MFT00603/ 2024

PLANT REPRODUCTION

Exploring Sexual and Asexual Methods in

Plants
 Definition of Plant Reproduction

• Plant reproduction is the process through which plants produce

new offspring.
• Plants are living organisms, they reproduce to pass on their
genes to future generations.
• In plants, reproduction is carried out via two modes:
i. Asexual mode: new plants are obtained without producing
seeds.
ii. Sexual mode: new plants are obtained from seeds.
 Modes of Reproduction
in Plants

Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
(does not involve
(involves fusion of male
fusion of male and
and female gametes)
female gametes)
Importance of Understanding Plant Reproduction
• Plant reproduction is not only fundamental to the fitness of
plant species, but also the success of the entire agricultural
economy.
• A plant's mode of reproduction determines its genetic
constitution and aids in understanding its characteristics.
• Plant parts are divided into two categories:
i. vegetative parts (leaves, roots, and stem) and
ii. reproductive parts (flowers).
• Reproduction helps to acquire new variations and adapt to the
environment with the most desirable characters.
Overview of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Sexual Reproduction in Plants
• Flowers are the reproductive part of a
plant, which consists of sepals, petals,
stamens and pistils.
• Stamen is male reproductive part and
pistil is the female reproductive part.
• If one of these reproductive parts
present in a flower, it is a unisexual
flower, e.g., papaya.
• If both are present in flowers, it is a
bisexual flower, e.g., rose.
 • Sepal: The outer parts of the
flower (often green and leaf-
like).
• Petal: The parts of a flower
that are often conspicuously
coloured.

• Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower.

• Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
• Filament: It holds the anther up.
• Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower.
• Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced.
• Sigma: Pollen lands on the stigma, a tube grows down the style and enters
the ovary.
The terms "pistil" and "carpel" are often used interchangeably, but they
refer to different parts of a flower.
Pollination

• When pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of a

flower through carriers such as insects it is called pollination.
• It can be a case of self-pollination if pollen lands on the stigma of
the same flower or another flower of the same plant.
• If pollen grains land on the stigma of a flower of a different
plant, but of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
 Insects
(bees, flies,
butterflies,
moths)

Bats Wind

Methods
of
Pollination

Birds Water
Food deception
(bright colours and
perfumes are
offered, but no
food)
 Fertilization in Plants
• Fertilization is a process of sexual reproduction.
• A diploid zygote is formed as a result of the fusion of
gametes (pollen and ovum), which later develops into the
embryo.
• Fruits and seeds are formed post-fertilization.
• Ripened ovary goes on to become a fruit.
• Ovules give rise to seeds which contain the embryo in a
protective covering.
 What is Double Fertilization?
• Double fertilization is a chief trait of flowering plants.
• One female gamete unites with two male gametes. One of the male
gametes fertilizes the egg to form a zygote and other male gamete
unites with 2 polar nuclei for the formation of an endosperm.
• Double fertilization provides stimulus to the plant resulting in the
ovarian development to fruits and the development of ovules into
the seed.
• When the haploid male gametes and female gametes fuse, the
diploid state of the plant is restored.
• In angiosperms, fertilization results in two structures, namely, zygote
and endosperm, hence the name “double fertilization.”
 Significance of double fertilization
• Double fertilization utilizes both the male gametes produced by
the pollen grains.
• Two products are obtained as a result of double fertilization
(zygote & endosperm).
• There are chances of polyembryony (occurrence of more than
one embryo in a seed), and the plant has better chances of
survival.
• Hence, it increases the viability of the seeds of angiosperms.
• Double fertilization also gives rise to an endosperm that provides
nourishment to the developing embryo.
 Development of a Seed
• The mature ovule develops into the seed.
• A typical seed contains a seed coat, cotyledons, endosperm,
and a single embryo.
 Examples of Plants with Sexual Reproduction
1. Flowering Plants (Angiosperms): Rose, Apple Tree, Sunflower
2. Conifers (Gymnosperms): Pine Tree, Spruce Tree
3. Ferns: Bracken Fern
4. Mosses: Sphagnum Moss
5. Algae: Ulva (sea lettuce)
 Advantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Advantages Descriptions
Genetic Offspring inherit a combination of genes from both parent
diversity plants, leading to a diverse population.
This genetic variation can be crucial for adapting to changing
environmental conditions.
Adaptability Genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction provides a
mechanism for adaptation to diverse ecological niches and
evolving biotic and abiotic factors. This adaptability enhances
the survival chances of a population over time.
Evolutionary Sexual reproduction is a driving force in evolution. It allows for
Advantage the accumulation of genetic variations over generations,
contributing to the long-term survival and evolution of plant
species.
 Advantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Advantages Descriptions
Repair of Sexual reproduction can help repair damaged genes or
damaged eliminate harmful mutations.
genes The process of recombination during meiosis allows for the
reshuffling of genetic material, potentially masking or
eliminating deleterious mutations.
Creation of Combining genes from different individuals can lead to the
novel traits creation of novel combinations of traits.
This can be advantageous in the context of plant breeding
and the development of crops with improved characteristics.
 Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Disadvantages Descriptions
Energy Cost Sexual reproduction often requires a significant
investment of energy and resources in the production
of flowers, pollen, and seeds, especially in
environments where resources are limited.
Dependency Many flowering plants depend on external agents like
on Pollinators pollinators (e.g., bees, butterflies) for the transfer of
pollen between male and female reproductive organs.
Dependency on external agents can be a limitation,
particularly if pollinators are scarce.
 Disadvantages Descriptions
Slower The generation of offspring through sexual reproduction is
Population generally slower compared to asexual reproduction
Growth methods. This slower rate of population growth can be a
disadvantage in certain ecological contexts.
Unfavourable While genetic recombination can lead to advantageous
Combinations combinations of genes, it can also result in unfavourable
of Genes combinations. The mixing of genes may introduce
combinations that are less adapted to the current
environment.
Vulnerability Sexual reproduction can lead to inbreeding, especially in
to Inbreeding small populations. Inbreeding can result in the expression
of deleterious recessive alleles, reducing the overall fitness
and adaptability of the population.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants
• Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction that does
not involve the fusion of male and female gametes and
produces individuals that are genetically identical to the
parent.
• No flowers are required for this method.
• Asexual reproduction in plants occurs through budding,
fragmentation, vegetative propagation, and spore formation.
• The plants produced by asexual reproduction thrive well in
stable environments.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants
All plant organs have been used for asexual
reproduction, but stems are the most common.
1. Stems
• In some species, stems arch over and
take root at their tips, forming new plants.
• The horizontal above-ground stems (called stolons) of the
strawberry (as shown in the picture) produce new daughter
plants at alternate nodes.
• Underground stems such as rhizomes, bulbs, corms and tubers
are used for asexual reproduction as well as for food storage.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants
2. Leaves
• Mitosis at meristems along the leaf margins produce
tiny plantlets that fall off and can take up an independent
existence.
• E.g., the leaves of the common ornamental plant
Bryophyllum.
3. Roots
• Trees, such as the poplar or aspen, send up new stems
from their roots. In time, an entire grove of trees may
form - all part of a clone of the original tree.
• E.g., the dandelion.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Natural)
Natural methods of asexual reproduction include strategies
that plants have developed to self-propagate:
1. Budding or bud grafting: A form of vegetative or clonal
plant propagation by which an exact replica of the parent
plant is produced. A technique whereby small buds are
collected from one plant and grown on another.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Natural)
2. Natural vegetative
propagation: The
process in which new
plants are grown
from the old parts of
another plant like
roots, shoots and
leaves, without
involving any
reproductive organ,
is termed vegetative
propagation.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Natural)

3. Fragmentation: Some organisms have the ability to break

into two or more fragments, with the new fragment
becoming a new, independent individual. They multiply
rapidly in a short period of time.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Natural)
4. Spore formation: Spores are present in the air and are
covered by a hard protective coat to bear low humidity
and high-temperature conditions. Spores germinate and
develop into new organisms under favourable conditions.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Artificial)

• These methods are frequently employed to give rise to new,

and sometimes novel, plants.
• The new plant is genetically identical to the parent plant
from which the stock has been taken.
• Following are the artificial methods of asexual reproduction
in plants:
1. Cutting
2. Grafting
3. Layering
4. Micropropagation
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Artificial)

1. Cutting: A part of a plant is cut along

with the node and is buried in the soil.
The cutting is watered regularly.

2. Grafting: The parts of two different

plants are joined together such that they
continue to grow as a single plant.
• The rooted plant is known as the stock.
• The other plant is known as the graft.
 Asexual Reproduction In Plants (Artificial)
3. Layering: A stem attached to a plant is
lowered in the ground and covered with
soil. The stem grows roots while attached
to the parent plant and then detaches as
an independent plant.

4. Micropropagation: Produce a large

number of plants from an explant under
laboratory conditions within a short time
interval. This facilitates the growth of rare
and endangered plant species that are
difficult to grow under natural conditions.
 Micropropagation
• The artificial process of producing plants vegetatively through
tissue culture or cell culture techniques.
• The plantlets produced are healthy and with desired
characteristics via the following stages:
1. the establishment of the explant (the extracted cell or tissue),
2. multiplication of the explant in a culture medium,
3. transfer of growing shoots into a medium for shoot development,
4. transferring the plant in the soil for root growth, and
5. allowing the growth and development of plants under optimum
conditions.
 Need for Artificial Production Technology
• Development of micropropagation technique will ensure abundant
supply of desired plant species.
• Development of artificial seed production technology is currently
considered as an effective and efficient method of propagation in
several commercially important agronomic and horticultural crops.
• These artificial seed would also be a channel for new plant lines
produced through biotechnological advances to be delivered directly
to greenhouse and field.
• High volume propagation potential of somatic embryos combined
with formation of synthetic seeds for low-cost delivery would open
new vistas for clonal propagation in several commercially important
crop species.
 Artificial Seeds
• An artificial seed, also called a synthetic
seed or synseed, seed analog, or
manufactured seed.
• It includes a range of plant structures, including somatic embryos, buds,
shoots, or other meristematic tissues inside a coating, that can be sown
in the same way as a conventional seed to produce a new plant.
• The coating may be water impermeable or water soluble and may also
enclose nutrients (artificial endosperm) and other additives
deemed necessary (e.g., mycorrhizal fungi, fungicides,
and/or bacteriocides).
 Types of Artificial Seeds
1. Desiccated synthetic seeds are produced naked or
polyoxyethylene glycol encapsulated somatic embryos. This
type of synthetic seeds is produced in desiccation tolerate
species plant.

2. Hydrated synthetic seeds are produced by encapsulating

the somatic embryos in hydrogels like sodium alginate,
potassium alginate, carrageenan, sodium pectate or
sodium alginate with gelatine.
Importance of Artificial Asexual Reproduction in
Horticulture and Agriculture
• Genetic Uniformity
• Rapid Multiplication
• Preservation of Desirable Traits
• Maintaining Hybrid Vigor
• Propagation of Varieties with Sterile Seeds
• Faster Production of Fruiting Plants
• Conservation of Rare or Endangered Species
• Control over Plant Characteristics
• Improve crop yields and the cultivation of desired plant varieties
Comparing Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
 Advantages of Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Advantages Descriptions
Rapid Clonal Allows for the rapid multiplication of identical genetic
Expansion copies (clones) of a parent plant. This can lead to the
efficient colonization of a favorable environment.
Conservation Ensures the preservation of the exact genetic makeup of
of Desirable the parent plant that possesses desirable traits, e.g.,
Traits disease resistance, high yield, or ornamental features.
Energy Often requires less energy expenditure than sexual
Efficiency reproduction because it does not involve the production
of specialized reproductive structures (flowers, pollen,
seeds) or the attraction of pollinators.
 Advantages Descriptions
Independence Plants reproducing asexually do not rely on external
from agents (e.g., pollinators) for the transfer of pollen
Pollinators between male and female reproductive organs.
This independence can be advantageous in
environments with limited pollinator availability.
Preservation Asexual reproduction avoids the potential
of Genetic introduction of new genetic material, ensuring that
Purity the offspring are genetically identical to the parent.
This is crucial for maintaining the purity of cultivars
and varieties.
 Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Disadvantages Descriptions
Lack of Genetic The absence of genetic variation among offspring makes
Diversity populations more susceptible to diseases, pests, and
environmental changes.
Vulnerability to Clonal populations derived from asexual reproduction
Environmental may be vulnerable to sudden environmental changes
Changes because they lack the genetic diversity that allows for
adaptation to new conditions.
Accumulation Does not involve genetic recombination, which means
of Mutations that mutations accumulate in the population over time.
While advantageous mutations are preserved, deleterious
mutations may also accumulate, reducing overall fitness.
Disadvantages Descriptions
Limited The absence of genetic recombination restricts the
Evolutionary evolutionary potential of asexual populations.
Potential They may have limited capacity to adapt to novel
challenges compared to sexually reproducing
populations.
Resource In environments with limited resources, clonal
Competition populations resulting from asexual reproduction may
compete with one another for the same resources,
potentially leading to reduced overall fitness.
 Plant Breeding for Sustainable Agriculture
• Plant breeding for sustainable agriculture involves the
development of crop varieties that contribute to the long-
term health of agricultural systems, minimize environmental
impact, and address the challenges of a changing climate.
• Sustainable plant breeding aims to enhance crop productivity,
resilience, and nutritional quality while reducing the need for
external inputs.
Key Strategies and Considerations in Plant Breeding for Sustainable Agriculture
Disease Breeding for resistance to pests and diseases helps
Resistance reduce the reliance on chemical pesticides, promoting
and Pest environmentally friendly and sustainable farming
Tolerance practices.
Drought and Developing crop varieties that can thrive in water-limited
Stress conditions or resist various environmental stresses, e.g.,
Tolerance heat or salinity, enhances the resilience of agriculture to
changing climatic conditions.
Improved Enhancing the nutritional content of crops, e.g.,
Nutritional increasing levels of essential vitamins, minerals, and
Content proteins, contributes to improved human health and
nutrition.
Adaptation Tailoring crop varieties to specific agroecological zones
to Local ensures better adaptation to local environmental
Conditions conditions, optimizing resource use and reducing the risk
of crop failure.
Reduced Developing crops with lower input requirements, e.g.,
Input reduced fertilizer or irrigation needs, helps lower the
Dependency environmental impact of agriculture and makes farming
more economically viable for resource-limited farmers.
Biodiversity Encouraging the cultivation of diverse crop varieties
Conservation contributes to on-farm biodiversity and helps maintain
genetic resources. This diversity can enhance ecosystem
services and resilience.
Crop Rotation Breeding for crops that fit well into diverse cropping
and systems and crop rotations supports sustainable
Diversification agriculture by reducing the risk of pests and diseases
and improving soil health.
Regenerative Integrating plant breeding with regenerative agriculture
Agriculture practices, e.g., cover cropping, minimal tillage, and
Practices agroforestry, promotes soil health, carbon
sequestration, and overall ecosystem sustainability.
Climate-Smart Breeding crops with traits that help them withstand and
Agriculture adapt to climate change, e.g., temperature extremes,
altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency
of extreme events, is crucial for the sustainability of
agriculture.
Key Strategies and Considerations in Plant Breeding for Sustainable Agriculture
Post-Harvest Improving post-harvest traits, such as resistance to storage pests and
Traits enhanced shelf life, contributes to reduced food waste and improved
food security.

Participatory Involving farmers in the plant breeding process through participatory

Plant Breeding methods ensures that breeding goals align with local needs and
preferences. This approach enhances the adoption of new varieties
and promotes sustainable farming practices.
High Yield and Breeding for high-yielding varieties that efficiently use resources like
Resource Use water, nutrients, and sunlight helps maximize agricultural
Efficiency productivity while minimizing resource inputs.