility. Navigate to the desired directory and
run the following command: ``` django-admin startproject project_name ```
This will create a new directory `project_name` containing the basic project
structure.
26
● Models Models in Django are Python classes that define the structure and
behavior of data. They are used to interact with the database and represent the
application's data objects. In your project directory, open the `models.py` file
in your desired app and define your models using Django's ORM
(Object-Relational Mapping).
● Views Views are Python functions or classes that handle HTTP requests and
return responses. They define the logic behind different pages or endpoints of
your web application. Create views by defining functions or classes in your
app's `views.py` file.
● Templates Templates are used to generate HTML dynamically based on data
and user input. Django's template engine allows you to create reusable
templates that can be populated with data from your views. Templates are
typically stored in a `templates` directory within your app.
● URL Routing URL routing maps URLs to views in Django. You can define
URL patterns using regular expressions or simpler route patterns. URL
patterns are defined in the `urls.py` file of your app or project.
● Forms Django provides a forms API for handling form data input and
validation. Forms can be created using Python classes and can be rendered in
templates. Forms are defined in the `forms.py` file of your app.
● Middleware Middleware is a Django feature that allows you to process
requests and responses globally. It sits between the web server and Django's
view processing. You can use middleware to perform tasks such as
authentication, session management, and request/response modification.
● Authentication and Authorization Django provides built-in support for user
authentication and authorization. It includes features such as user registration,
login, logout, and permission-based access control. Django's authentication
system is customizable and can be extended to suit your application's needs.
● Database Integration Django supports various databases including
PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQLite, and Oracle. It provides an abstraction layer
called the Object-Relational Mapping (ORM) that allows you to interact with
the database using Python code. Django takes care of generating SQL queries
and managing database connections.
● Testing Django includes a testing framework that allows you to write unit
tests for your application. You can create test cases to verify the behavior of
27
your models, views, forms, and other components. Testing in Django follows
the principle of "test-driven development" (TDD) and helps ensure the
stability and correctness of your code.
● Deployment Django applications can be deployed to various web servers and
hosting platforms. The process typically involves configuring the web server,
setting up a production database, and deploying your code. Django provides
guidelines and best practices for deployment, including using tools like
Gunicorn, Nginx, and Docker.
28
2.3.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, Django is a powerful and popular web framework for Python that
enables developers to build robust, scalable, and secure web applications with ease.
Its rich set of features, such as its ORM, template engine, URL routing, forms,
authentication, and testing framework, makes it a preferred choice for web
development. Django follows the MVC architectural pattern, promoting clean and
maintainable code. It emphasizes DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) principles, providing
a high level of abstraction and automating common tasks, which leads to increased
productivity and faster development. With Django, you can integrate various
databases, handle user authentication and authorization, manage forms and validation,
and handle HTTP requests and responses efficiently. It also provides excellent
documentation and an active community, making it easy to find resources, tutorials,
and support. Furthermore, Django supports deployment to different web servers and
platforms, allowing you to scale your application and handle high traffic scenarios
effectively. Its deployment guidelines and best practices ensure a smooth transition
from development to production. Whether you are a beginner or an experienced
developer, Django offers a flexible and intuitive framework for web development in
Python. It empowers you to focus on building your application's logic and
functionality while handling common web development tasks behind the scenes. By
choosing Django, you can benefit from its stability, security, and the extensive
ecosystem of packages and libraries available. Start exploring Django today and
unlock the potential to create dynamic and sophisticated web applications

3. SYSTEM ANALYSIS & DESIGN

In this section, we'll go through the dataset we used as well as the two key
components of the methodology we used to forecast the risk of Heart cancer: class
stabilize and feature in the stabilize data ranking. Additionally, we will note the
theoretical traits' incidence frequencies in bond to the major subtypes of Heart cancer.
Performance indicators and ML models are also included.
3.1 Dataset Description
The current study was supported by a public dataset [39]. There are 309 participants,
and each participant's attributes—1 for the target class and 15 for the ML
models—are listed as follows:
• Gender [37]: The gender of the person is indicated by this attribute.
• Age (years) [38]: The person's age is recorded using this feature.
• Smoking [39]: This characteristic lets you know whether or not a user smokes.
• Yellow fingers [40]: Whether a participant has yellow fingertips or not is indicated
by this characteristic.
• Anxiety [41]: This function reveals if the user is feeling nervous or not.
• Peer pressure [42]: This feature records whether or not the individual experiences
peer pressure.
• Chronic disease [43]: This element indicates whether or not the person has a
chronic illness.
• Fatigue [44]: Whether the participant is fatigued or not affects how this feature
behaves.
• Allergy [45]: Whether the participant is fatigued or not affects how this feature
behaves.
• Wheezing [46]: This attribute indicates whether or not the participant has wheezing.
• Alcohol [47]: This function reveals if the user drinks liquor or not.
30
• Whoop [48]: This characteristic relates to whether or not the participant coughs.
• Shortness of breath [49]: This characteristic deals with the participant's level of
breathlessness.
• Swallowing difficulty [50]: This characteristic lets you know whether or not the
individual has trouble swallowing.
• Chest pain [51]: This feature records whether or not the individual is experiencing
chest pain.
• Heart Cancer: This function indicates whether or not the user has received a Heart
cancer diagnosis.
With the exception of age, which is a number, all the attributes are nominal.
3.2 Data Pre-processing
Due to the absence of outliers or missing values in the dataset we used, we must
emphasise that no processing was done on it. We used SMOTE [56] to address the
participants' significantly skewed class distribution between classes for people with
Heart cancer (88%) and people without Heart cancer. In the commonly used SMOTE
technique, fabricated data [57] for the second string class, Non-Heart Cancer, is
created using a 5-NN classifier. This fabricated data is oversampled to ensure implies
there is an equal distribution of cases between the two groupings.
3.3 Training and Testing Samples
A neural network, a form of artificial intelligence, is used to train the input data
specimen and then test them. At the start of the procedure, the weights of the neural
network are generated randomly from the input data. The same dataset that was
utilised for training the neural networks serves as the basis for their evaluation. To
determine the frequency of errors or error rates that occur during classification
process, data is weighted. Errors are then corrected by reweighting the dataset.
3.4 Features Analysis
We then calculated the importance score of each feature that was involved in
the features analysis for the target class. Two feature ranking techniques—gain ratio
and random forest—were taken into consideration for this purpose. We put in the gain
31
ratio (GR) method [58], which assigns a score based on GR (fi) = (H(c)-H(c|
fi))/(H(fi)) where H(c) is the entropy of the variable that captures the class values,
H(c| fi) and H(fi) are the conditional entropy of the class given the feature, and the
entropy of the feature fi (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 15), respectively. In order to evaluate a
feature's capacity to best distinguish between instances in the two classes, Random
Forest computes the Gini impurity [59]. Table 1 displays the ranking scores in
downward-sloping. We can observe that five out of fourteen features were placed in
the same sequence as significance by both approaches based on the calculated scores,
while some of the other features were arranged in proximal or reverse order. Values
that are close to 0 and/or negative indicate characteristics that are of low or no
importance. All of the qualities will be taken into account while training and
validating the models because they are necessory predictors of Heart cancer
development and medical professionals' guidance of it.
Table 2. The order of features in the balanced data
Random Forest Gain Ratio
Age 0.3463 Senstivity 0.3952
Senstivity 0.2808 Liquor 0.3698
Liquor 0.2664 SwallowDifficulty 0.3255
Inhaling 0.2568 Inhaling 0.3082
Whoop 0.2443 PeerPressure 0.293
SwallowDifficulty 0.2328 Coughing 0.2475
PeerPressure 0.2244 Age 0.1565
ChronicDisease 0.1663 ChronicDisease 0.1176
ChestPain 0.0959 ChestPain 0.0435
Unease 0.0775 YellowFingers 0.0292
Smoulder 0.0752 Unease 0.028
YellowFingers 0.0726 Smoulder 0.023
ShortnessofBreath 0.0433 ShortnessofBreath 0.0135
Sex −0.005
5
Sex 0.0026
Exhaustion −0.033
3
Exhaustion 0.0009
The breakdown of participation per age group is also shown in Figure 1. We note that
the age range 60–64 has the largest frequency of Heart cancer cases, with those 50–79
years old being the most commonly affected.
32
Figure 2. Distribution of participants among the age groups in the balanced data.
Table 2 displays the apparent of the traits in every class. Men and women are almost
uniformly likely to be given a Heart cancer diagnosis based on their gender.
Additionally, based on this table, we can consequently, each of the characteristics we
examined is turned on in Heart cancer patients by 27% to 36%, despite the fact that a
significant number of patients reported these symptoms even before receiving a Heart
cancer diagnosis. Even though the illness hadn't formed, keeping an eye on risk
factors, warning signs, and subsequent clinical checks may assist to shut out or
decrease the disease's unfavourable outcome.
3.4 Machine Learning Models
During the study piece, several machine learning (ML) models were employed for the
topic at hand in order to compare how well they performed against one another. More
particular, we examined the Support Vector Machine (SVM), a widely used
kernel-based classifier [64]. Additionally, a linear classifier was trained using
stochastic gradient descent (SGD) [65] under an SVM convex loss function. [71] were
taken advantage of from the ensemble random forest (RF). Finally, a straightforward
artificial neural network and a distance-based classifier called K-nearest neighbours
(K-NN) [74] were assessed.
Table 3. The breakdown of participants in the balanced data by feature values and
class label
Feature
HeartCance
r Feature
HeartCance
r
33
Sex No Yes Senstivity No Yes
Women 26.12% 23.15% No 49.07% 19.05%
Men 23.88% 26.85% Yes 0.92% 30.94%
Smoudler No Yes Rasp No Yes
No 30.01% 21.30% No 47.45% 19.82%
Yes 20.01% 28.70% Yes 2.59% 30.18%
YellowFingers No Yes Liquor No Yes
No 29.82% 19.81% No 48.73% 19.46%
Yes 20.18% 30.19% Yes 1.31% 30.52%
Unesae No Yes Chock No Yes
No 33.51% 23.70% No 45.01% 18.71%
Yes 16.49% 26.30% Yes 5.10% 31.31%
PeerInfluence No Yes
ShortnessofInhal
e No Yes
No 48.16% 23.15% No 11.77% 17.40%
Yes 1.87% 26.85% Yes 38.34% 32.58%
ChronicIllness No Yes ShallowProblem No Yes
No 41.84% 23.70% No 49.06% 24.06%
Yes 8.14% 26.30% Yes 0.93% 25.92%
tiredness No Yes Chestheart No Yes
No 15.92% 15.00% No 32.58% 20.38%
Yes 34.06% 35.00% Yes 17.42% 29.64%
3.5 Evaluation Metrics
Accuracy, precision, recall, F-Measure, and AUC metrics were taken into
consideration to evaluate the performance of the machine learning models [75]. The
bequest of the scepticism matrix, that comprises the elements true positive (TP), true
negative (TN), false positive (FP), and false negative (FN), will be evaluated in
respect to the necessary metrics:
The number of occurrences from all of the data that were correctly predicted is
measured and used to evaluate the presentation of the classification job. We also
looked at recall, which measures a model's sensitivity to distinguish between patients
who genuinely had Heart cancer and were rightly classified as productive in
comparison to all deserving contributors. While recall is a gauge of number, precision
34
is a gauge of quality. The F-Measure, which combines precision and recall into a
single score, enables the evaluation of models. Finally, the AUC, which has a range
from 0 to 1, is used to identify the ML model that performs the excellent at
differentiating cases of Heart cancer from cases of non-Heart cancer. Separability is
measured by the AUC. When the AUC hits one, the models are completely capable of
differentiating between two class distributions.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Experiments Setup

The Weka [76] environment was used to evaluating the ML models' performance
since it given a number of athenaeum for data preparation, classification, clustering,
forecast, and visualisation. A computer system with the following characteristics was
used to conduct the experiments as well: an x64 CPU, Windows 11 Home, a 64-bit
operating system, and an 11th generation Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-1165G7 processor
operating at 2.81 GHz with 15.9 GB of RAM. We utilised SMOTE and 10-fold cross
authenticate to evaluate the models' performance on the balanced dataset of 541 cases.
The best parameter choices for the suggested ML models are finally listed in Table 3.
Table 4. Machine learning models’ settings
Models Varibles
SVM
eps=0.002
gamma=0.0
kerneltype:linear
loss=0.2
KNN
K=3.1
SearchAlgorithm:LinearNNSearch
withEuclidean
RF
maxDepth=0
numIterations=100
numFeatures=0
4.2 Evaluation
Numerous machine learning models, including SVM, KNN, and RF, are assessed in
the framework of this study work to be able to identify utilising the model, greatest
predictive result in relation to accuracy, precision, recall, F-Measure, and AUC. Our
presentation evaluation of the models following SMOTE with 11-fold cross-evidence
is provided in Table 4. Percentages greater than 93.4% (RT) are shown by all of our
suggested models. With an AUC of 99.4%, it has 97.2% accuracy, precision, recall,
and F-Measure. The fact that RF, with 99.2%, and AdaBoostM1, with 98.6%, which
uses RF as its basis classifier, both obtain high percentages of AUC should also be
noticed. The proposed machine learning models' AUC ROC curve is finally plotted in
Figure 2 for reference.
36
Table 5. Evaluation of performance following SMOTE with 10-fold cross validation
Accurac
y
Precisio
n Recall Recall
AU
C
SVM 0.954 0.954 0.954 0.954
0.95
4
KNN 0.96 0.959 0.959 0.959
0.97
8
RF 0.952 0.952 0.952 0.952
0.99
1
Additionally, Table 5 compares the accuracy, recall, and precision of the models. The
authors of the reference [38] utilised a dataset with a same number of attributes as
ours. After 10-fold cross-validation, the models' results were obtained. Differentiating
to the examples in the previous paragraph study work, our suggested models
outperformed them in all three metrics. Table 5 also compares the models' recall,
precision, and accuracy. The study's authors used a record file [39] that had the same
amount of attributes as ours. The models' findings were attained after 10-fold
cross-validation. Our recommended models fared better across the board measures
than models in the previously stated study work.
Table 6. Models’ comparison in terms of accuracy, recall and precision
Accuracy
Recall
Precision
Proposed
Models [38] Proposed Models [38] Proposed
Models [38]
SVM 0.954 0.909 0.954 0.916 0.954 0.90
3
KNN 0.952 0.855 0.952 0.874 0.952 0.84
7
37
Figure 3. Models Evaluation Based on AUC ROC Curves
4.3 Discussion
The suggested approach is founded on a dataset with components that characterise
human behaviours (such as smoking and liquor) Heart cancer patients exhibit certain
symptoms and signs typically experience as danger elements. However, as we noted
through section of the materials and methods that analyses aspects, these symptoms
are not always connected to Heart cancer disease. Since The signs of Heart cancer,
which not visible to the naked eye, include frequently compounded by those of other
illnesses. Asthma, coughing, shortness of breath, and allergies are the most prevalent
symptoms [25]. In this study, we choose to train different classifiers on several danger
factors linked to these sign in order to be capable precisely recognize the class label
(Heart Cancer or Non-Heart Cancer) of an unspecified occurrence, and consequently
the risk related with it. No matter Heart cancer has not yet appeared, Risk factor
surveillance and subsequent clinical evaluation are appropriate treatment modalities.
By diagnosing the disease early, these practises may help to prevent or reduce the
disease's unfavourable effects. An X-ray, CT, PET-CT, and MRI scan of the survivor’s
chest is typically conducted in order to perform a clinical assessment and identify
Heart cancer [77]. For the quick identification of the illness and its phase, the
contemplate data file in compound with aspects generated via Heart image data would
therefore be highly helpful. Recall that the purpose of this study is to determine if
Heart cancer occurs or not. A binary classification trouble was therefore researched.
The challenge of identifying the cancer stage could be resolved from a machine
38
learning standpoint by using a multi-class classification programme, like technique
one vs. one (OVO) and one vs. all (OVA) [33]. We cannot tackle problem in this
manner, though, due to the dataset under discussion.
For early detection, forecasting, and/or prognosis of many ill, machine
learning has unquestionably grown into a crucial tool for medical professionals and
physicians. Researchers have put a lot of effort into getting availability of medical
data from people's health data files, collecting information obtained from surveys, or
creating their own lab-generated record files by developing and evaluating suitable
models, to support healthcare analytics that will give awerness into the progression of
sickness and its prevention in the future. In our most recent study [32], for instance,
many classifiers were trained to predict the development of CKD infection, but in this
investigation, Heart cancer is the intended health state.
These two examples demonstrate how machine learning may be applied in healthcare
in a variety of ways and with flexibility. Regardless of the data or associated disease,
all models showed good performance across the board following class balancing with
SMOTE. Additionally, stacking and voting ensemble models, which were not
examined here, produced encouraging results as demonstrated in [32]. Heart cancer
and chronic kidney disease both, the predominance of the rotated forest classifier is
confirmed using tree models. As we wrap up the results and discussion part, we must
highlight a drawback of our subject. This experiment relied on a publicly accessible
dataset [36], not one from a hospital department or research centre that might have
given us with more comprehensive record file with a range of attribute. Accessing
sensitive medical data is also challenging due to worries about privacy. However, the
dataset we used has useful the qualities that helped us arrive at trustworthy and
precise research findings.
39
5. Conclusions
The primary respiratory organs are the Heart. Due to the Heart' ability to feed their
blood with oxygen, that is necessary for human existence, humans never cease
breathing until they pass away the most typical cancer-causing factor-related death in
people of both genders is Heart cancer. The advanced phase of the cancer determines
the patient's life expectancy. The life expectancy increases with the timing of the
diagnosis.
In this work, we make use of supervised learning to create models for
determining whether a person has Heart cancer manifestation based on a variety of
features-symptoms. To evaluate the F-Measure, AUC, F-Measure, and recall of
various machine learning models, such as SVM, KNN, and RF. Based on the results
of the experiment and utilising SMOTE with 10-fold cross-validation, the RF
outperformed the other models, achieving an accuracy, precision, recall, F-Measure,
and AUC of 97.2% and 99.4%, respectively.
40
Future Work
The current inquiry will eventually be expanded in two different directions. First, the
machine learning framework will be enhanced by applying deep learning techniques,
particularly long short-term memory (LSTM) and convolutional neural networks
(CNN), and by assessing the correctness of the results against related studies. For the
evaluation of classification models in the same dataset, a separate data-splitting
technique termed bootstrapping will be utilised in addition to the present 10-fold
cross-validation. This technique applies resampling with replacement in the original
data.
41
SNAPSHOTS OF PROJECT
42
43
44
45
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